ARGUMENT Definition Is not always a shouting match, as Is not always a shouting match, as many...

ARGUMENTARGUMENTDefinitionDefinition

Is not always a shouting match, asIs not always a shouting match, as

many people think but is based on many people think but is based on reason and logicreason and logic

Is an appeal to the readers’ intellectIs an appeal to the readers’ intellect Issues are complex and debatableIssues are complex and debatable Is a path of reasoning aimed at Is a path of reasoning aimed at

discovering the truth or falsehood of discovering the truth or falsehood of an issue under debatean issue under debate

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONImportant PointsImportant Points

Both are used together but they are Both are used together but they are not the same thing.not the same thing.

Both are often blended.Both are often blended. Persuasion is a purpose for writing.Persuasion is a purpose for writing. Argument is an appeal to the Argument is an appeal to the

readers’ intellect.readers’ intellect.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to PersuadeReasons to Persuade

1. To promote change.1. To promote change. Example:Example: To have computers in To have computers in every classroom at Southeast every classroom at Southeast College.College.

2. To oppose a theory.2. To oppose a theory. Example:Example: Writing a history paper, Writing a history paper, claiming that antislavery sentiment claiming that antislavery sentiment was not the cause of the Civil War.was not the cause of the Civil War.


3. To arouse sympathy.3. To arouse sympathy. Example:Example: Passing more stringent laws against Passing more stringent laws against

people who abuse animals or for those who people who abuse animals or for those who drive while under the influence of alcohol.drive while under the influence of alcohol.

4. To stimulate interest.4. To stimulate interest. Example:Example: Soliciting administrators and faculty Soliciting administrators and faculty

to implement a new course, such as Women’s to implement a new course, such as Women’s African-American Studies.African-American Studies.


5. To promote change5. To promote change Example:Example: To appeal to apartment To appeal to apartment owners to provide more lighting orowners to provide more lighting or on-site security or security gateson-site security or security gates for tenants’ safety.for tenants’ safety.

6. To provoke anger6. To provoke anger Example:Example: To arouse outrage against a To arouse outrage against a

proposed tax hike or to get a petition to proposed tax hike or to get a petition to abolish new legislation.abolish new legislation.


7. To support a cause.7. To support a cause. Example:Example: To urge people to contribute To urge people to contribute

to different charity relief or fundraisers.to different charity relief or fundraisers.

8. To urge people to take action.8. To urge people to take action. Example:Example: To get people to vote in an To get people to vote in an

upcoming election; to get people upcoming election; to get people involved in their local civic associations; involved in their local civic associations; to urge people to write their elected to urge people to write their elected officials to get legislation passed or officials to get legislation passed or repealed.repealed.


9. To organize a public protest, using signs 9. To organize a public protest, using signs and banners, where citizens censure and banners, where citizens censure

legislation.legislation.

10. To urge citizens to attend Town Hall 10. To urge citizens to attend Town Hall meetings in designated areas inmeetings in designated areas in Houston for a progress report onHouston for a progress report on the many activities of our legislatorsthe many activities of our legislators and the laws that passed or failed.and the laws that passed or failed.


11. To ask for a raise in salary.11. To ask for a raise in salary.

12. To pay a bonus to employees who 12. To pay a bonus to employees who have perfect attendance for a yearhave perfect attendance for a year as an incentive not to miss work as an incentive not to miss work or to contribute ideas that mayor to contribute ideas that may save a company time or money,save a company time or money, thereby improving efficiency.thereby improving efficiency.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONObstaclesObstacles

World eventsWorld events Media “brainwashing”Media “brainwashing” Family influencesFamily influences Fear of rejection by our peersFear of rejection by our peers Being told our views are wrong, bad, Being told our views are wrong, bad,

or immoral by so-called “experts.”or immoral by so-called “experts.”

PERSUASIONPERSUASIONDefinition and Test for SuccessDefinition and Test for Success

Definition:Definition: To convince a person to think, act, or To convince a person to think, act, or behave in a certain way.behave in a certain way.

Test for success:Test for success: If a person has changed his/ If a person has changed his/her views, actions, or behavior in favor of the her views, actions, or behavior in favor of the speaker or writer, then he/she has been persuaded.speaker or writer, then he/she has been persuaded.

Important: Important: Even if a reader’s view has not beenEven if a reader’s view has not beenchanged, he/she may agree with the evidence butchanged, he/she may agree with the evidence butnot the conclusion.not the conclusion.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONAppealsAppeals

LogicalLogical EthicalEthical

EmotionalEmotional

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of AppealsDefinition of Appeals

Logical Logical – based on facts, statistics, reasons– based on facts, statistics, reasons

Example:Example: A lawyer who is arguing a A lawyer who is arguing a

case relies on a variety of evidence: case relies on a variety of evidence:

eyewitness testimony, experts, DNA, eyewitness testimony, experts, DNA,

visuals (charts, graphs, photos), visuals (charts, graphs, photos),

reenactments, audio tapes, and arguing reenactments, audio tapes, and arguing

from precedent.from precedent.


Ethical Ethical – comes from the writer’s character– comes from the writer’s character

Depends on one’s ability to convince readers of Depends on one’s ability to convince readers of his/her intelligence, commitment, and knowledge his/her intelligence, commitment, and knowledge of the issues.of the issues.

Shows that a writer respects the readers’ point of Shows that a writer respects the readers’ point of view.view.

Shows that a writer has done his/her homework.Shows that a writer has done his/her homework. Claims are not exaggerated or excessive.Claims are not exaggerated or excessive.


EmotionalEmotional – – A message that appeals to the senses A message that appeals to the senses and personal biases and prejudices of the reader.and personal biases and prejudices of the reader.

Uses connotative language (words that elicit certainUses connotative language (words that elicit certainfeelings when a word is heard).feelings when a word is heard).

Example:Example: “Corporate athleticism,” or increasing “Corporate athleticism,” or increasing profits, describes the business-minded attitude profits, describes the business-minded attitude that the NFL uses today. that the NFL uses today. Question:Question: What tone What tone does the writer have about the NFL?does the writer have about the NFL?

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONElements Most Likely to Convince ReadersElements Most Likely to Convince Readers

The writer’s competenceThe writer’s competence Quality of the reasoning (sound logic Quality of the reasoning (sound logic

and reasonable facts)and reasonable facts) The degree to which writers appeal The degree to which writers appeal

to the readers’ self-interests (benefit to the readers’ self-interests (benefit to readers)to readers)

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of ReasoningTypes of Reasoning

DeductiveDeductive – direct method ( – direct method (Hint:Hint: (remember two d’s)(remember two d’s) Moves from a broad generalizationMoves from a broad generalization (thesis) to specifics (examples, reasons, (thesis) to specifics (examples, reasons,

evidence).evidence). A conclusion follows from a set of A conclusion follows from a set of

assertions or premises.assertions or premises. If the premises are true, then so is the If the premises are true, then so is the

conclusion.conclusion. To challenge an argument, a reader has to To challenge an argument, a reader has to

evaluate the premises.evaluate the premises.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of ReasoningTypes of Reasoning

InductiveInductive – indirect method ( – indirect method (Hint:Hint: Remember two Remember two i’s.i’s.

Does not prove an argument is true.Does not prove an argument is true. Convinces readers the argument is probable.Convinces readers the argument is probable. Presents evidence logically by moving through an Presents evidence logically by moving through an

assortment of data, which leads to a conclusion.assortment of data, which leads to a conclusion. Used most often by lawyers, scientists, Used most often by lawyers, scientists,

detectives, and mystery writers.detectives, and mystery writers.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONAssessing Evidence in Inductive ArgumentAssessing Evidence in Inductive Argument

Is it accurate? The facts must be correct.Is it accurate? The facts must be correct. Is it relevant? The evidence must be Is it relevant? The evidence must be

connected to the point being made.connected to the point being made. Is it representative? The conclusion must Is it representative? The conclusion must

be supported by evidence gathered from a be supported by evidence gathered from a sample that accurately reflects the larger sample that accurately reflects the larger population.population.

Is it sufficient? There must be enough Is it sufficient? There must be enough evidence to satisfy skeptical readers.evidence to satisfy skeptical readers.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONToulmin Method of Analyzing ArgumentsToulmin Method of Analyzing Arguments

Based on Based on threethree facets: facets:

Claim – a point or a thesis; an Claim – a point or a thesis; an assertion about a topic.assertion about a topic.

Grounds – reasons and evidence Grounds – reasons and evidence (facts, statistics, anecdotes, and (facts, statistics, anecdotes, and expert opinion).expert opinion).

Warrants – assumptions or principles Warrants – assumptions or principles that link the grounds to the claims.that link the grounds to the claims.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONToulmin Method of Analyzing an ArgumentToulmin Method of Analyzing an Argument

Statement:Statement: The death penalty should be The death penalty should be abolished because if it is allowed, innocent people abolished because if it is allowed, innocent people could be executed.could be executed.

Part 1Part 1 – The independent clause is the – The independent clause is the thesisthesis..

Part 2Part 2 – The dependent clause presents grounds – The dependent clause presents grounds for the claims. (1) It is wrong to execute innocent for the claims. (1) It is wrong to execute innocent

people and (2) it is impossible to be completely people and (2) it is impossible to be completely sure of a person’s innocence or guilt. sure of a person’s innocence or guilt.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence for ClaimsTypes of Evidence for Claims

Using similes, metaphors, and imageryUsing similes, metaphors, and imagery

Examples:Examples: “Our response to sexual predators must balance “Our response to sexual predators must balance the extent and intensity of the possible behavior with the the extent and intensity of the possible behavior with the probability of its occurrence. An ex-prisoner likely to expose probability of its occurrence. An ex-prisoner likely to expose himself on a crowded subway may be a risk we are willing to himself on a crowded subway may be a risk we are willing to assume. However, a prisoner with even a moderate assume. However, a prisoner with even a moderate probability of sexual torture and murder is not. Such violence probability of sexual torture and murder is not. Such violence is is like a rock dropped into a calm like a rock dropped into a calm pool—pool—the concentricthe concentric circlescircles spread even after the rock has sunk (a simile and spread even after the rock has sunk (a simile and imagery).”imagery).”

Source: “Sex Predators Can’t Be Saved” – Andrew VachssSource: “Sex Predators Can’t Be Saved” – Andrew Vachss


Facts and statisticsFacts and statistics

Can be convincing.Can be convincing. Opponents can interpret same facts Opponents can interpret same facts

and statistics differently.and statistics differently. Opponents may also cite different Opponents may also cite different

facts and statistics to prove their facts and statistics to prove their claims.claims.


Expert opinionExpert opinion – The views of authorities – The views of authorities in a given field is powerful evidence for a in a given field is powerful evidence for a claim. However, the expert must have the claim. However, the expert must have the proper credentials on the issue.proper credentials on the issue.Example:Example: According to Carl Blyth, an According to Carl Blyth, an expert on football safety, the head coach ‘s expert on football safety, the head coach ‘s attitude and leadership are the most attitude and leadership are the most important factors in creating the balance to important factors in creating the balance to win with the safety of the players.win with the safety of the players.


AnecdotesAnecdotes – brief narratives used as – brief narratives used as

illustrations to support a claim.illustrations to support a claim.

Example:Example: court cases court cases Stories appeal to our emotions and Stories appeal to our emotions and

intellect.intellect. Narratives can be very effective in Narratives can be very effective in

making an argument because they making an argument because they personalize an experience.personalize an experience.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTitlesTitles

A title is compelling.A title is compelling. A title is usually a fragment.A title is usually a fragment. A title suggests the subject matter.A title suggests the subject matter. A title may consist of a subtitle A title may consist of a subtitle

followed by a major title.followed by a major title. Example:Example: Affirmative Action: Affirmative Action:

Leveling the Playing Field for Leveling the Playing Field for Minorities or Using Quotas to Fill Minorities or Using Quotas to Fill Colleges and Jobs?Colleges and Jobs?

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONPresenting EvidencePresenting Evidence

For a For a supportive supportive audience: Place audience: Place the evidence from the most the evidence from the most important to the least important.important to the least important.

For a For a hostilehostile audience – Place the audience – Place the evidence from the least important to evidence from the least important to the most important. In other words, the most important. In other words, save your most compelling evidence save your most compelling evidence toward the end of the essay.toward the end of the essay.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONFallacyFallacy

Definition:Definition: Mistakes in logic; faulty Mistakes in logic; faulty

reasoning used to reach a conclusion.reasoning used to reach a conclusion.

Results of using a fallacyResults of using a fallacy – Unclear – Unclear

thinking; unclear logic; deceiving thinking; unclear logic; deceiving

readers.readers.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical FallaciesCommon Logical Fallacies

False authorityFalse authority – presenting testimony of – presenting testimony of

an unqualified person to support a claim.an unqualified person to support a claim.

Example:Example: “As the actor who plays Dr. “As the actor who plays Dr.

Fine on Fine on Emergency RoomEmergency Room, I recommend this, I recommend this

weight-loss drug because … “ [Is an actor weight-loss drug because … “ [Is an actor

qualified to judge the benefits and dangers qualified to judge the benefits and dangers

of a diet drug?]of a diet drug?]

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONStrategiesStrategies

Refutation Refutation – using contradictory – using contradictory evidence to show that a position is false orevidence to show that a position is false orexposing inadequate reasoning to show that exposing inadequate reasoning to show that a position cannot be true.a position cannot be true.

Defenses Defenses – clarifying a position; presenting – clarifying a position; presenting new arguments to support a position; new arguments to support a position; showing that criticisms of a position are showing that criticisms of a position are unreasonable or unconvincing.unreasonable or unconvincing.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONHow to Avoid a FallacyHow to Avoid a Fallacy

Use enough examples to support an Use enough examples to support an assertion.assertion.

Qualify a broad statement about a Qualify a broad statement about a group of people or things.group of people or things.

Example:Example: Use words like some, Use words like some, most, a few, many, or a majority.most, a few, many, or a majority.

Cite examples that prove your Cite examples that prove your assertion.assertion.


Non sequiturNon sequitur – a conclusion that does – a conclusion that does not logically follow from evidence presented not logically follow from evidence presented or one based on irrelevant evidence.or one based on irrelevant evidence.

Example:Example: Students who default on their Students who default on theirloans are irresponsible people. (Students loans are irresponsible people. (Students who default have reasons for their non who default have reasons for their non payment). We cannot conclude they are payment). We cannot conclude they are irresponsible without modifying the irresponsible without modifying the statement.statement.


Hasty generalizationHasty generalization – a form of improper – a form of improperinduction that draws a conclusion based oninduction that draws a conclusion based oninsufficient evidence.insufficient evidence.

Example 1:Example 1: No one can logically conclude No one can logically conclude that one bad grade on an assignment is that one bad grade on an assignment is indicative that a student will fail a course or indicative that a student will fail a course or that a few bad teachers add up to a bad that a few bad teachers add up to a bad school.school.


Example 2:Example 2: Temperatures across the Temperatures across the

United States last year exceeded the fifty-United States last year exceeded the fifty-

year average by two degrees, thus proving year average by two degrees, thus proving

that global warming is a reality. [Is this that global warming is a reality. [Is this

evidence enough to prove this broad evidence enough to prove this broad

conclusion?]conclusion?]


Sweeping GeneralizationSweeping Generalization – a statement that – a statement that cannot adequately be supported no matter how cannot adequately be supported no matter how much evidence is supplied.much evidence is supplied.

Example:Example: Everyone should exercise. Most people Everyone should exercise. Most people would agree, but not all people can exercise. Thosewould agree, but not all people can exercise. Thosewho are bedridden or wheelchair bound cannot who are bedridden or wheelchair bound cannot exercise their body, but they can exercise their exercise their body, but they can exercise their mind. mind. Note:Note: Be careful not to use absolutes Be careful not to use absolutes because they allow for NO exceptions!because they allow for NO exceptions!

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONcommon Logical Fallaciescommon Logical Fallacies

Guilt by associationGuilt by association – discrediting a – discrediting a person because of problems with person because of problems with one’s associates.one’s associates.

Example:Example: Martin’s friend is an ex-felon, so Martin’s friend is an ex-felon, so Martin’s character is questionable. (Why Martin’s character is questionable. (Why should Martin’s character be in question should Martin’s character be in question because of his friend’s past mistakes with because of his friend’s past mistakes with the law?)the law?)


Stacking the deckStacking the deck – slanting evidence to – slanting evidence to support a position.support a position.

Example:Example: Nine out of ten doctors have Nine out of ten doctors have endorsed this product, so it is guaranteed toendorsed this product, so it is guaranteed towork. On the surface, this statement sounds work. On the surface, this statement sounds convincing. [However, which doctors were convincing. [However, which doctors were interviewed? Were they all hired by the company interviewed? Were they all hired by the company that makes the product?}that makes the product?}


False authorityFalse authority – presenting testimony – presenting testimonyof an unqualified person to support aof an unqualified person to support aclaim.claim.

Example:Example: As the actor who plays Dr. As the actor who plays Dr. Fine on Fine on Emergency RoomEmergency Room, I recommend this, I recommend thisweight-loss drug because … “{Is an actorweight-loss drug because … “{Is an actorqualified to judge the benefits and dangers qualified to judge the benefits and dangers of a diet drug?]of a diet drug?]


False analogyFalse analogy – a comparison in which a surface – a comparison in which a surface similarity hides a significant difference.similarity hides a significant difference.

Example:Example: Governments and businesses both work Governments and businesses both work within a budget to accomplish their goals. Just as within a budget to accomplish their goals. Just as businesses must focus on the “bottom line,”businesses must focus on the “bottom line,”so should government. [Is the goal of governmentso should government. [Is the goal of governmentto make a profit or does it have more important to make a profit or does it have more important goals?]goals?]


Red herringRed herring – an argument that diverts – an argument that diverts attention from the true issues by attention from the true issues by concentrating on something irrelevant.concentrating on something irrelevant.

Example:Example: Hemingway’s book Hemingway’s book Death inDeath in the Afternoonthe Afternoon is unsuccessful because is unsuccessful becauseit glorifies the brutal sport of bullfighting. it glorifies the brutal sport of bullfighting. [Why can’t a book about a brutal sport be [Why can’t a book about a brutal sport be successful? The statement is irrelevant.]successful? The statement is irrelevant.]


Begging the questionBegging the question – circular – circular reasoning that assumes the truth of a reasoning that assumes the truth of a questionable opinion.questionable opinion.

Example:Example: The president’s poor relationship The president’s poor relationship with the military has weakened the armed with the military has weakened the armed forces. [Does the president have a poor forces. [Does the president have a poor relationship? If so, is it the only reason for relationship? If so, is it the only reason for this so-called “weakened” relationship?]this so-called “weakened” relationship?]


Bandwagon Bandwagon – an argument that depends on going – an argument that depends on going along with the crowd on the false assumption that along with the crowd on the false assumption that truth is based on a “popular” view.truth is based on a “popular” view.

Example Example – Everybody knows that Hemingway is – Everybody knows that Hemingway is preoccupied with the theme of death in his novels. preoccupied with the theme of death in his novels. [Everybody implies there are no exceptions or [Everybody implies there are no exceptions or exclusions.] Is this statement too strong? Does it exclusions.] Is this statement too strong? Does it need to be modified? If so, what are possibleneed to be modified? If so, what are possiblerevisions?revisions?


Ad hominemAd hominem – a personal attack on – a personal attack on someone who disagrees with you someone who disagrees with you rather than on the person’s argument.rather than on the person’s argument.

Example:Example: The district attorney is a lazy The district attorney is a lazy political hack, so naturally she opposes political hack, so naturally she opposes streamlining the court system. [Even if she streamlining the court system. [Even if she usually support her party’s position, is she usually support her party’s position, is she automatically wrong to oppose this issue?automatically wrong to oppose this issue?


Circular reasoningCircular reasoning – an argument that restates – an argument that restates the point rather than supporting it with evidence.the point rather than supporting it with evidence.

Example:Example: The wealthy should pay more taxes The wealthy should pay more taxes because taxes should be higher for people with because taxes should be higher for people with higher incomes. [Why should wealthy people payhigher incomes. [Why should wealthy people paymore taxes? The rest of the statement does not more taxes? The rest of the statement does not answer this question—it merely restates the answer this question—it merely restates the position.]position.]


Either/or fallacyEither/or fallacy – The idea that a – The idea that a complicated issue can be resolved by complicated issue can be resolved by resorting to one of only two options when inresorting to one of only two options when inreality, there are additional issues to reality, there are additional issues to consider.consider.

Example:Example: Either the state legislature will Either the state legislature will raise taxes or our state’s economy will raise taxes or our state’s economy will deteriorate. [Is raising taxes the only way deteriorate. [Is raising taxes the only way to avoid a state deficit?]to avoid a state deficit?]


EquivocationEquivocation – when the meaning of a key word – when the meaning of a key word or phrase shifts during an argument.or phrase shifts during an argument.

Example:Example: It is not in the It is not in the public interestpublic interest for the for thepublicpublic to lose interest in politics. Although clever, to lose interest in politics. Although clever,the shift in meaning of the term the shift in meaning of the term public interestpublic interest clouds an important issue: we need to VOTE and clouds an important issue: we need to VOTE and support the candidates whom we believe are the support the candidates whom we believe are the most qualified and will act in our behalf.most qualified and will act in our behalf.

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONExample of a FallacyExample of a Fallacy

Major premiseMajor premise – All embezzlers are – All embezzlers are criminals.criminals.

Minor premiseMinor premise - All embezzlers are - All embezzlers are people.people.

Conclusion Conclusion – Therefore, all people are – Therefore, all people are embezzlers. [Is this true?] If not, how embezzlers. [Is this true?] If not, how should the conclusion be stated?should the conclusion be stated?

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to ArgueLearning How to Argue

1. 1. Figure out what the issue is.Figure out what the issue is. People People argue about issues, not topics. You argue about issues, not topics. You may want to turn your topic into a may want to turn your topic into a problem by asking questions about it.problem by asking questions about it.Does something indicate that all is not Does something indicate that all is not the way it should be? If so, have they the way it should be? If so, have they changed for the worse? From what changed for the worse? From what perspectives—economic, social, political, perspectives—economic, social, political, cultural, medical, or geographic can the cultural, medical, or geographic can the argument be made?argument be made?


2. Develop a reasonable position 2. Develop a reasonable position

that negotiates differences. that negotiates differences. As a writer As a writer

you want readers to trust your judgment. you want readers to trust your judgment.

Conducting research will make you Conducting research will make you

informed; reading other people’s views and informed; reading other people’s views and

thinking critically about them will enhance thinking critically about them will enhance

the quality and scope of your argument.the quality and scope of your argument.


Find out what others have to say Find out what others have to say about the issue; negotiate the about the issue; negotiate the differences between your position differences between your position and theirs.and theirs.

Pay attention to your areas of Pay attention to your areas of

disagreement but acknowledgedisagreement but acknowledge

areas of agreement as well.areas of agreement as well.


Always remember that two views on the Always remember that two views on the same issue can be similar but notsame issue can be similar but not

identical or different but not completely identical or different but not completely opposite.opposite.

Avoid language that may promote Avoid language that may promote prejudice or fear.prejudice or fear.

Furthermore, avoid misrepresentations of Furthermore, avoid misrepresentations of others, ideas, and personal attacks on others, ideas, and personal attacks on someone’s character.someone’s character.


Write arguments to open minds, Write arguments to open minds, not offend.not offend.

3. Make a strong claim.3. Make a strong claim.Advancing a strong debatable Advancing a strong debatable thesis (claim)thesis (claim) on a topic of interest on a topic of interest is the key to writing a successful is the key to writing a successful argument.argument.


Keep in mind, though, that as you Keep in mind, though, that as you think, write, and learn about your think, write, and learn about your

topic, you will develop, clarify, andtopic, you will develop, clarify, and sometimes entirely change yoursometimes entirely change your views.views.

Think of yourself as a potter working Think of yourself as a potter working with clay. Your thesis is still forming with clay. Your thesis is still forming as you work on the topic.as you work on the topic.


Personal feeling on a debatable issuePersonal feeling on a debatable issueI (feel, think, believe) that professional football I (feel, think, believe) that professional football players are treated poorly.players are treated poorly.

Accepted fact, not a debatable issueAccepted fact, not a debatable issueMany players in the NFL are injured each year.Many players in the NFL are injured each year.

Debatable ThesisDebatable ThesisCurrent NFL regulations are not enough to protect Current NFL regulations are not enough to protect players from suffering the hardships caused by players from suffering the hardships caused by game-related injuries.game-related injuries.


4. 4. Support and develop your Support and develop your claimclaim

Think of an argument as a dialogue Think of an argument as a dialogue between the writer and the readers.between the writer and the readers.

A well-developed argument includes A well-developed argument includes a variety of evidence.a variety of evidence.

Pay attention counterargumentsPay attention counterarguments (claims that do not support your(claims that do not support your position).position).

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONUsing CounterargumentsUsing Counterarguments

Qualify your thesis in light of the Qualify your thesis in light of the counterarguments by including acounterarguments by including a word such as word such as mostmost, , somesome, , usuallyusually,, likelylikely, or , or maymay..

Example:Example: Although Although manymany people— people— fans and non-fans alike—understandfans and non-fans alike—understand that football is a dangerous sport, that football is a dangerous sport, few few realize just how hard some NFL playersrealize just how hard some NFL players have it.have it.


Add to the thesis a statement of the Add to the thesis a statement of the conditions for or exceptions to your conditions for or exceptions to your position.position.

Example:Example: The NFL pension plan is The NFL pension plan is

unfair to players who have unfair to players who have fewer fewer

than five years in the leaguethan five years in the league. The . The

plan is unfair to certain players, notplan is unfair to certain players, not

all of them.all of them.


Choose all the counterarguments youChoose all the counterarguments you can find and plan to refute their can find and plan to refute their truth or importance in your paper.truth or importance in your paper.

Example:Example: Biglione, for example, refutes Biglione, for example, refutes the counterargument that the NFL has athe counterargument that the NFL has a

good pension plan for its players.good pension plan for its players.


5. Create an outline that includes a5. Create an outline that includes a linked set of reasons.linked set of reasons. An introduction to the topic and the An introduction to the topic and the

debatable issue.debatable issue. A thesis stating your position on the A thesis stating your position on the

issue.issue. A point-by-point account of the reasons A point-by-point account of the reasons

for your position, includingfor your position, including the evidence (facts, statistics, a study, the evidence (facts, statistics, a study,

expert opinion) you will use to supportexpert opinion) you will use to support each major reason.each major reason.


A fair presentation and refutation of A fair presentation and refutation of

the counterarguments to your thesis.the counterarguments to your thesis.

A response to the “So what?” A response to the “So what?” question. Why does your argumentquestion. Why does your argument

matter?matter?


6. Appeal to your audience6. Appeal to your audience Share common ground with your Share common ground with your

audience.audience. Use all three appeals (logos (logic), ethos Use all three appeals (logos (logic), ethos

(character), and pathos (character), and pathos (emotion).(emotion).7. Emphasize your commitment to dialogue 7. Emphasize your commitment to dialogue

in the introduction by sharing a concern in the introduction by sharing a concern with your audience.with your audience.

8. Conclude by restating your position and 8. Conclude by restating your position and emphasizing its importance.emphasizing its importance.


Remind readers of your thesis.Remind readers of your thesis. The version of your thesis presented in The version of your thesis presented in

your introduction should be moreyour introduction should be more

complex and qualified than the complex and qualified than the introduction to encourage readers tointroduction to encourage readers to

see the importance of your argument.see the importance of your argument. Even if readers do not agree with you, Even if readers do not agree with you,

they should be aware of the importancethey should be aware of the importance

of both the issue and the argument.of both the issue and the argument.


10. Reexamine your reasoning.10. Reexamine your reasoning. Have you given a sufficient number of Have you given a sufficient number of

reasons to support your thesis, or shouldreasons to support your thesis, or should

you add more?you add more? Have you made any mistakes in logicHave you made any mistakes in logic

(a fallacy)?(a fallacy)? Have you clearly and adequatelyHave you clearly and adequately

developed each reason you have developed each reason you have presented in support of your thesis?presented in support of your thesis?

ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONARGUMENT/PERSUASIONPotential Traps to AvoidPotential Traps to Avoid

1. 1. Don’t claim too much.Don’t claim too much. You cannot You cannot

state the solution you propose willstate the solution you propose will

solve all the problems; for example, solve all the problems; for example, implying that legalizing drugs would implying that legalizing drugs would alleviate alleviate allall drug-related crimes. It drug-related crimes. It would prevent some crimes, but it would would prevent some crimes, but it would create other problems. State the ideascreate other problems. State the ideas

that you think are worth considering, orthat you think are worth considering, or

suggest a new approach. suggest a new approach.


2.2. Don’t oversimplify complex issues. Don’t oversimplify complex issues. When an issue is serious enough to debate, it is When an issue is serious enough to debate, it is complicated, and the issues are difficult to solve.complicated, and the issues are difficult to solve. Trying to make an issue simpler by stating there Trying to make an issue simpler by stating there is an “obvious” solution undermines your is an “obvious” solution undermines your credibility. Instead, acknowledge the matter is credibility. Instead, acknowledge the matter is difficult to solve but suggest there are some difficult to solve but suggest there are some possible solutions.possible solutions.


3. Support arguments with 3. Support arguments with concreteconcrete evidence evidence andand specific proposals, not specific proposals, not with generalizations with generalizations and and commonly held commonly held beliefs.beliefs. Because your argument is likely to Because your argument is likely to be viewed by a skeptical audience, readers will be viewed by a skeptical audience, readers will expect you to demonstrate your case expect you to demonstrate your case convincingly. Moreover, they will not be convincingly. Moreover, they will not be persuaded by opinion alone. You can only persuaded by opinion alone. You can only expect to hold their attention and get respect if expect to hold their attention and get respect if you teach them something in your argument byyou teach them something in your argument by presenting an old problem in a new way.presenting an old problem in a new way.

SOURCESSOURCES

The New McGraw-Hill HandbookThe New McGraw-Hill Handbook – –

Maimon, Peritz, and Yancey.Maimon, Peritz, and Yancey.

The Wadsworth HandbookThe Wadsworth Handbook – Kirszner – Kirszner

and Mandell.and Mandell.

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