Argument and Logic

Important Terms

• Claim (also assertion or, as we usually call it, the thesis or topic sentence)

• Data or Proof

• Warrant – “Why this is important;” the belief or value or major premise on which the claim is based

• Concession/Refutation

The “Classical” Arrangement

• Introduction

• Narration (background information)

• Confirmation (major part of text; prove your claim/thesis)

• Refutation (refutes the opponent’s claim/thesis)

• Conclusion

Logos, Pathos, Ethos

• Logical appeal presents data, facts, experts, etc. to support your claim

• Emotional appeal manipulates the reader’s/audience’s emotions

• Ethical appeal convinces the reader/audience that you know what you’re talking about

• Logos is primarily developed, then, through modes of discourse (aka. Rhetorical strategies) supported by data.

• Pathos is primarily developed by the discriminating use of schemes and tropes.

• Ethos is primarily developed by the writer/speaker’s background, expertise, etc.

BUT THESE OVERLAP, TOO!

For example, which is more inspiring? This…

“I believe that people shouldn’t be judges because of who they are. People should judge others on

their actions instead.”

- Mrs. Martin

Or this?

“I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I

have a dream today.”

- Martin Luther King, Jr.

What’s the difference?

• Neither have any real logical appeal

• My quote, however, also has no emotional appeal

• King’s quote has connotation (innocence of childhood, reference to the American Dream, etc.) and antithesis w/consonance

• And…it’s Martin Luther King, Jr.!

Logic

Strong arguments can be analyzed and broken down to see if they are true.

One way to do this is with a syllogism.

Syllogism Components

• Major premise: This is a general truth

• Minor premise: This is a “sub-category of the major premise

• Conclusion: If both the major and minor premise are true, the conclusion should be logical deduction

Example

• Major premise: All men are mortal.

• Minor premise: Socrates is a man.

• Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Toulmin Model

Because ________, therefore _________, since _________.

Because Socrates is a man, therefore he is mortal, since all men are mortal.

Errors in LogicWhen you have an error in your syllogism—an error in your logic—you have created a logical fallacy.

Logical fallacies are BAD!(And there are a lot of them…)

Slippery Slope

Predicting without justification that one step in a process will lead unavoidably to a second (usually undesirable) step

Ex: “If we pass health care reform, the next thing you know government bureaucrats will be pulling the plug on Grandma.”

Hasty Generalization

Drawing conclusions from insufficient evidence

Very common in student writing Ex: 19 Muslims conducted the 9/11 attacks;

therefore, all Muslims are terrorists

Post Hoc

Because “B” happened after “A,” “A” caused “B”

Very common in cause/effect student essays

EX: “I ate Cheezits and listened to the Backstreet Boys before my last game and we won; therefore, eating Cheezits and listening to the Backstreet Boys caused me to play better.”

Begging the Question

AKA “circular reasoning” The argument assumes to be true what it is

supposed to be proving EX: “Capital punishment is wrong because

it is immoral.” Very common in student writing

Either/Or Fallacy

Presenting only two (usually black and white) choices when there may be other options (shades of gray)

EX: If you support prayer in schools, you're a fundamental extremist.

Ad Hominem

“To the Man” Attacking the person instead of their

argument "She asserts that we need more

military spending, but that is false, since she is only saying it because she is a Republican."

Ad Populum

Appeal to popular opinion EX: “It's ok because everyone is doing it” Also called “bandwagon”

Red Herring

This is the “Hey, look! There's a distraction!” fallacy

It attempts to “win” an argument by introducing another, irrelevant topic and thereby diverting attention from the original argument

EX: “Yes, health care is messed up, but right with the economy so bad it is no time to worry about health care.”

Straw Man

Disputing a view similar to, but not the same as (often distorted, exaggerated, etc. version), that of the arguer's opponent

EX: "Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that."

Moral Equivalence

Suggesting that a minor offense is the same as a serious wrong doing

EX: “These new dress code rules are facist!”

Appeal to Authority

Citing an authority who is not really qualified to make a judgment as proof

EX: “My friend, Joe, says GM stock is going up soon, so I'm buying!”

Ad Misericordiam

Appeal to pity, sympathy or a similar emotion in order to “win” an argument

EX: “Teachers should give less homework because students are so overworked!”

Hypothesis Contrary to Fact

Forming a conclusion from a hypothetical premise

EX: “If President Bush had never invaded Iraq, we could have concentrated on capturing Bin Laden and would have caught and executed him by now.”

Non Sequitur

Literally: “It does not follow” When the conclusion does not follow

logically from the premise; irrelevant reasons are used to support the claim

EX: “Mr Boswell couldn't be the person who poisoned our cat, Truffles, because when I used to take Truffles for walks he always smiled and said "Hello" when we walked by.”

Oversimplification

AKA “reductive fallacy” EX: “Kid's reading scores are going down

these days because of the internet.”

False/Bad Analogy

Comparing apples to oranges; a bad analogy falls apart when the two things being compared have a significant difference in an area fundamental to the argument

EX: Schools should be run like businesses, and since competition is good for businesses, it should be good for schools, too

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Justifying a wrong action by reasoning that the other person would do it to you, too

EX: After leaving a store, Jill notices that she has underpaid by $10. She decides not to return the money to the store because if she had overpaid, they would not have returned the money.