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ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT (A CASE

STUDY OF NSUKKA AND ENVIRONS)

BY

EZE UCHENNA IFUNANYA PG/MA/2009/51568

DR MRS. PAMELA.I. EZE-UZOMAKA (SUPERVISOR)

AUGUST, 2011

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TITLE PAGE

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT (A CASE STUDY OF NSUKKA AND ENVIRONS )

A MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) DEGREE PROJECT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND TOURISM, FACULTY OF

ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) DEGEREE IN

ARCHAEOLOGY AND TOURISM

BY

EZE UCHENNA IFUNANYA PG/MA/2009/51568

DR MRS. PAMELA.I. EZE-UZOMAKA (SUPERVISOR)

AUGUST, 2011 DEDICATION

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This work is dedicated to the Almighty God the author and finisher of my

faith who gave me the inspiration, strength, provision and cares to embark on this

project work. May his name be blessed to eternity.

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CERTIFICATION

Eze Uchenna Ifunanya, a post graduate student in the Department of

Archaeology and Tourism Faculty of Arts, University of Nigeria, Nsukka with

registration number PG/MA/2009/51568 has satisfactorily completed the

requirements for the course work for the degree of Master of Arts in

Archaeology and Tourism.

The work in this project is original and has not been submitted in part or

full for any degree of this or any other university.

---------------------------------- --------------------------------------- DR MRS. P.I. EZE-UZOMAKA DR MRS. P.I. EZE UZOMAKA SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

-------------------------------- EXTERNAL EXERMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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The production of this work was made possible by the massive help

received from men and women of good will.

My profound gratitude and unreserved appreciation go to my supervisor

Dr. Mrs. Pamela I Eze-Uzomaka whose motherly care and help saw to the

success of this work. Without her this work would have never been a reality.

My profound gratitude also goes to my beloved husband Mr. Donatus Eze

and my two kids Seraphine and Samuel who stood solidly by me in the course of

this project work.

My unavoidable appreciation goes to my father, Mr. Asadu Nicholas and

My late mother Mrs. Asadu Cordelia (may her soul rest in peace ) and to my

foster mother Mrs. Ezea Chika for all their financial and moral support.

I am also indebted to my fellow post graduate students like Ukaegbu

Maureen, Chinaza, Dimiyi, Uncle Dayo, Ifeyinwa, Mummy, Marcel, James and

Ikechukwu for the assistance given to me in the course of this study.

My heart felt appreciation goes to my stepmother Mrs. Asadu Joy.

And my brothers and sisters Dr. Okwy Asadu, Chidiebere, Chigozie, Ugonna,

Ginika, Onyi, Amuche, Odinaka, Chiedozie, Ifunanya, Abuoma, Mr. and Mrs.

Tony Ugwuoke, Mr. and Mrs. Crescent Ali and their families. May God reward

you all .

I am also exceptionally thankful to Chidi, Nnabueze, Ugo, Chioma, Mr.

and Mrs. Peter Eze, Mama Edem, Dorathy , Theresa, and the rest of our families

who I cannot mention because of time and space. May God bless you all.

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I am also highly indebted to the academic staff of the Department of

Archaeology and Tourism University of Nigeria, Nsukka for their invaluable

academic assistance.

My special appreciation goes to the following : Prof. P.U Okpoko, Dr.

A.M Ibeanu, Prof. E.E Okafor, Prof A.I Okpoko, Dr. L.C Ekechukwu, Mr. Itanyi,

Mr. E.E Okonkwo , Mr. Agu C.S, Miss C. Nze and a host of others whose names

are written in my heart.

Finally, I must give honour, adoration and glory to the Almighty God for

turning this dream into a reality. It is from Him that I found the inspiration ,

wisdom, knowledge and energy to start and finish this work. To Him be all the

glory. Amen.

PREFACE

This work is an in depth study of how archaeology resources, other natural

and cultural resources can be used in sustainable tourism development in Nsukka

and the environs.

For the purpose of clarity, this work is divided into five chapters.

Chapter one serves as an introduction which clarifies the topic under discussion,

stating the motivation for writing the project, how data was collected, the

significance and scope of the study.

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Chapter two reviewed the literature and examined the various works

carried out by scholars and authors on archeology, tourism, development,

sustainable development and examined theories suitable for understanding

archaeological resources and sustainable tourism development in Nsukka and the

environs .

Chapter three is the background information that examined the

geographical location, climate, vegetation and rainfall. It also looked into the

history of the area, the socio political organization and economic activities of the

study area.

Chapter four presented archaeological, natural and cultural resources in the

study area and analyzed them and also how these resources can be used in

sustainable tourism development, the negative and positive impact of tourism,

and the possible likely problems and prospects in the face of sustainable

development.

Chapter five is the summary, conclusion and recommendations on how

best to preserve and harness these resources for sustainable tourism development.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- i

Dedication -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii

Certification -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iii

Acknowledgement -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iv

Preface -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- vi

Table of contents -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- viii

List of Plates -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ix

List of Maps -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Statement of Problems -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1

1.2 Research Objectives -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 5

1.3 Research Methodology -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7

1.4 Significance of the Research -- -- -- -- -- -- 8

1.5 Scope of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 13

1.6 Limitation of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 15

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Empirical Literature (Conceptual Clarifications) -- -- -- 17

2.1.1 Archaeology and Archaeological Resources -- -- -- 17

2.1.2 Tourism -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 22

2.1.3 Development -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 26

2.1.4 Sustainable Development -- -- -- -- -- -- 29

2.1.5 Sustainable Tourism Development -- -- -- -- -- 33

2.2 Theoretical Literature -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 40

2.2.1. System Theory -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 42

2.2.2. Environmental Theory -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 43

2.3 Theoretical Orientation -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 46

CHAPTER THREE: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

3.1 Geographical Location -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 49

3.2 Climate and Vegetations -- -- -- -- -- -- 50

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3.3 Historical Background -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 58

3.4 Socio-Political Organization -- -- -- -- -- -- 63

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Data presentation -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 69

4.1.1 Iron smelting Sites -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 70

4.1.2 Shrines and Grooves -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 73

4.1.3 Abandoned Settlement Sites -- -- -- -- -- -- 81

4.1.4 Rock Shelter and Caves -- -- -- -- -- -- 82

4.1.5 University of Nigeria Archeological Museum -- -- -- 85

4.1.6 Other Cultural and Natural Attractions -- -- -- -- 86

4.2 Data Analysis -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 98

4.2.1 Changes and Continuity in Festivals -- -- -- -- -- 101

4.2.2 Archeological Resources and Sustainable Tourism Development 102

4.2.3 Impact of Tourism in Nsukka -- -- -- -- -- -- 106

4.2.4 Benefits of Sustainable Tourism -- -- -- -- -- 108

4.2.5 Problems and Prospects -- -- -- -- -- -- 110

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Summary -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 115

5.2 Conclusion -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 116

5.3 Recommendation -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 117

Reference -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 120

Appendix -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 127

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: The Vegetation of Nsukka

Plate 2: Iron Smelting Site at Otobo Dunoka, Lejja

Plate 3: The Researcher examining Slags at Umundu

Plate 4: Cylindrical slags in front of a shrine at Odunanso Idi Opi

Plate 5: The researcher with an information Ozor Raymond Ugwuanyi

Plate 6: Nonokwunye shrine at Ozzi Edem

Plate 7: Ede-Dimeje Sacred Grove

Plate 8: Abandoned Settlement site at Onueke Ozzi Edem

Plate 9: The researcher inside Okpu Rock Shelter

Plate 10: Ishiugwu Obukpa Cave

Plate 11: Ego-Ego Masquerade on display during Omabe festival

Plate 12: Ekwe masquerade on display during Egbachukwu festival

Plate 13: Arichad masquerade on display during Egbachukwu festival

Plate 14: Pottery making at Nrobo

Plate 15: A blacksmith at his workshop in Owerre Elu Nsukka

Plate 16: Adada River at Nkpologwu

Plate 17: Lavie Garden, A Place of Natural beauty and charm.

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LIST OF MAPS

1. Map of Nsukka and her Neighbours

2. Map of Enugu showing the study area

3. map of Nsukka cultural area

4. map of Nsukka showing the area of major Tourism attractions

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The discipline of archaeology in concept and simple definition is the study

of antiquities and human remains of the past. Archaeology has evolved into a

highly specialized technical discipline with rich store of basic philosophies,

concepts and methods which as with many other disciplines has continued to

grow and expand. Archaeologists concern themselves with retrieving material

remains of past human activities through excavations. These remains are

collected not as an end to themselves, but as a means of obtaining information

about their makers, the lives they lived and how they related to the environment.

Artifacts are collected so that meaning may be abstracted from them. These

materials or objects are seen as containing, reflecting, or saying something about

the people who produced or used them. Archaeologists employ special methods

to analyze and interpret these so as to elicit as much information as possible

about their makers. Such information range from whom the people were, how

they made and used the artifacts and goods, to the thoughts, ideas, design,

motives and knowledge guiding as well as enabling the people in question to

make and use them in any set and specific way identified. Thus archaeologists are

interested in ascertaining from what prehistoric people left behind who, how,

why, and when they lived.

An artifact is anything made by man or used by man to achieve certain

objectives, be it stone, wood, bone, clay, copper, or iron. The concept of an

artifact is to be seen against the background of man leaving his marks or motives

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on the things he made and used, in which case weapons, implements,

embankments, and walls could easily be regarded as artifacts because they

provide direct evidence of man’s activity.

Archaeological resources comprise those items which were manufactured

by members of the past society or anything which they collected and used, they

include graves and the remains of people themselves (skeletons), caves,

abandoned settlements, shrines, groves, excavated and potential excavation sites,

as well as monuments, iron smelting sites and natural landscapes with evidence

of past human activities.

Archaeology in a sense is a historical discipline as it seeks to obtain an

increased understanding of the aspects of the past and increased knowledge of

facts about the past through its own method which is chiefly based on

excavations. Thus archaeology is the discipline that studies man from his earliest

period.

Tourism is today one of the world’s most important industries. It has

become one of the most striking growth phenomenon of our time and also one of

the greatest generators of economic wealth. In recent years tourism has been

accorded a top priority in the development plan of almost all the developed and

developing countries of the world. As an increasingly dominant sector of most

world economy, it creates various employment opportunities for both urban and

rural dwellers. Tourism is today being regarded as one of the most promising

sectors for employment creation in national economic planning.

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Apart from issues relating to employment creation, tourism is a solid

source of foreign exchange and income generation in economies built on tourism.

For tourism to achieve its economic objective as an industry, it requires careful

planning and sustainable developments. Planning is very crucial for any nation to

harness its huge archaeological resources for tourism developments. Also of

critical importance is the consideration for the social, political and economic

conditions of the area for which they plan so as to promote harmonious

relationship between the tourist and host population. This involves the integration

of the tourism environment and the socio-economic priorities, thus specifying

where and what type of tourism can be developed and to what degree, while

ensuring that appropriate types of tourism developments are cited in appropriate

places.

Participatory planning in which the views of the host population are

considered in the design and implementation of development projects are very

crucial in this regard. Apart from planning is the issue of sustainable

developments in long term measures that will be of benefit to all the stake

holders. To this regard Richard and Hall (2000) noted that as tourism becomes of

increasingly economic importance to nations around the world, the need to

develop tourism sustain ably becomes a primary concern. Sustainable tourism

becomes attainable if there is a collaborative effort among all the participants in

the trade. If they show commitment to the social, economic, cultural and

environmental sensitivities of destination areas.

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Human communities represent a primary source upon which tourism

depends and their existence in any place at any particular time may be used to

justify the development of tourism itself. The rationale of sustainable tourism

development rests on the assurance of renewable economic, social and cultural

benefits to the host destination and its environs. A more realistic approach to

sustainability requires that the continuing improved social, cultural and economic

well being of the host community is an integral component of sustainability.

Archaeological resources consists of Artifacts in various forms recovered

through excavations now in material art forms and are deposited in different

museums which are testimonies from the pre-historic past and non-movable

archaeological sites like monuments, shrines, sacred groves, caves and rivers.

Archaeological resources that concerns us here for the relevance and volume of

this work refers to movable tangible artifacts of various forms and immovable

archaeological resources like caves, shrines, and monuments, the rich material

attributes acquired within the prehistoric society and transmitted through the

generations and still has the potentials for tourism attractions. Included also are

cultural festivals and the natural environment that represents a basic prerequisite

for a prosperous tourist industry.

It is highly unrealistic to expect any meaningful tourism development that

will be of economic value and importance to occur without considerable effort on

the part of its citizens. That is why all current efforts towards the utilization of the

archaeological resources of Nigeria in sustainable tourism development,

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preservation, and conservation of sacred landscapes and institutions must be

carried out at local and national levels.

A country like Nigeria, cannot afford to wait for the world to come and

discover her huge tourism potentials. Rather the products of her archaeological

and heritage resources should be sold to the global market place by making the

world aware of what resources the country has. As rightly observed by Mbulla

(2000), the most effective means of accomplishing this goal is to make the

products of the past attractive and accessible to cultural tourists.

It is only through this way that Nigerian’s archaeological and heritage

resources can become economically sustainable and contribute to global

education, research and tourism while promoting the past accomplishments of

humanities.

The purpose of this work is therefore to explore the archaeological

resources of Nsukka Local Government and its environs, to asses their tourism

potentials and how these resources if properly harnessed can be used in

sustainable tourism developments.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

How can Nigeria benefit from sustainable tourism development using her

vast archaeologist resources as a means? This is the basic question to which this

project work intends to proffer some answers. This work is anchored on the need

to develop and sustain the nation’s enormous archaeological resources in all

fields in order to respond positively to global tourism developments.

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Nigeria is richly endowed with a wide range of archaeological, cultural and

natural attractions which can form the basis of flourishing tourist market.

Ironically most of these archaeological resources and other cultural and natural

attractions have not been harnessed or even documented at a time most countries

accept the need to increase competitiveness in the global tourism market as a

means of sustaining growth and development.

Despite government effort to develop tourism particularly in Nigeria many

people are not aware of what tourism is all about and do not know what to gain

by promoting tourism. While in many places resources are available, people do

not care about them and are not making any effort to generate revenue through

such resources.

The greater number of the population due partly to ignorance and lack of

tourism awareness failed to see and understand that archaeological resources in

the forms of shrines, monuments, caves, grooves and the endowed natural

landscapes which are part and parcel of their daily lives are objects of beauty and

tourism potentials with high economic values. This situation has led to

mismanagement and loss of invaluable resources.

Tourism is particularly successful in areas which are culturally and

environmentally sensitive to its developments. Tourists come for what they lack

in their usual place of residence or to compare the variety of such things with the

ones they have in their usual place of residence. Often those things they need are

not things originating from contemporary times. They are usually things that are

connected with history, culture or environment of the host destination.

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The archaeological resource potential of Nsukka and its environs have not

been fully brought to the lime light so as to join other tourist attractions in the

country for their sustainable development. It is in view of these stated problems

and others that led this researcher to embark on the research of archaeological

resources in Nsukka and its environs and how these resources can be used in

sustainable tourism development.

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

The aims and objectives of this research work is to look into the

archaeological resources of Nsukka and its environs, to find out which of these

archaeological resources are indispensable components in our sustainable tourism

development schemes and how they can provide the foundation upon which a

tourist trade could be built.

To find out among the numerous archaeological resources the ones that

have the highest potential as tourist attractions which if properly mobilized can

produce a distinctive tourist industry capable of generating heavy and sustained

tourist traffic.

It is also the aims and objectives of this research work to identify the

archaeological resources of Nsukka and the environs and to examine the

usefulness of these resources to tourism developments in Nigeria and also to

examine their likely economic benefit to the host destination in the event of their

sustainable development as tourist attractions.

.

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This work is also aimed at establishing the fact that poverty can be

alleviated through sustainable tourism development using archaeological and

cultural resources as a means and that employment opportunities can be created

for both urban and rural dwellers. One of the objectives of this work is to help

create awareness to the general public that the archaeological resources and other

cultural institutions that are being over looked and neglected are equally tourist

attractions of inestimable values.

It is also the objective of this work to add to the list of tourist attractions in

this country through the list of tourism attractions cited in this work and to put

Nsukka on the map and annals of archaeological and tourism attractions in the

country.

And finally, to establish the fact that archaeological resources are assets

which if properly harnessed can be used in sustainable tourism developments.

1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The qualitative research method was used in this research endeavor. The

qualitative research method involved the use of in-depth interviews and

participant observation .

In-depth interviews entail the collections of semi-structured or unstructured

data through interviewer - Interviewee verbal interactions or conversations. In-

depth interviews or depth interviews as it is also called provides opportunity for

respondents to talk freely and in detail on the subject of interest. According to

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Obikeze (1990) in Okpoko etal (2005) respondents are encouraged to talk freely

of their experiences, beliefs and attitudes as relate to the research problems.

In-depth interview is invaluable where a relatively large amount of

information has to be collected in a short period of time and from a small number

of respondents. Another advantage of in-depth interview is that they allow for the

unexpected to happen in other words depth interviews allows the researched

subjects to identify issues that are important to the interviewer.

There are two main variants or dimensions of in-depth interviews. They are

unstructured or open ended in-depth interviews and the semi-structured in-depth

interviews.

The unstructured or open ended interviews are conducted in formal or

conversational manners. This involves asking significant questions whenever

opportunities offer themselves. There is no formal structured instrument or

protocol and the interviewer is free to move the discussion in any direction. The

aim according to Beal et al (1979) is not primarily to secure answers to the

questions but to stimulate the subject to talk in the hope of learning what the

subject thinks is important.

Unstructured interviews range from casual informal interviews with

unselected individuals to key informants interviewing. Beals et al (1979)

described key informants as persons who have a good knowledge of the culture

and are interested in talking about it. For Heggenhougen and Drapper (1990) key

informants are people in community/culture who are selected because of a

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particular position which they hold in that community/culture and who therefore

may have specific or privileged information to offer.

The semi-structured interviews are more systematic interview than the

unstructured interviews. They required the preparation of interview guides or

schedules. The semi-structured interviews involves a conscious effort to guide

and steer the discussions by the researcher by either using a series of written or

memorized prompts or a carefully planned interview guide consisting of a list of

items which must be covered during the interview. This kind of interview fosters

report and it is invaluable when interviewing an illiterate or semi-illiterate

population. It can also guarantee unexpected information or insights.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Participant observation is the traditional method of collecting data in

anthropology and ethnography where the researcher becomes a functioning

member of a group or community under study for a period of time in order to

study their natural environment. The researcher is expected to learn the language,

habits, work patterns, leisure activities and other aspects of their daily lives. Oke

(1984:58) maintained that the researcher in the process masters the language of

the people, penetrates deep into the maze of social relations and observes details

of daily life and activities.

Participant observation requires months or years of intensive field work

since the researcher need to immerse himself or herself on the culture of sub-

culture being observed. The aim is to ensure that his/her observation reflects the

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true situation on the ground. It requires the recording of observations and

interviews, indexing or coding this information, the extraction of coded

information, collations and processing and finally analysis. Trochim (2002)

summarized the key issues involved as how to enter the context, the role of the

researcher as a participant, the collection of field notes and the analysis of field

data.

There are two main dimensions of participant observation namely

complete participation and participant as an observer. Complete participation

entails not only being a full functioning member of the group under observation

but also concealing the researchers own identity and purpose. As precisely put by

Nachmias and Nachmias (1996) the observer is wholly concealed, the

researcher’s objectives are unknown to the observed and the researcher attempts

to become a member of the group under observation. It is simply a Covert form

of observation which enables the researcher to interact with the observed in a

natural way and in any aspect of their life that might interest him or her. This

form of research requires complete compliance with the norms and values of the

group being observed.

The participant as observer in the other hand participates completely in the

activities of the group under observation and in addition reveals his identity and

purpose to the people. In other words the researcher’s identity as well as his

purpose of study are well known to the people Apart from the fact that the

researcher who assumes this role informs the people understudy about their

research agenda, they also endeavour to become active members of the group. In

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this way he establishes close relations with other members who subsequently

serve as both informants and respondents. This kind of research is also known

and referred to as overt form of participant observation.

The other variants of overt form of participant observation is known as

participant as an observer. Here emphasis is placed on observation rather than

participation. For although the researcher primarily observes the people he/she

only participates marginally in their activities. Like the participant as an observer

his/her identity and purpose are known to the researcher subjects.

In this research work on archaeological resources and sustainable tourism

development in Nsukka and its environs each out of the two second variants of

in-depth interviews and participant as an observer were employed. The two

applied methods are the semi-structured in-depth interviews and participant as an

observer. Through a carefully planned and approved interview guide, key

informants in the communities under study were interviewed and vital

information relevant to the research topic was elicited from them. As an observer,

as a participant the researcher being a functioning member of the communities

understudy, her identity and research objective were fully made known to the

research subjects.

The researcher moved around the communities that make up Nsukka and

the environs with a planned interview guide, observing the people in their

traditional and natural environment and taking note of other archaeological and

cultural resources of touristic importance that were invaluable in sustainable

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tourism developments and had formed the basis and foundation upon which this

research work was built. All these formed the primary method of data collection.

The secondary method of data collection entails gathering data from

documented materials like textbooks, journals and maps etc. No study scholarly

or scientific publication is possible without some form of documentary/research.

Equally documented materials like textbook, journals and maps were consulted in

the course of this research work and their contribution to making this work a

reality cannot be over emphasized.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this work amongst others is that it will educate and

create awareness among the general public on the potential of the tourism sector

which if properly developed can lead to sustainable development using

archaeological resources as a means. This work will also help to curtail the

negative attitude and approach people have towards archaeological resources and

create more awareness on the usefulness of these resources to tourism

development.

This work will also establish amongst others that tourism is becoming the

engine house of economic growth because of its ability to power the ordinary

people financially and equally help in poverty alleviation and eradication.

Tourism has the potential of leading to the creation and proliferation of other

industries which are relevant to the existence and sustenance of the particular

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tourist attractions. As a result it leads to the generation of jobs and increase in

income and standard of living.

Where properly planned and executed tourism creates local jobs, unproved

community income, makes available opportunities for local entrepreneurs to set

up different ventures, produces tax revenue, could create as well as enhance

infrastructural facilities like roads, electricity, transportation, housing, and water,

schemes and also encourage the expansion of other money making activities like

manufacturing and craft development. Usually wherever a major tourist attraction

is located, there is increased influx of foreigners into the community.

This research work will also bring to the lime light the archaeological

resource potential of Nsukka Local Government and its environs and possibly

enter the local government into the list of towns that have of archaeological

resource and tourist attractions in the country. This work will provide a base for

future research and a source of information to the public who wants to carry out a

more extensive research work on the topic. The maps will serve as guideline for

future researchers.

A great emphasis is attached to the need to evaluate the importance of the

work to the citizens of Nsukka Local Government Area. This work will also add

to the volume of every other research work conducted elsewhere on

archaeological resources and sustainable tourism development possibilities and

help to propagate and boost the image of tourism as an industry.

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1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY

The scope of this research work is centered mainly on all the Local

communities that made up Nsukka local government area like Ibagwa-Ani,

Okpuje, Okwutu, Edem-Ani, Obimo, Opi, Lejja, Ede-Obala, Nsukka town and

some of the neighboring communities like Obukpa in Igbo-Eze South, Nrobo in

Uzo-Uwani, and Umundu in Udenu Local government area where useful

archaeological and cultural resources were located.

1.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Quite a lot of difficulties and problems were encountered in the course of

this research work before it became a reality. One of the factors that posed as a

limitation is the inability in explanation and interpretation of certain historical

facts about the origin and the components of shrines from those interviewed. The

mentality of some key informants and chief priests (Attamas) of the shrines and

custodians of sacred grooves and their deities who feared that after giving out the

information needed by the researcher, the researcher might turn against them

through the information by destroying their shrines.

Another important factor of limitation is the custom of the land that forbids

women and non-indigenes to approach those shrines by limiting the researchers

views of the contents of some of the shrines: photographs of some shrines and

their chief priests were automatically refused by some of the chief priests, while

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some placed restrictions fearing that the pictures would be taken to the

government who will come and destroy them.

The communities that made up the local government are far from each

other so that it took time to cover all the communities while searching for

archaeological resources of value and tourist attractions and also the extreme

high cost of running around all the communities and most a times non-

availability of good roads to travel into the interior parts of the communities.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE (CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS)

This section examines the empirical literature such as the various works

carried out by different scholars and authors on archaeology and archaeological

resources, tourism, development, sustainable development, sustainable tourism

development as well as theoretical literature and the two applied theories systems

theory and environmental theory and their application to understanding the

research work which is the theoretical orientations.

This was done to understand vividly the various works of scholars which

will later give a base and solid foundation for the research.

2.1.1 ARCHAEOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Andah and Okpoko (1994) defined archaeology as a historical discipline

that seeks to obtain an increased understanding of some aspects of the human

past and an increased knowledge of facts about their past.

In his inaugural lecture delivered at Ibadan on 29th November (1963) Shaw

asserted that archaeology comprises a system of techniques for deriving the

maximum amount of information from the material culture and physical remains

which has been left behind by past generation of mankind and which has

survived to the present.

Deetz (1967:3) in his book “an invitation to archaeology” said that

archaeologist usually excavate the material remains of past cultures and through

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the study of such evidence attempts to recreate the history of man from his

earliest past and to determine the nature of cultural systems at different times and

places around the world.

Okpoko and Okpoko (2002) saw and defined resources as to consist of the

wealth and material available to an individual or nation. Two basic types of

resources can be identified; they are natural and cultural resources.

Archaeological resources consists of both movable and non movable

material resources which are testimonies from the prehistoric past and have

survived to the present. Movable resources here consist of artifacts like bones,

clay, iron, bone and wood which have been recovered through excavations and

the non-movable archaeological resources comprise caves, shrines, grooves, and

rivers which cannot be moved from their original positions.

According to Binford (1972) material remains of past human activity

whichever their sizes or shapes become archaeological resources when the

archaeologist recognizes their significance as evidence from the past and collects

or records them. Basic classes of archaeological resources are artifacts, features,

ecofacts, chronofacts and sites.

ARTIFACTS: artifacts are discrete entities whose characteristics of

form result wholly or particularly from human activity. They are either natural

object modified for or by humans e.g. (Stone, hammer) or new objects formed

completely by human action e.g. (a clay vessel) for human use, the removal when

carefully carried from the surrounding in which they were discovered does not

alter their shape, size, and other characteristics of the artifact. Thus an artifact is

30

any discreet portable object whose form is modified or wholly created by past

human activity.

FEATURES: Features are non portable artifacts which cannot be

recovered from their matrix. Position and arrangements are key aspects of

features. For this reason they cannot be recovered after their discovery without

either altering or destroying their original form. They can however be

reconstructed after their removal as in a museum display. Common examples of

common archaeological features are hearths, burials, storage pots and roads.

Other examples of more complex features are houses, storage buildings, temples

and palaces.

ECOFACTS: Ecofacts are non artifactual material remains that at the

same time have cultural relevance. Although not directly created or modified by

human activity, ecofacts provides significant information about past human

behaviour by indicating environmental conditions and the kinds of food and other

resources used. Such includes remains of wild and domestic animals, plant

species and bones.

CHRONOFACTS: These are either artifactual or non artifactual

materials that contribute directly to relative or chronometric dating of stratum or

level of site. Artifactual remains like stones, poltery, or metal artifacts are usually

important for dating. The non artifactual remains usually bones, charcoal and

wood can be dated.

SITES: Sites can be described and categorized in a variety of ways.

This depends on the dimensions one wants to note e.g. of sites are cave sites,

31

mountain sites, habitation sites, or ceremonial sites. Sites may also be described

in terms of their age or cultural affiliation e.g. of Iron Age site, Bronze age or

Neolithic site. Andah and Okpoko (1994)

Hester (1976) also asserted that archaeological resources comprise those

items which were manufactured by the members of the past human society, those

items which they collected and used. The bodies of the former inhabitants and the

relations between any of these factors that are the result of human activity.

Shaw (1969) stated that the circumstantial evidence of human activities

and direct evidence exemplified by the presence of things made by prehistoric

man constitute the two classes of evidence usually dealt with in archaeology. He

summarized archaeological resources as follows, graves and the remains of

people themselves (skeletons). Remains of dwellings (caves, huts, houses,

palaces and public buildings like religious centers in which statutes and figurines

of stone of terracotta baked clay are often found. Collections of dwellings, and

buildings eg camping sites, sites of hamlets, and the remains of fortifications,

tools, weapons, and workshops where these tools, weapons and other

implements were made.

But no matter whatever aspect of archaeological resources one will be

looking at Trigger (1970) stated that all agreed that:

1. Archaeology is concerned with the study of material remains left behind by

the ancient man.

2. Archaeology aims to recover at least some aspects of man’s past beginning

with those unrecorded by written documents.

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3. Archaeology gathers its data primarily through excavations and surface

surveys.

Thomas ((1974:3-4) on his part summarized the ultimate goal of

archaeology as:

1. Reconstruction of culture history

2. Reconstruction of past life ways

3. The study of cultural process

4. The building of sound chronology.

On archaeological reconnaissance and survey, Rath J.E (1974) stated that

the method for finding and/or locating archaeological sites and artifacts can thus

be divided into two broad groups namely the use of the naked eye and man’s

previous knowledge (historical, geographical, and geological) and secondly the

wide variety of scientific devices.

Hole and Heizer (1973) pointed out that archaeology can serve many

purposes; it can produce objects of great beauty and grace. It can reveal the

history of people and mankind. It can contribute to the understanding of the

present and can one day be used to test scientifically stated hypotheses.

Hall (1996) stated that archaeological resources apart from serving as a

source of considerable fascination for the Nigerian public, some of the hidden

mysteries of the past that archaeologist excavate analyze and interpret are full of

historical lessons. Their education centers on the successes and failings of our

33

ancestors as they were trying to cope with the challenges posed by their social

and natural environment.

Alagoa (1988) noted that the Nigeria archaeological resource which is

embedded in prehistory, contemporary practice and future expectation of the

people can be the foundation for tourism and economic developments while

Staeck (2002) went further to emphasize that cultural tourism could be of

immense economic value to Nigeria if the archaeological resources potential of

the nation is fully exploited. He went further to emphasize that the conservation

and advertisement of designated archaeological and ethnographic, sacred,

historical sites and centers of cultural excellence backed by the provision of

adequate infrastructural facilities within these sites to make them appealing to

visitors are quite necessary.

2.1.2 TOURISM

Many scholars have made different attempts to define the term tourism.

Unfortunately no specific definition has so far emerged. Tourism is a complex

and pervasive phenomenon that touches all aspects of man and society be they

social political, economic, cultural, historical or physical environments.

However, the definitions we have are from experts dealing with various fields of

knowledge and their definitions reflect their own point of views.

Hunziker (1951) saw and defined tourism as the sum of the relations and

phenomena which result from traveling and visiting an area by non-residents

provided that it does not entail resettlements.

34

Peace et al (1993) opined that tourism in its broad sense is the sum of the

phenomenon pertaining to spatial mobility connected with a voluntary temporary

change of place, the rhythm of life and its environment (natural, cultural and

social).

Bayer (1992) sees tourism as a leisure time activity that takes for granted a

change of place and in which “notion” moving around are the elements that make

the tourism. Tourism is thus defined as all travel that result in one or more nights

being spent away from home for leisure or other purposes, while a tourist is a

person traveling to and staying in places outside his or her usual environment for

not more than one consecutive year of leisure, business and some other purposes.

Mathieson and Wall (1982) defined tourism as the temporary movement of

people to destinations outside their normal home and workplace, the activities

taken during the stay and the facilities created to carter for the needs of tourists.

Hoivik and Heiberg (1980), stated that a tourist by an internationally accepted

definition is a temporary visitor staying at least twenty four hours in the country

visited and the purpose of whose journey can be classified under one of the

following headings:

I. Leisure (recreation, holiday, health, study, religion and sport.)

II. Business, family, mission, meeting.

Smith (1989) sees a tourist as a temporary leisure person who voluntarily

visits a place away from home for the purpose of experiencing a change while

Davidson (1993) simply put saw tourists as people being away from their own

home on short temporary visits for particular tourism purposes.

35

Ekechukwu (2006) said that tourism can be viewed as an activity that is

multi-dimensional and multi-faceted and which touches all aspects of man and

society. For Obayi (1997:292) tourism is the business of satisfying the most

diverse aspirations which invites a man to move out of his daily universe.

Netttekoven (1972) went further to define mass tourism as the sum of the

social and economic phenomena stemming from voluntary and temporary change

of place of residence taken up by stranger to satisfy their non-material needs

while making use of installations meant for a number of people.

Tourism and travel international (1999) defined tourism as the industry

which carters for travelers from within or outside a country, visiting for a short

term duration for any other reason than for job seeking without the expectation

for financial remuneration from the place of interest visited.

Tourism has various economic, social, cultural, psychological and other

attributes. As an economic phenomenon, tourism develops economic forces

especially that of demand and supply. Tourism is also a business and the term

“tourist market” is commonly used. Tourism is also a psychological

phenomenon. A tourist’s trip is preceded by specific needs that generated the

motive for the trip. An image of the trip is created in the mind which is made

while traveling (Peace and Stinger, 1991) in Ezea (2006).

Tourism is also a social phenomenon as the tourist assumes a social role

during the course of a trip. Social contacts are experienced with such people as

fellow travelers, trip organizers, and the local population. Tourism is also a

cultural phenomenon; it involves as well as transmission of culture and in a sense

36

an encounter of a “shock or clash of cultures”. Smith (1989) said that culture

brings cultural change. Understanding the links between tourism system and

culture will help to minimize negative impacts on a host culture occurring

through the act of receiving tourists.

However, tourism has two main characteristics:

A. That the traveler concerned mean to return home after a temporary

short time.

B. That the money they spend in the course of travel is derived from

home and not earned in the place visited.

Tourism is however classified into two types. They are domestic tourism

and international tourism.

DOMESTIC TOURSIM: this involves the movement of people within a

geographical boundary. Dasilva in Okpoko and Okpoko (2002) defined it as the

movement of people within their country for business, leisure, culture, sports, and

or health purposes as well as the movement of foreigners within the country they

reside in for any of these purposes. Domestic tourism in Nigeria may for instance

be confined within a given local government area or state. It may also extend to

places outside a given state. A very pleasant holiday can be spent touring the

parts of the country.

INTERNATIONAL TOURISM: International tourism on the other hand

involves movement into foreign countries other than the one in which the traveler

is resident. This movement may be by road, air or sea. Put in other words, it is the

movement of nationals of other countries visiting a country other than their own

37

country of residence. Dasilva in Okpoko and Okpoko (2002) said that both

domestic and international tourism are of assets to the host destination, where

properly executed they often help to improve the economic resources base of the

tourist centers visited, generates employment opportunities and widens the socio-

cultural horizon of both the visited and the visitors. Other forms of tourism are

cultural, health, business, educational or religious tourism.

2.1.3 DEVELOPMENT

The term development has been defined in various ways by different

authors and writers. Conceptually development does not lend itself to a

universally accepted definition. Many of the definitions of development have

different ideological under tones. Indeed every discipline has its own conception

of development.

Whatsever meaning different experts attach to the term development;

Ehizuelen (1996:6) said that it has come to be agreeably associated with material

advancement, modernization, industrialization, scientific and technological

advancements, the emergence of nuclear energy, the electronic and biological

revolution and new knowledge about man and the universe amongst others.

Thus it can rightly be said that development means urbanization, socio-

cultural transformations, employment opportunities, mass literacy, and the

emergence of specialized and independent occupational roles.

Michael P. Todaro (1982:24) defined development as both a physical

reality and a state of the mind in which society has through some consolations of

38

socio-economic and industrial processes secured the means for obtaining a better

life.

Furthermore, Dudley Seers (1972) a development economist viewed

development in terms of the elimination or drastic reduction of three inter-related

social problems namely poverty unemployment and inequality. As Seers posited,

the question to ask about a nation’s development are what have been happening

to poverty? What have been happening to unemployment, and what have been

happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels, then

beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If

one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all

these three have, it would be strange to call the result development even if per

capita income doubled.

For Fadahunsi (1986:6) he defined development as mobilization,

adaptation and use of human and natural resources within a state to meet the

needs and possibly the wants of the citizens of such state. Development in

general designated a specific improvement in the general condition of a particular

people or group. Development can also be defined as a positive change in both

the material and non material aspects of human life within the framework of

available cultural and natural resources.

Brett (1973:18) in Eze Adichie and Okpoko (2002) defined development as

a change process characterized by increased productivity equalization, in the

distribution of the social products and the emergence of indigenous institutions

whose relations with the outside world is characterized by equality rather than by

39

dependence or subordination. Such terms as developed, undeveloped or

underdeveloped are some of the terms used to differentiate between those nations

which can adequately use their human and natural resources to meet up with the

needs of their people both socially and economically and those that cannot.

In its simplest connotations the word development implies positive

advancements in all aspects of welfare, social, political, cultural, economic and

even environmental in so far as it can take the community forward without

paying a greater negative price.

On a general level one can differentiate between human and material

aspects of developments. While human aspects of developments embrace long

term skill acquisitions, expertise, and advancements in knowledge, material

development entails improvement in machines, tools, and equipments. The basic

essence of development is to strike a workable balance between the creation of

individual capacities and the utilization of such personal potentials for the

improvement of society by which means development acquires a basic intrinsic

culture character, Malliet (1998:11).

Development also has to do with qualitative and sometimes quantitative

changes in the life of people or an individual. In the national level development

implies activity, increased skill and capacity, self discipline, greater freedom,

responsibility, and material well being. Hitherto development has mocked all

efforts at concise and acceptable definitions. This as stated earlier has however

resulted in a myriad of definitions by scholars.

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While some scholars see development as normative synonymous with

progress, others see it as necessarily multi-dimensional involving changes in

structure and capacity output. There are some scholars who view development in

terms of the growth and mastery of the natural environment by man. Thus the

development of any society today has come to be measured by its military socio-

economic, political and technological advancements.

Walter Rodney for instance believes that development occurs in a society

when its members increase jointly their capacity for dealing with their

environment. This capacity for dealing with their environment is depended on the

extent to which they put their understanding into practice by devising tools

(technology) and on the manner in which work is organized (Anyanwu, 2005).

Obong is of the opinion that development is a process implying “deep” and

double changes in social structures in the functioning of institutions and in the

cultural values of great masses of people. Bashir on his part sees development as

a process of enhancing the productive forces of a country for the actualization of

more prosperous and meaningful life for its citizens.

Anyanwu (2005) maintained that development emphasizes growth or

advancement with a positive cultural and socio-economic tendency towards a self

generating and self perpetuating utilization of people’s potentials.

2.1.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The Oxford Learners dictionary defined the word sustainable as involving

the use of natural products and energy in a way that did not harm the

41

environment or that which can continue or be continued for a very long time.

today almost all aspects of human developments is marked with the term

sustainable, hence sustainable tourism, sustainable economics, sustainable

agriculture or sustainable democracy are the unmediated manifestations of the

growing interest in sustainable developments.

The concept of sustainable development emerged as a result of the global

policies set forth in the 1987 world commission on environment and

developments to the united nation general assembly report tagged “our common

future” (otherwise known as the Brunland report) and the subsequent united

nations conference on environmental (popularly known as the earth summit). In

1992 sustainability emerged as key issues in development. The adoption of

agenda 21 at the summit further expressed and elaborated the sustainable

development approach.

Since the earth summit the concept of sustainable development has

continued to come under increasing attention from both tourism theorists and

practitioners. The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) espoused the sustainable

approach to tourism and started to apply sustainable development principles in all

of its tourism planning and developments.

In (1998) WTO General Assembly at its special session to review the

implementation of agenda 21 noted the importance of tourism and requested the

development of an action plan specific to tourism development.

Ranges of definitions of sustainable developments have been proposed.

These definitions generally fall within two categories, those which focuses on

42

activity and those which view tourism as an element of wider sustainable

development policies (Sharpley 2000 in Berno and Brieker 2001).

Sustainable development is concerned with the establishment of a system

of economic growth and advancements that puts into serious considerations the

cultural background of the people and the environment impact of technology

developments and applications. Sustainable development can be viewed as

aiming at maintaining the natural resources base through development process

that adapts properly to the natural environment, making appropriate

improvements in the social value system of the people. It has to do with the

establishment of a system of economic growth and advancements that puts into

considerations the culture of the people and the natural ecosystem adaptability of

technology.

Koizumi (1994) on his side saw sustainable development as a complex

interaction of biological, social, and cultural transformation in a society. While

the biological aspect involves the interaction between man and nature, the society

aspect is the interaction of social structures such as families, organizations and

nations. The cultural aspect is the relationship of the various aspects of culture as

language, artifacts, symbols, religion and economy.

Sustainable development further should be seen from the point of view of

world commission on environment and development as development that meets

the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future

generations to meet up with their own needs. Issues of sustainable developments

have been defined by various scholars, most of the descriptive models hinged on

43

ecology (environmental), economic (monetary) or culture (social) depending on

the research background or interest of the scholar (Okpoko and Ezeadichie

(2002).

Sustainable development should be conceived in the direction of rural re-

orientation and mass participation in development. Simultaneous progress along

the major aspects of rural life is the basic requirements for a sustained reversal of

the vicious circle of poverty, environmental degradation and rapid population

growth which currently is based the rural societies in Nigeria. This is because

development is a concept whose practical dimensions cuts across all the facets of

rural life including economic, human, technology, institutions and environmental.

Verdar (1992:20) opined that sustainable development must be rooted in

the cultural values and priorities of a society within a particular environment.

Development actions become sustainable if they are environmentally compatible,

socially acceptable and economically beneficial to the present and future stake

holders. Thus while the resources of the environment could be exploited to

enhance the living conditions of the present, it will not be done in such a way as

to preclude the future generations from benefiting from them. If an activity is

sustainable. It can continue forever (WTTC, WTO, EC 1996 in Okpoko (2006)).

Sustainable development was interpreted by the world commission on

environment and development (WCED, 1987) to be a process which enables

development without destroying the resources that makes such development

possible. When applied to tourism Godfrey (1996) pointed out that the concept of

44

sustainable development is related to a form of environmentally friendly tourism,

eco-tourism and adventure tourism considered to be sustainable.

Community participation gives each tourism destination its distinctive

aspect. Generally speaking it is recognized that meeting the objectives of

sustainable developments requires participation by local communities and the

host destinations.

2.1.5 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Tourism is said to be sustainably developed if it meets the needs of the

present generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to

meet up with their own needs. This is in line with the world tourism organization

definition that sustainable tourism is a tourism development that “meets the needs

of the present tourists and host region while protecting and leaving opportunities

for the future, leading to management of all resources in such a way that

economic social and material needs can be fulfilled while maintaining the

cultural integrity essential ecological processes and all the life support systems

(WTO, 1998:21).

In other words, tourism development becomes sustainable if they are

environmentally compatible, socially acceptable and economically beneficial to

the present and future stakeholders. Thus while the resources of the environment

could be exploited to promote the living conditions of the present, they should

not be done in such a way as to prevent the future generations from benefiting

45

from it. That is to say that if tourism is sustainably developed, it will continue

forever to provide all the essential life support to the host destination.

To be sustainable tourism should have three characteristics. Firstly, it

should be appropriate in size and proportion to the visited site and location

(environmental sustainability). Secondly, it should be inform acceptable to the

host community (socio-cultural sustainability). Thirdly, it must be profitable to

the host community to compensate them for any dislocation effect of everyday

life (economic sustainability). Without these three factors, it is not likely that

tourism development will be sustainable in the long term as the social cost would

probably be greater than the benefit.

It is notable here that one way of ensuring that tourism is developed in a

sustainable manner is to provide the local people with business opportunities and

also help create some sense of ownership within the local communities. Tourism

will only be deemed to be sustainable if it has to gain the acceptance of the local

communities in relation to the proposed type, scales and location of the tourism

development. Unless financial and economic benefits comes to the local

communities where tourism activities takes, place, there will be little perceived

benefits to compensate for tourism bad effect on community life.

Steck (1999) rightly maintained that sustainable tourism encourages the

development of tourism in a manner that while helping to sustain the industry

through appropriate use and conservation of resources, respect for local culture

tradition and equitable spending, it will provide continuing business for the host

destination. It must also be operated in harmony with the local environment,

46

community and culture so that they become the permanent beneficiaries and not

the victims of tourism developments.

Sustainable tourism should be developed in such a way as maximizing it’s

benefits in a way that is acceptable to the greater number of people. It encourages

the development of cultural and rural tourism to sustain local cultures, traditional

life styles, and industries. It seeks to utilize resources and the environment in a

sustainable manner and aims to generate local economy by providing

opportunities for employment. Sustainable tourism also demands an awareness of

the needs of local people and respect and appreciation for culture and

environment.

For tourism to be sustainably developed all forms of tourism must move

towards the goal of sustainability so that tourism is all about sustaining the

industry as a whole (particularly it’s economic benefits) and the attributes of the

product (socio-cultural and environmental) on which it is based. The basis and

underlying principles for sustainable tourism is to use natural, social, and cultural

resources in a sustainable manner.

Sustainable tourism employs a bottom up approach. According to Okpoko

(2006) this is because it encourages the cooperation of all major stake holders,

governments, developers and indigenous and local communities both at the level

of project planning and its final implementations. This however promotes a

balance between developments and environmental conservations and enhances

the socio-economic benefit of tourism developments.

47

Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic and socio-

cultural aspects of tourism developments and a suitable balance must be

established between the three dimensions to guarantee its long term

sustainability.

1. Thus sustainable tourism should make optimal use of the

environmental resources that contribute a key element in tourism

developments, maintaining essential ecological process and helping to

conserve natural heritage.

2. Respect the socio-cultural life of host communities, conserve

their built, and living cultural heritage and traditional values and contribute

to tolerance.

3. Ensure long term economic benefit to all stake holders that are

fairly distributed including stable employment and income earning

opportunities and social services to host destinations and contribute to

poverty alleviations.

Tourism can contribute to developments that is economically, ecologically,

and socially sustainable, if it has less impact on the environment than most other

industries and is based on the enjoyment and appreciation of local culture, built

heritage, and the natural environments and also has direct powerful motivations

to protect these assets. Tourism awareness is very important in the overall

development of tourism sector in a sustainable manner. Sustainability of the

tourism sector depends not only on government policies but also on the support

of the private sector and the rural communities.

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FEATURES OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENTS

The three most essential features of sustainable developments are:

1. Environmental sustainability

2. Socio-cultural sustainability

3. Economic sustainability.

Any concept of tourism sustainability that embraces and integrates

environmental, economic and socio-cultural considerations is recognized to be

truly sustainable.

1. ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

The concept of tourism sustainability has been closely identified with the

environmental protection and the use of the present resources ensuring their

availability to the future generations. The conditions of ecological sustainability

are often the only way in which sustainability is publicly perceived. The need to

avoid environmental impact of tourist activities is clear. To this effect Maldonado

et al (1992) suggested that the calculation of carrying capacity is an important

method of assessing environmental impact of sustainability, eg. A community

which is overwhelmed by tourist is likely to develop antipathy and antagonism

towards the visitors there by threatening the long term sustainability of tourism in

that particular location.

The dependence of tourism on the natural environment makes any negative

impact to be easily seen. Water pollutions, ecological disruptions, land

degradation and congestion typify negative environmental effects associated with

49

poor planned tourism. Often, however, pollutions and degradations from external

sources negatively impact the sustainability of tourism. Tourism can only be

sustained, if the natural assets on which it is based are protected from

degradation.

2. SOCIO-CULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY

Socio-cultural sustainability refers to the ability of a community whether

local or national to absorb inputs such as extra number of people for short or long

periods of time. And to continue functioning without the creation of social

disharmony as a result of the input (or) by adapting its functions and relations so

that the disharmony created can be lessened or overlooked. Societies may be able

to continue functioning in social harmony despite the effects of changes brought

about by a new input such as tourists.

But the relations within that society, the modes of interaction, the styles of

life, the customs and traditions are all subject to change through the introduction

of visitors with different habits, styles, customs, and means of exchange. Even if

the society survives, its cultural way may be irreversibly changed. Culture is

dynamic a feature of human life as society, and adaptation and change are not

assumed by all, in all case to be of negative effect. But cultural sustainability

refers to the ability of the people to retain or adapt elements of their culture

which distinguishes them from other peoples.

3. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Economic sustainability of tourism development is based on establishing

links to the host destination (local communities), employing local people and

50

sourcing for goods and services from the communities. Supporting the

establishment of micro or small scale enterprises to supply tourist and hotel

needs, by upgrading training and skills for specific activities like working

between the local communities and tourist accommodations.

The economic benefits of tourism has the potential to alleviate poverty

create employment, but capacity building is needed at the local levels to achieve

these goals. Economic sustainability in addition refers to the level of economic

gain from tourism activities whether it is sufficient enough either to cover the

cost of any special measures taken to carter for the tourists and to lessen the

effects of the tourist presence or to offer an income appropriate to the

inconveniences caused to the local communities without violating any conditions.

FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Some of the frameworks for sustainable tourism development as outlined

by Steck (1999:17) are:

1. The presence of basic infrastructure, accommodations, international

airports, road networks and railways.

2. Simple immigration and currency regulations

3. Personal safety for tourists, protection from crime, political unrest,

harassment from police or military.

4. Relatively low health risk (existence of basic medical services, no

epidemics).

51

5. Protection of tourist sites against destructions through legislations and

strict implementation.

6. Existence of an economic order or financial policies that promotes tourism

and other private companies.

7. Opportunities for more business initiative.

8. Access to information and capacity building.

9. Existence of government environmental legislations.

10. Provisions of political and administrative structures that grants local and

indigenous communities a share of or ownership, right and freedom of

actions.

11. Existence of economic order and fiscal policies that basically permit

income from tourism to be directed to nature conservation or local

communities.

2.2 THEORETICAL LITERATURE

The word theory was defined by Kerlinger (1973:3) as a set of inter-related

constructs (concepts) definitions and propositions that presents a systematic view

of phenomena by specifying relationships among variables with the purpose of

explaining and predicting the phenomena. Haralambos (1980) simply defined

theory “as a set of ideas which provide explanation for something.

Igbo and Okpoko (2006) saw theory as an assumption or set of

assumptions, accepted principles and rules of procedures based on limited

52

information or knowledge devised to analyze, predict, or otherwise explain the

nature or behaviour of a specified set of phenomenon.

For Obasi Igwe (2002), a theory is a guide, example or school of thought

expressing some level of existing relevant knowledge adopted by the student or

researcher as the foundation for his work. It is chosen normally from an array of

potential theories revealed after literature review. A theoretical literature does not

only conceptualize but also provides a guide to inquiry and permits a degree of

predictions of outcome on the basis of the analysis engendered by the framework.

Theoretical literature guides a researcher to determine what things he/she

should measure and what statistical relationship, the person should look for

during the research. Valid theories can tell us not only what can be done but also

what should be done and the process by which it can be achieved. Indeed no

research work in archaeology or in any other field can be conducted without

underlying theory or model. The researcher’s theoretical approach helps to define

the problems and how to tackle it. It also sharpens the focus of the research.

There are wide ranges of analytical perspectives from which to view or

make a comparative study of this research work but two most important

perspectives were chosen to give an enlightening background to this work. The

two selected most important perspectives are system theories and environmental

theories.

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2.2.1 SYSTEM THEORIES

System theories are a body of concepts developed by a German Biologists

Ludwig Bertabanffy in the 1940s. it posits that units within an organization

(system) interact with each other and are inter-dependent on each other for

sustenance and survival. A system theory recognizes that an organization

represents more than a single sum of its parts. They emphasize the relation

between these parts. The advantage of approaching any area of research as a

system is that it enables us to see critical variables and constraints in such a

problem, and the need for researchers in the field to be constantly aware that one

single element, phenomena or problem should not be treated without regard for

its interacting consequences with other elements.

According to Onyishi (2005) the certainty and viability of system theories

makes it unavoidable in the study of archaeological and cultural resources.

Systems theories try to find out the justifications in the functional inter-

relationship of parts. For our concern here the theory may be used to understand

the interacting or inter-relating groups of activities in the area under study. It was

recognized that organizations are complex social systems and reducing the parts

from the whole reduces the overall effectiveness of the organization. The

relationship between Nsukka people, their archaeological resources and the

natural environment on which these resources were situated are recognized as

complex and interdependent system. They have properties of archaeological and

cultural resources that cannot be studied in isolation.

54

The use of system theories was an important early step in the rise of the

new archaeology. It was a call against the culture historical methods of the “old

timers”. It was a proof that archaeology could be done scientifically and

objectively and that information about past life ways could be discovered. System

theories equip archaeologist with the necessary knowledge and skill to handle the

archaeological record in a complete new way.

For the purpose and relevance of this work, it is the combination of

archaeological resources, tourism and good infrastructure that underpins the

economic, environmental and socio-cultural benefits. It is important to balance

any decision to develop an area for tourism against the need to preserve fragile or

threatened resources, environment and culture. The archaeological resources and

other natural and cultural resources in Nsukka and the environs should not be

developed in isolation.

2.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL THEORIES

Our environment is a key tourism resource and consequently its

conservation and management are both vital to the future of the tourism industry

and to the society as a whole (Green and Hunter, 1992:30). Environmental

theories sees the environment system such as clean air, clear water, divers

species, or healthy forests as public goods in the sense that they can be enjoyed or

used freely by many individuals (Igbo and Okpoko, 2006). They went further to

divide public good into two, pure and impure. The former refers to a good whose

consumption by one individual does not reduce the amount of its availability to

55

other consumers and no one is excluded from its provisions. Air quality and bio-

diversity are examples of pure public goods.

Common properties and community goods like rivers, grooves, local parks

and beaches are impure public goods because non members can be excluded from

the benefits enjoyed by groups that own them. Tourism destinations offer natural

goods like nature reserves, nice climate, clean air, spring water, amongst other

tourism resources which can be provided by private or governmental bodies and

are open to use by all interested tourism users.

Environmental degradation whether at the global, national or local levels is

as a result of human intervention in natural systems and in particular our current

pattern of economic development and social organization which places a burden

on the earth resources (Redcliff and Benton, 1994:28).

Population growth is another factor that poses a treat to the environment.

As the population continues to grow it causes an environmental damage due to

the people’s over utilization of space, the expansion of the rural areas which

makes the natural beauty of an area to disappear in the sense that too many things

will be tampered with, like plants and other ecosystem in general will be

tampered with.

This research will emphasize the need to protect archaeological resources

and the inbuilt environment within Nsukka local government and its environs

from degradations. The concept of sustainable tourism have been suggested as a

way forward to ensure the implementation of economically and environmentally

acceptable tourism that satisfies not only the guest but also maintains the quality

56

of tourism products (Okpoko 2006:27). Considerable attention should be focused

on the sustainability of the environment. A key element in sustainability is that

enjoyment of environmental resources should not be prejudiced by current

activities, i.e. the present generation should pass on the resources intact to the

next generation (Johnson and Thomas, 1992:4).

According to Inskeep (1991:144) the concept of carrying capacity is used

in tourism to determine the upper limits of developments and visitor use and the

optimum utilization of tourism resources. If for whatever reason the parties fail to

maintain and contribute towards its preservation, the quality of the environment

results in low returns and a concomitant loss in long term economic benefits. The

tourism industry is not only an indirect seller of public goods; it also depends on

the quality of the natural environment for continued survival.

Thus some of the proceeds from nature should be injected into

environmental preservations and protection to ensure its sustainability. The

concentration of visitors to a given destination may lead to congestions per unit

space. A continued increase in the number of visitors to that given space will lead

to a saturated destination bringing about low returns on investment. The absence

of environmental ethics is also one of the reasons for environmental damage.

Other reasons are human ignorance and the absence of social tourism

environmental ethics. Ethics generally deal with the issues of right and wrong

and moral obligations, while environmental ethics generally refers to the standard

and principles regulating the behaviour of individuals or groups of people in

relation to their environment (Rue and Riyars, 1986:7).

57

2.3 THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

For the study of archaeological resources and sustainable tourism

development in Nsukka and its environs the researcher thought it convenient to

apply system theories and environmental theories. The implication of system

theories in understanding archaeological resources in sustainable tourism

development as a factor remains that there is no way any tourism component or

attraction can function perfectly without due considerations and it’s interactions

with other components. Therefore archaeological resources in Nsukka cannot be

developed into tourist resorts without embracing other components of tourism

facilities such as transportation and accommodations.

In other words, sustainable tourism developments cannot be achieved

without due regard for its built in principles that embody environmental,

economic and socio-cultural considerations. Equally of note is the fact that all the

stakeholders in the tourism industry governments, private sector and the host

destination are components in any sustainable tourism development schemes and

need to be consulted at the level of planning and implementations in the event of

any tourism development, for the industry to achieve its sustainable objectives.

The viability of system theories in the study of archaeological resources

made it unavoidable in this research work and cannot be over emphasized. It

helped the researcher to understand the functional interrelationship of the

archaeological resources, other cultural and natural resources, and the attitude of

the people to certain archaeological resources like shrines and sacred grooves to

the effect that any thing that happens to the shrines and grooves will equally

58

affect the people understudy. System theories is an eye opener to the researcher

in the sense that it helped her to view the society as a system made up of certain

arrangement of parts which behave in coordinated manner to achieve the

objective intended for them.

Archaeological resources in Nsukka cannot be developed into sustainable

tourism without a due consideration for tourism effect on the culture of the

people and the in built environment upon which it is situated. Another area of

focus is the fact that the archaeological resources located in this research work

need not be treated in isolation but should be seen as a network of all other

archaeological resources discovered elsewhere all of which could be channeled

towards sustainable tourism developments: An appropriate use of system theories

will maintain equilibrium and peace within and outside the area understudy.

It is important to note that the rich and diverse biophysical environment

found in the world must remain healthy for successful and sustainable tourism

enterprise to develop and continue. Tourism cannot endure as a useful tool for

development if the environment is degraded. The environment theory used in this

research work explained the reason behind degradation. Thus the theory

maintains that the environmental problem in the society today is due to the fact

that the environment is cost free. For the environment to be an economic good,

there is the need for prize to be tagged on environmental degradation.

Sustainable tourism cannot endure and prosper in any environment that is

not conducive and free from degradations. Tourism can put pressure on the

environment when it increases consumptions in areas where resources are scarce.

59

The condition of environmental sustainability is often the only way in which

sustainability is publicly perceived. The need to avoid environmental impact of

tourism activities is very clear and that is the reason why the calculation of

carrying capacity is an important method of assessing environmental impact

sustainability.

The researcher at this juncture concludes that system theories and

environmental theories are the best theories to give an enlightening background

to this work.

60

CHAPTER THREE

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

3.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

Nsukka local government consists of about eighteen local communities

namely: Alor-Uno, Anuka, Ede-Oballa, Ibagwa-Ani, Edem, Lejja, Nsukka town,

Obimo, Eha-Alumona, Ehandiagu, Ikwoka, Obukpa, Okpa Ligbo, Okpuje,

Okwutu, Opi Agu, and Opi Uno.

Nsukka Local government Area is located in the Anambra River basin of

the defunct Eastern Nigeria and covers a space of about 3,961 square kilometers.

It lies between latitude 6o18 and 7o54 East (Oformata, 1978:1).

The town is placed on a high zone which lies at about 1200 feet above sea

level. There are isolated peaks that range from 1,200 to 1,800 feet (Eze Uzomaka,

1996). So many hills surround Nsukka area but most of Nsukka itself is a

lowland. The land slopes to the east and west from the central zone, but the

slopes of the ground is more gently even to the west. It is first steep and then

gently sloping to the east (Ezugwu, 1986:4). The lowland is less than 400 feet

(122m) above sea level while another 25% consist of land lying between 400 and

800 feet above sea level. Only about 15% of the land is over 1,200 above sea

level (Oformata, 1972:3).

Nsukka shares a common boundary to the North with Adoru in Kogi State

and Orokam in Benue State, Umurumgbe and Nkalagu to the east and the river

Niger to the west. In the South West is Umuoka and Egede, in the South is Udi,

Ezeagu, and Enugu East Local Government Area respectively.

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There is generally a mild climate with substantial rainfall during the wet

season. The topography of the area presents many interesting natural sceneries

such as streams, depressions, and valleys. The town also has a lot of hills

surrounding it.

CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND RAINFALL

CLIMATE

Nsukka is in the tropics and characteristically has two major seasons in the

year, the dry season and the rainy season. The wet or rainy season spans the

period between April and October and Slows to double maxima separated in

August by a dry spell usually called “August Break” (Eze Uzomaka, 1996:3).

The rainy season is characterized by cloudiness and violent thunderstorm. During

the middle of the wet season, it is usually characterized by cloudiness as a result

of the wind blowing from the Atlantic ocean.

While the dry season begins around October and ends in March which is

the planting season, the predominant weather between November and February is

the harmattan during which mist and fog mark the morning and haze occur in the

afternoon. This is as a result of the North Eastern wind coming from the Sahara

bringing the Sahara effects closer to the shores of the Atlantic. There are recorded

cases of conventional and erratic rainfall between February and March.

In other words solar energy is an element of climate, which directly affects

the growth and character of plants, soils, animals and men (Iyang, 1972). Rainfall

62

is very significant in the area but the pattern of rainfall, controlled by the

movement to the sun has been consistent through the years.

Nsukka area can be located between latitudes 5o50 and 7o00N. Nsukka

town is latitude 6o51N (Iyang, 1972:86). Due to the town latitudinal location the

sun normally controls the weather and climate so that there is constancy of

isolations. This constancy ensures that there is maximum temperature. Due to the

outlay of the town the sun’s heat greatly affects the activities going on in the area.

VEGETATION

Considering from a moisture and temperature point of view, Nsukka

division is on the wettest part of a savannah environment. Okigbo, (1980) says

that this feature shows that it can support and has supported a tropical rain forest

which is non-extant.

Igbozurike (1978:98) recorded that Nsukka is dominated by two main

physiognomic and structural forms:

(a) Broad leaved tree types

(b) Herbaceous graminoids.

There are also brynoids which consist of mosses lynches and forbes (Eze

Uzoamaka, 1996).

Of most ecological interest in this area of study are trees that are suitable

for iron working (Okafor, 1992:34). Wood works and firing of clay in furnaces

and kilns. These are fire resistant when wet and very slow in regeneration for

example “Ukpaka” (pentecletra mycrophtia) and “Okpoye” (picimus commnis).

Characteristic species in this area are dry land fire resistant trees like “parkia

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clappernian”, “Danilla Illveri” and Lophira laccolata”. There are tree forms and

shrubs which are either exotic, recent arrivals, or cultivated trees. For example

mango, “magnifera indica", Tamarind indica “tamarindus indica”, and oil palm

“elaesis guineensis” (Embola, 1989:37).

Bush burning is an annual event in Nsukka area and in Igbo land as a

whole. Fire resistant tree like those mentioned above abounds and there are some

others which are noted as having survived so long because of their fire resistant

nature. These include “oji” “Chlorapgora Excelsa”, “Ofo” Detarium

Macrocarpa”.

Furthermore, the areas has other trees like “Piptodenia strum Africanum,

(Agrimye) “Chrysophyillum Africanum (Udara”, Triculia Africana (Ukwa),

Euphorbia kamerunica (Abanaya), Afromonia specie (Inyi), Borrasus

aethiopicum (udara), Anitaris Africana (Aji) Afzenia Africana (Akparata),

Diacum Guineensis (Icheku), Afromonium Meleguta (Ose Oji), Xylopia

Aethiopicum (Uda or Aftrican Guinea Pepper), Irvingia Gabonesis (Ujuru), and

Albizia Terruginea (Ngwu) among others. All these plants are popularly known

through out Nsukka division and they have also great ethnographic evidences

rooted in the people’s antiquity (Ezike, 2001). He also noted that the above

named or trees are heavily embedded in culture and rituals showing their

outhouchthonomy in Nsukka and its environs.

Nsukka people also engage in livestock farming and elephant grass

(Pennisetum Pumpurum) and other grasses serve as fodder. According to

Ifemesia (1979) in respect of the entire Igbo land, the apparent conversion of the

64

natural vegetation of a great part of the northern Igbo plateau also suggests a

relatively early settlement and protracted utilization. Thus the ecological shift

was actually brought about by human manipulation of the eco-system.

In other words the resistant secondary vegetation consist of tall tough

grasses for example “Ata” (Imperata cylindrical) and “Ikpo” (Loudetia

arundincla) others are “owa (Andropogon Lectorum) and “Uma” (Maranthacloa

Cuspiodata). ‘A Teetorum’ and “P, Polystachion seem to be commonest grass in

the area (Igboruike, 1978:103). Villagers construct thatched roots and towns men

also buy fencing materials made from these graminoids.

Other significant grass species include (Dactylotenuim aegytum) and

chrosis gayana which are very common in regions which have been disturbed by

man greatly, such as along roadsides, on bush paths as well as around cultivated

lands (Ezeuzomaka, 1996:25). Anozie (1972) suggests that the forests on the

plateau were probably more open than their counterparts in the lowlands to the

east and west.

RAINFALL

In Nigeria as in other parts of the tropics, rainfall is the most important

element of climate in so far as Agriculture, the main occupation of the people is

concerned (Ikeme 1980:10). Rainfalls in torrential down pour and water retention

is much. This makes the heavy vegetation in the area possible. Rainfall

determines the beginning of the farming season. At its onset, fields and farms are

cleared for farming to begin From September the temperature rises steadily from

65

month to month to its maximum in February. In March it starts falling to a

minimum in July and August (Inyang, 1972:122).

Moreover, Awachie and Onwuka (1989) claim that the hottest month is

April with 29.2oC maximum and minimum of 27.3oC. One thing is certain the

weather can be very uncomfortable when the temperature is high as 21oC and the

humidity 60% or above (Inyang, 1972).

Thornwate (1984) classified Nsukka as a humid mega thermal climate.

Okafor (1992) concludes that wet and hot tropical climate is anti-archaeology.

Most material remains (artifacts) particularly organic materials disappear at a fast

rate in this climate zone. He went further to explain that the only weather

resistant objects like stones, well fired clay or slags can survive the humidity in

this area (Okafor, 1980:36).

In other words, rainfall is the climatic element of far reaching importance

in Nsukka. It assumes significance in every phase of agricultural pursuit. It

determines the turning of cultivation, planting and harvesting of crops of various

types, application of fertilizers, selection of crop varieties and transplanting. It

controls the operations of a number of occupations. For instance some people are

migrant farmers in one season and traders in another, traders of perishable food

stuffs during the farming season and causal labourers latter.

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GEOLOGY OF THE AREA

Nsukka is situated in the eastern Nigerian sedimentary basin and is

underlain by rocks, which range in age from coniacian to Paleocene (Eze

Uzomaka, 1996). Sediments deposited within this time interval occur in four

distinct hypsographic provinces, namely the cross river plain, the Escarpment, the

plateau, and Anambra plains. These rocks are grouped into six formations: Ajali

sandstome, Nsukka formations and Imo formations (Nwachukwu, 1978:47).

Nsukka stands on the Nsukka – Udi – Okigwe cuesta and forms part of the lower

Benue trough filled with cretaceous sediments (Umeji, 1980:110).

Umeji also recorded three planations surfaces named Ukehe, Nsukka, and

Okigwe. Upper cretaceous sediments in Southeastern Nigeria underlie them. He

based the dates on the assumption that each erosion episode coincided with a

depositional episode.

There was a progeny movement which occurred in the early Eocene. This

movement caused the Ukehe surface to emerge due to erosion and it was part of

the laterites eroded during this movement that was deposited on the Nsukka

surface (Hazel: 1955:44). However, the extensive erosion of the Nsukka surface

itself must have provided sediments of the “Ajali” formation and the “Asaba”

formation (Umeji, 1980:114). Of the three surfaces the most remarkable is the

Nsukka plateau surface which extends to “Udi” and is some times named “Udi”

plateau (Grove: 1951).

The Nsukka formation is the youngest and is a parallel sequence of

mudstone and shale. This formation outcrops over dip slopes and also as relict

67

mesas and outliers underlain by Ajali sandstone (Umeji, 1980:111). In Nsukka

Division, the Nsukka formation is nearly horizontal or dips at a low angle to the

west and to the south (De Swardt and Casey, 1963:7).

Furthermore a number of minerals and rocks that have varying economic

uses can be found in the Nsukka area. These range from limestone, coal, glass,

and sand to petroleum products. The sort of sand stone which is found in this area

is so pure that it could be used to make glasswares and this occurs in the Nsukka

area.

The main rock types in Nsukka are sandstones, sandy shales and

carbonaceous shales, these can be observed as one moves from core area through

Eha-Ndiagu to Ezimo, Imiliki Agu and Ogbodu Aba. De Swardt and Casey

(1963:13) Oberved that there is a persistent basalt sandstone horizon in the area.

This is followed by about thirty feet of shale which contain most of the known

coal seams. Swardt et al concludes that the shales are over lain by another

sandstone horizon 30 – 70 feet thick and this is succeeded by a great thickness of

dark shale’s with many sandstone beds.

The Ajali sandstone on which the Nsukka formation rests on is litho

logically composed of mainly unconsolidated poorly-sorted sandstone. They are

porous and have shale partings in several places. They are made of coarse and

fine grains and this suggests fluctuating conditions of disposition. They are white

or pale gray in colour but some times they are stained red, yellow, or brown by

iron oxides.

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Like the Nsukka formations, “Ajali” sandstones formations is on the

mastication. Nwachukwu (1972:54) notes that sandstones which is found there

contains about 95% of pure quartz and in some cases that content of pure quartz

is up to 99%. He also showed that feldar is remarkably absent and the sandstone

is almost mono mineral in nature. The absence of feldar may be due to post

deposited changes, which normally causes the leaching of feldar. One cannot be

sure how ironstone erodes from the valley sides and they serve as the basic raw

material for the iron industry, which has flourished in the area.

Greater parts of the plateau surface are formed over the Ajali sandstone,

but the mesas formed on the Nsukka formations. The steep valley section which

are more than one hundred meters deep, often expose the contact between the

overlying Nsukka formation and “Ajali” sandstone (Umeji, 1980:113).

Underlying the Ajali formation is the mamu formation. This is another coal

bearing parallel sequence, mostly carbonaceous (Umeji, 1980). Litho logically,

they consist of sandstones, sandy shale, mudstone, coal seams and shale. Around

the Ezimo area there are some borings, which reveal a poorly developed

cyclothymiacs sequence (Ofomata 1978:51).

Simpson (1954) observed that most of Nigerians coal seams are found

within the manu formation. Ofomata discovered that this seam has a maximum

thickness of 1.98m and has produced a small waterfall. He admits that it is

tempting to correlate this thick seam with the number three seam in the Enugu

mines which is the current zone of mining activity (Ofomata, 1978). Nwachukwu

69

(1972) in his study of tectonic evolution of the Benue trough observed that a mild

tectonic movement must have taken place in the area during the Cinemania.

HISTORY OF NSUKKA

No person is an island, the origin of Nsukka like that of many pre-colonial

Igbo societies is rather a puzzle. Their tradition of origin appears to be full of

speculations owing to the fact that the people of Nsukka had not developed the

art of writing before the advent of the Europeans. Their account of origin and

immigration are drawn mainly from oral traditions. There are two major claims

of origin and other minor versions of traditions of origin in Nsukka.

The first version of origin is that of Igala origin. According to this tradition

of origin, Asadu Attah of “Igala” has four sons, the first son settled at a place

called Okpuje, the second son settled at a place called Obukpa and the third son

settled at Eha-Alumona while the forth son known as Ideke Asadu settled at

Nsukka.

Okpuje, Obukpa, Eha-Alumona, Nsukka, Edem-Ani, Lejja, Opi, Okwutu,

Obimo, Ibaghwa-Ani, Ihe-Owerre, Eha-Ndiagu, Ede Obara and so on are

presently towns in Nsukka local government Area. This tradition of origin from

Igala had influenced the names of Nsukka, Okpuje, Eha-Alumona and Obuka

people to a reasonable extent.

The second major version of tradition of origin traced the origin of Nsukka

to Nri in Aniocha local government area. According to this tradition, ezeoguda

the son of eze nri migrated from Nri and settled at Umuezeguda in Nkpunano

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Nsukka. He came with the younger brother Eze-Okpaka Nweze Nsi, the father

and founder of a section of Eha-Alumona.

To support this tradition of origin from Nri. Attamah Ezeoguda once stated

that during festival held annually in Nsukka, the people of Eha-Alumona usually

sent to him the dried liver of antelopes, hares, cows, and bush cows. They

consumed part of the offering and sent the remaining part to Nri through Eze

Obimo, the Onyishi Nkpologu and Onyishi Ugbene.

In the same development, Igala and Nri tradition of origin spread to

Nsukka. Some clans in Nsukka still claim tradition of origin from elsewhere, they

include Umuoyo, Isiakpu, and the smiting village of Umuibogwa and Umuise.

Umuoyo clan in Nru claims that they migrated from Nimbo in Uzo-Uwani Local

Government Area. They are called “Umuoyo Nrobu na-akpu ite” (Umuoyo the

pot makers). According to tradition, the first man that migrated from Nrobu to

Umuoyo was “Oyo” and this is the reason why the name is Umuoyo (the sons of

Oyo).

Still another clan that claims independent tradition of origin in Nsukka is

Isiakpu in Nkpunano. According to the tradition, Isiakpu migrated from Okpuje

Asadu, the only link they have with Okpuje Asadu presently is that they attend

the annual festival celebrated in honour of Ugwu Okpuje and have right to collect

some of the yams contributed to Attamah Ugwu of Okpuje Asadu during the

feastival.

Moreover, Umuibogwa and Umuise in Ihe-owerre are also blacksmith who

claim they originated from nowhere and that God created them where they are

71

living now. They also claim that the act of blacksmithing was given to them by

God.

Furthermore, another version about the history of Nsukka is from D Hartle.

The excavation he carried out at the University of Nigeria Nsukka Agricultural

farm, yielded evidence of early human occupation. When further analysis of the

finding were carried out on the material artifacts recovered by Professor Hartle, it

showed they bear close resemblance of the material artifact of Nsukka today.

According to professor Hartle the materials include “unfired vessels, potsherd

and are much like those once used in the area (Nsukka today) (Ezike, 2001).

The University of Nigeria Agricultural farm site yielded dates of 2,555BC

+ 130 and 1469BC + 115. These were the earliest known pottery, both fired and

unfired pottery continued to a depth of more than 0.9 meters. Most importantly,

charcoal was discovered which yielded radio carbon dates of 4885 + 140Bp and

3410 + 11Bp.

In the early days, the people practiced typically traditional religion, but in

recent years there has been a shift from traditional religion to Christianity.

Traditionally, the people practice their religion without shame. Within every

community will be seen shrines dedicated to various gods and deities. The people

believe in the supreme God called “Chineke” and other lesser gods/shrines which

include ohe Nsukka, nkwo Nsukka, uroko, nwadialoke, aboshi, omabe, ataba,

ajaa, obodo ike and so on.

In other words, most of the history of Nsukka from earliest times depends

a lot on oral tradition and archaeological reconnaissance and excavation. The

72

colonial administrations started the collection of these traditions but they were

grossly limited, due to lack of understanding of the people and their ways as well

as language and cultural barriers. Ethnographic materials that have been

uncovered do help in reconstruction of our history.

The Nsukka people do not have many oral traditions which support

migration from far places; many actually believe that their existence started with

the existence of the soil. This may explain our constant refrences to the earth

“ala” in most cases. In a report written by a political officer, he claims that no

two villages claim a common ancestor and in all cases the finding is that they

assumed to have arisen from the earth “ala” (si n’ala puta0) (Afigbo 1983). Dc

Ugwu (1964) in his book “This is Nsukka,” he made a conscious effort to prove

this fact.

Be that as it may be archaeology has yielded a lot of materials for the

reconstruction of the Nsukka past. In 1973 – 74 a number of sites were

extensively surveyed including Udunedem, Nsukka, Okpuje, Orba, Obimo, and

Nkpologwu (Eze Uzomaka, 1996). She added, Isiugwu Obukpa rock shelter

which is north of Nsukka was excavated in 1964. About 369 artifacts were

discovered including fourteen crudely worked stone tools. The stone tools

resembled that which was discovered at Ezi Ukwu Ukpa rock shelter in Afikpo

which has been dated about 3000BC. Some potsherds were also discovered.

These dates from excavations in 1964 is so helpful to the history of the Nsukka

people and suggest a village/farming way of life at least 500 years ago. This

supports some claims that Nsukka was populated about 4500 years ago.

73

On the other hand, Enugu-Ezike has attracted a lot of attention in the

attempt to account for the peopling of the Nsukka area. In 1953, its population

was put at 61,000 with an average density of more than 800 persons per square

mile (Afigbo, 1978). It is considered the most densely populated rural village

group in western Africa. For this reason ethnography has been inclined to regard

it as an area of early and probably independent settlement (Forde et al, 1950:28).

By the third millennium BC Nsukka seems to have attained the Neolithic

stage of development (Eze Uzomaka, 1996). Hartle (1967:143) postulates that the

cultural assemblages began some time during the early Neolithic at a time when

the Neolithic cultural inventory is simply added to a late stage of Sangoan

development. The farm site at Nsukka which was dated 2,555BC is obviously a

well developed Neolithic. Afigbo (1981:78) believes, however, that Nsukka

people had attained such a level of social and economic stability as would enable

them to perpetuate their kind over the area and around unless brought under

overwhelming pressure and either driven out or exterminated (Ezeuzomaka,

1996:38)

To clarify a point here, a lot of works need to be carried out on the history

of Nsukka people. We can only reach a reasonable conclusion when more

evidence is turned up by researchers both linguistic, ethnographic and

archaeological research.

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SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

There is a broad similarity between the accounts of the working of village

democracy in different parts of Igbo land. All reflect the respect paid to age and

experience and the respect paid to wealth which could be institutionalized in

different ways such as the purchase of titles. The different political institutions in

the communities such as the age grade, Umuada, titled men gave different forms

of political weight to different sections of the community (Isichei, 1976:71).

Prior to the advent of the Europeans, Nsukka people have no chief that saw

to the affairs of the area but they had several institutions that helped them

organize the activities of the town. The town is divided into villages, which were

sub-divided into kindred or family lineage. Though there is no centralized

political authority, leadership is by the titled men (elders) otherwise known as the

“Oha” and the “Ozioko” who are bearers of “Ofo” the symbol of divine authority.

The governance of the town was not vested on one man; though the oldest

village has certain privileges. It did not present or produce a paramount chief

during any case affecting the whole town, the village heads would meet and

discuss effectively the issues involved.

After arriving at a conclusion, each village representative would go home

to discuss the decision reached with his own respective community. All adult

male and sometime very aged females were entitled to attend the village level

meetings. The meetings were normally held in the village square or center.

Another group which though small in numerical strength but important is

the family unit. Here each man heads the decision making of his family for

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humanization and socialization in a person’s life. It is thus the bedrock of every

social and political community (Aniakor, 1979:20).

As earlier stated, the basic unit of Nsukka community is the minimal

lineage which consists of a man and his children. The maximal lineage consists

of an association of people of both sexes, comprising all the known descendant of

a single known male ancestor in an unbroken male line within the linage, men are

supreme in the conduct of lineage affairs and rituals. This is partly because a

woman is obliged to marry outside the lineage; she is then separated from her

lineage and is less able to attend the lineage rituals. The maximal lineage is the

basic unit of clan structure. A clan consists of one or more families related by

births of origin, or sometimes with attached lineages related by kinship. The unity

of such clans depends upon mutual collaboration in the worship of common

ancestors (Onu, 2002).

Traditionally, the only social hierarchy was by age conduct towards elders

that were further than mere respect. However, every man who was the potential

head of his lineage should have lived long enough.

Next in the political organization of Nsukka is the “Umuada”. This group

is made up of women born in the town and married within or outside but in very

close neighbouring towns. They were charged with the affairs of the women in

general. But they also went as far as making sure that women married into the

town from other towns were conforming to the norms of the town.

Matters that could not be settled within the family unit or circle are usually

referred to “Umuada” minimal lineage. It is when all attempt at peaceful

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settlement at “Obuogwa” that the matter is then referred to the village assembly.

The village judgement is binding on all its members. Anybody who fails to

accept the decisions of the village in most cases is ostracized from the

community. All forms of individual and group relationship with the affected

person is severed.

The village is one of the administrative units; each village forms a

territorial unit. The administration of the village is in the hands of the village

council. The council is composed of elders, the priest, the heads of “Umunna”

and men of integrity and proven substance.

The council is politically autonomous; it has the last words in matters of

security and wars, peace and general welfare. Their meetings are held in the

village square where only adults are admitted, whatsoever decision are taken is

announced by the oldest man (Onyishi) in the meeting often regarded as the

village head.

The age grade set/sets are another organ of administration. They perform

public duties like clearing of paths, cutting forests and bushes, acting as village

police and guarding the village. They also provide mutual help and exercise

discipline over their members in cases of misbehaviour and maladjustment.

Among the people, several sets composed of more mature adult males acts

as police and executive agents of the council of elders. They enforce penalties in

cases of stealing and impiety/impious offences, collecting of fines, and

sometimes demanding the passage of new laws.

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The people of Nsukka have penalties for every offence committed for

instance, stealing of farm produce will result in the offender being beaten

publicly and dragged along the road until he or she dies. Matters regarding

tradition, custom, and ritual were referred to the council of elders, while the

village assembly decided important matters of policy affecting the life of the

villagers.

Meetings of the assembly were not regular. They met in the village square

(Otobo) when necessary at the sounding of the village gong. Moreover, in

Nsukka town, title taking exists. The people honour their illustrious sons and

daughters with titles which they merited. And other titles which include ozo,

Ishiwu, Igwe, Onyishi, Ama, and Attama are conferred on men of integrity,

wisdom and elders of the land.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN NSUKKA AND THE EVIRONS

Traditionally, the people of Nsukka like every other traditional Igbo

communities have various ways of livelihood peculiar to them. During the

precolonial period, the Nsukka people have unique way of sustaining themselves.

Some of such ways includes palm wine tapping, trading, basket and mat making,

weaving, smiting, smelting, pottery making and other crafts like wood carving

and broom making.

During this period, economic activities were done on subsistence basis and

so, most products were basically for domestic consumption. Farming

nevertheless is the main and central occupation of the people of Nsukka. The

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original vegetations had been cleared to satisfy the need of expanding vegetation

either for cultivation or some other purposes.

The people produce various staple food items which include white yam –

Discores Dumentorum, cocoyam (Nkashi) – Cololasia Esculenta, Maize – Zea

mays, pepper – Capskum Annum, yellow yam (Oku), three leaf yam (Una) and

cassava – Mainhot Esculenta, among others. Our economic trees include, oil bean

tree (Ukpaka), palm trees, kola not, coconut tree, “Icheku” – Diahum Guieanse,

“Ujuru” Ivringia Gabonesis, African Guinear pepper “Uda” Xylopia Aethiopicum

(Ezike, 2001).

In those early days when there were no white collar jobs or any

government establishments for employment, the people depended so much on

agriculture for sustenance. The status of any Nsukka man then depends to a large

extent on his achievements as a farmer.

Another aspect of the people’s economic life is animal husbandry. Nsukka

community accord a lot of honour to a man who has large herds of cattle, sheep,

and other livestock like goat, pig, cow, poultry and so on.

Presently farming in Nsukka has experienced serious set backs as a result

of modernization. Many able bodied young men and women, who form the

productive sector of the population, migrate from rural to urban areas in search of

white-collar jobs. The effect is that only the aged people are left at home in the

village. Thus leaving large numbers of hectares uncultivated. But in spite of all

this, the people still produce abundant food for its teaming population and for

export to big cities like Enugu, Onitsha, Port Harcourt, Abuja and Lagos to

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mention but a few. And these were mostly produced by the use of crude

implement, which are still very much in use in Nsukka today.

The people of Nsukka also engage heavily in weaving. This practice has

gained wide recognition among the people in the olden days and mostly women

dominate it. Apart from weaving cloths, the people made mats and baskets but on

a relatively small scale they are produced. They also engage in smelting and

smithing of iron. Above all, most of the people engage themselves in trading.

They have notable big and small markets where most of their products are sold.

Apart from trading, many people engage in wine tapping and processing of palm-

oil. This is largely due to the abundance of palm trees in the area.

Absence of regular and adequate water supplies either pipe borne water or

flowing stream is the main problem Nsukka has been facing or encountering

since time immemorial.

In summary therefore, the people of Nsukka make maximum use of their

natural endowments. Their fertile land coupled with a favourable climate

encourages farming and other activities as practiced in the area.

Plate 1 Vegetation of Nsukka

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Sustainable tourism development in Nsukka can be embedded on

archaeological and other cultural and natural resources as presented in this

project. Nsukka and its environs is endowed with abundant archeological and

other cultural and natural attractions. The researcher could not present all the

tourist products in the area, the ones presented were those considered most

suitable for the relevance and volume of this project.

The researcher presented archaeological resources like iron smelting sites,

shrines and grooves, abandoned settlement sites, rock shelters and caves and also

explained their relevance and contribution to sustainable tourism development.

Also presented and analyzed is the University of Nigeria Nsukka archaeological

museum, other cultural and natural attractions like festivals, clay pot making, and

rivers.

Also presented is the changes and continuity in festivals, archeological

resources and sustainable tourism development in Nsukka and its environs, the

impact of sustainable tourism development, benefit of tourism and finally the

problems and prospects of sustainable tourism as it concerns Nsukka and the

environs.

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IRON SMELTING SITES

LEJJA IRON SMELTING SITE

Nsukka area has so many iron smelting sites which are potential tourist

havens. These sites were left behind by the people who inhabited the area before

the present inhabitants. The area has a range of iron smelting sites like lejja,

Umundu and Opi. Iron smelting was an important occupation in this area,

although only three iron smelting sites were listed in this project.

Lejja iron smelting site can be located at Dunoka village in Nsukka local

government area. Due to its importance in understanding the early technology of

the people, Lejja Iron smelting site need to be properly harnessed for tourists who

are interested in cultural tourism. it is one of the largest iron smelting sites in

Nsukka and its environs and Enugu state in general. Cylindrical slag blocks are

the most obvious remains of a past thriving iron industry in the area. Dunoka

must have been a great smelting site because of the massive numbers of the

cylindrical blocks arranged in front of the masquerade house (Eze-

Uzomaka1996:51)

Some of the iron slags were appropriately preserved by the indigenes and

according to Rapheal Otti,they call the mother stones (Nne Nkpume) and were

mostly used as seats. Anozie (1979) made it emphatically clear that the

cylindrical blocks could be furnace bottoms in which slags accumulated during

smelting or this blocks could be part of a pit in which iron ore and fuel was

packed and reduced.

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It is evident from the foregoing how important Lejja iron smelting site is

for archaeology and tourism development in Nsukka and the environs. Its

preservation should become a matter of urgency. So many works have been

carried on in this site by notable archaeologists from the University of Nigeria

Nsukka. Among them are Prof Okafor, Dr. Anozie and Dr. Mrs. EzeUzomaka.

Their research is an indication of how important this site is to archaeologists and

tourism. One of the major problems of the iron smelting site is bad road. The

government should do something to this effect. When this is done the

development of the site will be ideal for sustainable tourism, it will attract other

investors and will improve the economy of the local community.

UMUNDU IRON SMELTING SITE

Umundu Seem to be the First Iron smelting site dated in Nsukka and the

environs. According to Okafor (1992:50) research carried out at Umundu in 1990

fielded an earlier date for Umundu iron smelting industry.

Several scattered iron slags could still be seen every where in this site but

they are gradually facing extinction. At the front of community secondary school

Plate 2 Iron Smelting site at Otobo Dunoka, Lejja

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Umundu, numerous pieces of iron slags could be seen scattered along the roads.

There are still sites in the town where iron smelting had been carried out in the

past.

Umundu iron smelting site proved that smelting continued quite late in this

area (Okafor and Phillips 19992:688) and had been constant for at least two or

three centuries (Anozie 1983:184). This early iron smelting site could also be

potential tourist attractions as tourists would like to visit this area during their

tour of Nsukka to appreciate the good works of the former inhabitants of the area.

OPI IRON SMELTING SITE.

Another important smelting site is at Opi Nsukka. According to Eze

Uzomaka (1996:56) Opi is located about 7km south east of Nsukka. A lot of

cylindrical blocks of slag, which are found at Opi are very similar to those in

Lejja.

Plate 3 The researcher examining slags at Umundu

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At the Opi customary court, slag blocks and debris covered an extensive

area. 2km east of Afor Opi (market) cylindrical slag blocks have been arranged

into a shrine at Odinaso Idi Opi village. These slag blocks are mostly dark grey in

colour and some are covered with green substance.

Considering the nature of Opi iron smelting site, the management becomes

imperative. There is need for public archeologist in the area to educate the people

on the importance of what is around them. Opi iron smelting site is a potential

tourist attraction which could be secured as a research center for students on

practical lessons and field works.

SHRINES AND GROOVES

Shrines according to Oxford Learners English dictionary is a place that

people visit because it is connected with something important to them. In a

layman’s definition of the word, it is a sacred place where religious and ritual

objects or offering are made or kept. Shrines and sacred grooves play an

important role in the daily life of Nsukka people. Before the advent of

Plate 4 Cylindrical slags in front of a shrine at odinaso Idi Opi

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Christianity in Nsukka land, the people of Nsukka practiced traditional religion to

the cure.

In the shrines and grooves they commune with their ancestors and the

deities of the land, as such it is held sacred. They had and still have strong belief

in the existence of a supreme being called”Chineke” because his nature is beyond

human comprehension. Nsukka people never believed much in carved images

and no molded form can hardly be located in all the shrines.

Due to their religious belief system various types of shrines dot almost all

the villages and the communities in Nsukka and its environs. In almost all the

villages, one finds one or more shrines dedicated to one deity or the other. Some

of this sacred grooves and shrines have survived up to date in spite of the

increasing rate of natural and cultural resources degradation in this part of the

world.

According to Okpoko (2007) grooves and shrines are believed to be the

dwelling place of spirits, in many instances many grooves assume sacredness

because of their attendant shrine. This research work emphasizes not only the

value of sacred grooves and shrines but also emphasizes their contributions to

sustainable tourism developments.

The importance of shrines and grooves to the people under study lies in the

fact that the deities in the shrines are to them a source of protection, procreation

and provider in time of their need. To archaeologists grooves and shrines are

valuable heritage resource as well as important source of archaeological

formation (Okpoko 2001.)

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ADORO ERO SHRINE

Adoro Ero shrine is located at Alor-uno, one of the communities that made

up Nsukka local government area. This shrine is about four kilometers from

Nsukka town along the left hand side of the road along Nsukka /Idah express way

on the road to Kogi state.

This shrine according to my informant, Mr. Ezugwu Ugwoke has a god

and a goddess. The god is the one at Alor-uno and the goddess is the one at Alor-

Agu called Nwada Adoro. According to Mr. Ezugwu, both god and goddess are

deities of war and vengeance. No one could give an accurate history of the shrine

while some attribute the origin of the shrine to a charm constructed by a

renowned herbalist from Edem-Ani, a neighboring village when they had a war

with Okpuje community that enabled them to gain a total victory over Okpuje

people after the slaughtering of seven human heads to the charm, others believed

that the deity came out of the ground and that the history is as old as the

community itself.

The worship of the shrine is mostly on Afor market days, the day chosen

by the deity itself. Nobody approaches the shrine except the chief priest (Attama

Adoro) and that is only done after the performing of some rituals. On the

approach to the shrine there are evidences of household properties like beds,

sheets of zinc, mattresses, pillows, pots, mortars, pots, basins, cups, brooms,

motorcycles, bicycles, barrows and all forms of material, including domestic

animals like goats, sheep, cows, fowls and hens.

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These items of materials according to my informant were properties

confiscated by the deity from its victims.

This shrine is feared by almost everybody in Nsukka and the environs

because of its deadly nature because it kills anybody who happens to be a victim

and confiscates the person’s property. This shrine is an archaeological site of

potential tourism attractions, if well developed it will be of equal tourism

attraction to Oshun shrine in Oshogbo and Omoukwu temple in Ohafia, Abia

state.

OHE NSUKKA SHRINE

Ohe Nsukka shrine is in Odoru, Nsukka; one of the villages in the Nsukka town.

The exact location of this shrine is between St. Cyprian special science school

and Ikenga hotels limited. According to my informant Mr. Anthony Nnaji only

the umakashi people in the whole of Nsukka can attain to the priesthood of the

shrine.

Plate 5 The researcher with an informant Ozor Raymond Ugwuanyi

88

According to my informant, the deity is a god of war as well as a god of

protection. This god takes care of tribal wars for the people of Nsukka in the

olden days and also the unifying force for Nsukka people. All the people

interviewed in Umuakashi could not give an accurate history of the deity. All

together the majority were of the opinion that the shrine is as old as the whole of

Nsukka itself. It was this god that is believed in the olden days to have given

Nsukka victory in all the inter-tribal wars with their enemies.

According to Mr. Nnaji, in the olden days a festival is held annually in

honour of this god called ( Egba Ohe), Ohe festival. In such festivals there are

always invitations of friends and well wishers. During the festival there is also

the demonstration of war dance by the village warriors in the shrine premises.

Although the ceremony and the festivals are no longer effective due to

Christianity and modern civilization, the shrine is worth visiting by any cultural

tourist to Nsukka and the environs.

IDENYI NKWO SHRINE

Idenyi Nkwo Shrine is located in Amankwo Village in Nru Nsukka. It is not far

from the Nsukka main township. Idenyi Nkwo deity is a goddess. According to

Ozo Mama Asadu, Idenyi Nkwo is the wife of Ohe Nsukka, another deity in the

town.

Idenyi Nsukka also happens to be a goddess of war, very aggressive in defense

and handles all criminal cases. This goddess has played an important role in

controlling crime in Nsukka as a whole. It is feared because if it kills a victim, it

confiscates every thing that belongs to the victim. It has in many ways acted as a

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law enforcement agent to the community. It is also believed to protect Nsukka

people from harm and dangers.

Ozo mama Asadu and others interviewed were divided in their opinion

regarding the origin of the deity, how ever majority was of the opinion that the

deity came out of the ground. Presently it is the Amankwo people that produce

the chief priest to the shrine.

Idenyi Nkwo has several festivals attached to it, of which the first and the

most important is the Nkwo Onunu festival. This festival is normally held on

Nkwo market day and is celebrated all over the entire community. However

during the festival, young girls will dance to melodious tunes in the Nkwo market

square half naked while the young and unmarried men watch them, latter on the

young men will choose wives from the maidens.

It is then generally believed that the deity is provider of good wife. This

festival is no longer celebrated today as it had been in the time past. The Nkwo

Onunu shrine remains an important archaeological site and a potential tourist

attraction which when properly developed will attract tourist far and wide as an

evidence of our cultural heritage.

NONOKWUNYE SHRINE

The Nonokwunye shrine is located at Ezzi-0zzi village in the 0zzi Edem quarters

of Edem community, one of the communities that made up Nsukka local

government area. The location of the shrine is about two kilometers from the

former Igwe C N Ezea palace along the Edem-Abbi road. The distance is about

six kilometers from main Nsukka town.

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According to a key informant and also the chief priest to the deity Attama

Marcel Ododoegbe, Nonokwunye is a god of protection, moral justice and equity.

Some of the visible items of material in the shrine comprise assorted clay pots of

various makes and designs, animal skins of various shapes and sizes, rusted and

crudely made iron gongs, cooking hearth and assorted animal skins and fowl

feathers.

A critical examination of some of the material artifacts signifies that they

existed or started to exist within the Iron Age period.

The chief priest could not give an account of the historical origin of the

shrine but was of the opinion that the shrine is as old as the community itself.

This shrine also is a fascinating tourist attraction and is capable of generating

tourist traffic from far and wide in the event of sustainable tourism developments

SACRED GROOVE

The name of the sacred groove is “Ede dim eje” forest. It is located at Edem-Ani

quarters of Edem. One of the communities that made up Nsukka local

Plate 6 Nonokwunye Shrine at Ozzi Edem

91

government area. The groove is situated about one and half kilometers from

Ofulonu junction at the right hand side of the Nsukka –Ofuluonu –Edem road.

The groove is the shrine of the rain deity “Ede dim eje ogoiri”. According

to my informant Ozo Raymond Ugwuanyi, the main component of the shrine is a

stone shaped like a dwarfed man which was taken from a river in Igalla land.

On the radius where this deity is situated, there is an occasional rumbling

of thunder and lightening that strikes any intruder down on approaches to the

shrine, and this makes the groove fearful and sacred.

Also from my informant the groove houses such animals as monkies,

snakes, Antelopes and gazelles. One of the taboos surrounding this groove is that

no one is even allowed to fetch firewood in the groove or to do any cultivation

within the perimeter of the groove. In the time past a festival called “Egba Dim

eje ” (Dim eje festival ) was celebrated annually in honour of this god of rain.

Plate 7 Ede –Dimeje Sacred Grove

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ABANDONED SETTLEMENT SITES

Abandoned settlement in archaeology is defined as traces of human habitation

which is evidenced by the presence of a cooking hearth, presence of potsherds,

iron slags or spatial clustering of artifacts like bones, tools, or any signs of past

human activity.

Two abandoned settlement were located and documented in this research

work for possible excavations and sustainable tourism developments. One is at

Onueke in Ozzi-Edem and the second one is at Igoro Ugwu in Akpa Edem both

of them in Edem, one of the communities that make up Nsukka local government

area.

Research conducted in Onueke in Ozzi-Edem indicated signs of earlier

human habitation in the site as evidenced by the presence of various economic

trees, pears, kola nuts trees, (Orji), oil bean trees and palm trees which dotted the

entire surroundings.

An informant Mr. Mathias Onah informed me that there had been a

legendry story of a village called Umuogwali who once inhabited the area but

were wiped away by a horrible epidemic. Other signs of human habitation on this

site comprise broken pots shell as most of the area is being converted into farm

lands.

The abandoned settlement at Igoro Ugwu-Akpa Edem was one believed to

have been inhabited by two clans Agbana and Amugwu whom an informant told

me were all taken captive in intertribal wars in the olden days.

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At the area abandoned is also the presence of economic trees and at the

foot of one of the trees which the researcher assumed was once a village square is

the presence of three stones which in archaeology is classified as manipots. Other

evidences of once human habitation there also include scattered broken

potsherds. These abandoned settlements are potential tourism attraction as well as

potential excavation sites for archaeologists.

ROCK SHELTERS AND CAVES

OKPU ROCK SHELTER

Okpu rock shelter is located at the outskirts of Amadimba in Akpa Edem,

A community in Nsukka local government area. It is about 7km from the main

Nsukka town. This rock shelter is situated at the middle of a hill and can

accommodate from fifty to hundred people inside it.

Within the depression of the shelter is a spring which has its source from

the hill on top of the rock shelter. As it flow down it tumbles like a water fall in

front of the rock shelter. According to Mr. Jonathan Omada, the noise of the

Plate 8 Abandoned settlement site at Onueke Ozzi Edem

94

spring flowing down and tumbling like spring water fall could be noticed very

well during the raining season.

Okpu rock shelter is a potential tourist attraction. The beauty of the rock

shelter coupled with the water that is constantly splashing from the rock is the

most enthralling thing that would attract tourist to the site.

Other features of the rock shelter are flora and fauna like monkeys,

Antelopes, Gazelles, Squirrels, Grass cutters and other games.

OBIMO CAVE

Obimo is one of the communities that make up Nsukka local government

area and is situated west of Nsukka town. The town has wonderful landscape

features surrounded by hills to the extent that their market place is located on top

of a hill. The hills that surround the community influences their life styles both in

farming and economic activities.

Plate

Plate 9 The Researcher inside Okpu Rock Shelter

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Obimo cave is located on a hill behind community secondary school

Obimo. The length of the cave is very long but presently it is suffering from lack

of maintenance. The entrance of the cave has been half covered with sand. An

informant, Mr. Bath Ugwu told the researcher that when the cave was in proper

use it can contain up to two hundred people.

The informant told the researcher that the cave was where some Obimo

people lived during tribal wars and it was inside the cave that those people kept

their war implements.

The Obimo cave considering it length and position on a hill if well

developed will be a very attractive tourist site. The nature of the landscape is also

another beauty which no tourist will like to miss.

OBUKPA CAVE

Obukpa cave in their local language is called “Ugwu ogba. The cave is located at

Isi Ugwu village in Obukpa a few kilometers North of Nsukka town near Ibagwa-

Ani. Obukpa cave possess a spectacular rock landscapes that would excite the

imagination of any tourist who visits, the area.

The site is located towards the top of rather steep rocky hills and because

of the nature of the stone debris which indicates that early stone tools were

probably manufactured there; it raised the interest of an archaeologist, Prof.

Hartle who conducted an excavation on the site in 1964. However an informant

Mr. Anthony Ossai told the researcher that the cave was where some villagers

lived during the Nigerian civil war.

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According to him numerous and dangerous animals like Pythons are

currently residing in the chamber because people are no longer living in the cave.

It would be fascinating to develop Obukpa cave for holiday making. The site is a

potential tourist attraction which when developed will play a great role in

sustainable tourism developments.

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA ARCHAEOLOGICAL

MUSEUM

The university of Nigeria archaeological museum is beautifully situated

and is located in the very heart of the university, very close to Ajanwachukwu

hall, faculty of Agriculture, Energy center, Okeke and Isa Kaita halls. The

museum houses the finest collection of Nigerian Arts.

The museum is presently under reconstruction but was initially built by

Prof. D. Hartle in the early sixties. The Nsukka archaeological museum is very

Plate 10 Ishi Ugwu Obukpa Cave

97

rich in sculptural, traditional and archaeological materials which have been

preserved in the University of Nigeria archaeological museum and institute of

African studies respectively. The museum contains some of the largest known

stone tools in Africa.

Among them are the Ugwuele stone tools, which are today regarded as the

oldest stone tools in sub-sahara Africa. It also houses some bronze and terracotta

heads and stone sculptures. Also contained in the museum are the recovered

artifacts from excavations carried out at different places by notable archaeologists

from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka like Prof. Okafor, Dr. Ibeanu, Dr. Anozie

and Dr. (Mrs). Eze Uzomaka.

The museum stands in an expanse of land of outstanding natural beauty

and contains the prehistoric finds of the Igbo people of Nigeria. Outside the

archaeological museum is an open air museum of traditional architecture. The

museum also has a restaurant which serves all kinds of delicacies and is

popularly called archaelogical villa by students.

The University of Nigeria Nsukka archaeological museum is an asset for

sustainable tourism development in Nsukka and the environs. The spectacular

tourist center receives a number of good visitors/tourist students on excursion

from other universities. The museum is a good place for relaxation and picnic and

as such has potential for sustainable tourism development .

OTHER CULTURAL AND NATURAL ATTRACTIONS.

Today cultural practices have continued to excite great interest among

tourists. In the realm of these cultural practices is traditional festivals.

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Traditional festivals have been known to represent important resource centers for

participants and admirers. Nsukka and the environs where this research work is

centered is endowed with abundant cultural festivals and traditional dances.

Almost all the local communities in Nsukka have one cultural festival or

traditional dance. The significance of these festivals to the society is the creation

of awareness among the members of the society on the values and contributions

of their rich cultural past. These traditional festivals still takes place in their

original contexts and unlike modern festivals do not take place at approved

venues or appointed dates.

OMABE FESTIVAL

Omabe festival is celebrated between January and March every year by

different communities within the Nsukka geo-political zone. It is one of the most

recognized feasts within Nsukka and the environs. A special preparation for this

festival is embarked on by both men and women while the men more especially

the youth engage in the clearing of paths and the repairing of dilapidated Omabe

house, the women take months to prepare for the necessary food items to grace

the occasion.

The festival begins with the public announcement made by designated

town criers to intimate the villagers on the arrival of the festival. After the

announcement the youths engage in the clearing of paths and repairing Omabe

house, while the old men will be busy putting the Omabe masquerade in proper

shape, the women engage in preparation of food and other items for merriments.

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On the actual day of the Omabe festival, the whole villagers will assemble

on the village square along with all their invited guests. While the women will be

waiting, the men retire to the Omabe forest to prepare for the days event. The

men appear in various attires usually Wrapper/Abada and decorate themselves

with various colourful beads of different sizes. The men that will personify the

Omabe will rub white and yellow powders e.g. Odo and Nzu on their faces. To

the men that day is probably the happiest day of their life.

In addition every family invites their relations to the occasion. Pigs, goats,

fowls, and bush meats were killed to grace the occasion.

The first of the Omabe cult to appear is the Oriokpa which goes around

harassing and beating people with canes. After that all the other masquerades will

Plate 11 Ego-Ego Masquerade on display during Omabe festival

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start arriving to the square in their order of seniority and importance. The first

group is the Echaricha Mma otherwise known as Ego-Ego Oriya. It is a

masquerade of beauty and elegance. It is then followed by Mgbedike, Ogaranya

Mma, Edi Ogbene, and the last among the cult is the Ogwudire, it looks fearful

and diabolic.

The Omabe festival last for eight days in which all the afore mentioned

masquerades will be going around the entire villages dancing and jubilating,

while at every village square an enormous crowd of children, men and women

will gather to watch the artistic display of these masquerades. All the occasion is

accompanied by gunshots.

The entire span period for Omabe is about six months from between

February and March to September and October every year. Omabe festival is a

commemoration of ancestral worship in Nsukka. In the time past foreigners came

from far and wide to grace this occasion and to watch the artistic performance of

Mgbedike and Ego-Ego- Oriya during the festival.

THE NEW YAM FESTIVAL

In Nsukka and the environs, the new yam festival is celebrated on the fifth

month “Onwa Ise” of the traditional year. In Nsukka area just as in the whole of

Igbo land yam is given a place of prime importance. It is unquestionably the most

honoured of all food crops in Nsukka community.

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Within Nsukka and the environs new yam festival is a unique and

important one as it marks the offering of food as well as other items in gratitude

to the god of yam.

During the festival Nsukka people come back from far and wide to grace

this occasion. One month to the festival, town criers go round the village squares

announcing that the new yam festival is around the corner. On the actual day of

the feast, customarily in the afternoon roasted yam is eaten along with palm oil or

Ukpaka soup. In the course of the festival people share emotions and sentiments

as well as merriments together.

During the evening of that day various cultural activities are always

displayed and dances are held in village squares accompanied by new Yam

masquerades. Meanwhile, eating and drinking take place in every household. The

food prepared this time is pounded Yam eaten with Egusi or Okro soup. All the

celebrants invite friends’ well wishers and relations to celebrate with them.

Worthy of note is the fact that no indigene of Nsukka eats new yam until

after the new yam festivals. Like other festivals, the new Yam festival draws

spectators from distant lands. The local economy of the villages is boosted during

such occasions. This is because the occasions are usually marked by spectacular

displays, enjoyment of music, food and wine.

THE ONUNU FESTIVAL

The Onunu festival is a time in Nsukka when the people give respect to

Nkwo Nsukka and as such it is otherwise called and known as Nkwo Onunu

festival. Among the festivals celebrated in Nsukka area, Onunu is more

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outstanding because it is the only festival celebrated the same day by the three

communities that make up Nsukka town. Onunu festival enjoys wide popularity

and uniformity in Nsukka.

However, this festival is celebrated on the tenth month of the traditional

year (onwa iri) and must be on Nkwo day, one of the four market days in Igbo

land. The activity that marks the festival apart from the ritual aspect is the

wrestling bouts among the young men on the eve of the festival. In the wrestling

bouts which were organized to usher in the greater festival, young men took part

to show their strength and masculinity. The wrestling bouts were all for fun and

never to settle scores.

Moreover the Onunu festival is also a moment of exhibition for the

daughters of Nsukka who are ripe for marriage. On the actual day of the festival

it is celebrated with a lot of dancing and music. Many cultural dance groups on

the evening of the day will converge at the Nkwo square, the venue of the festival

with a lot of fanfare, celebration and dancing as each cultural group tries to out

do the other in artistic performance. Also on that day the women will appear in

their best dresses and apparels to the scene of the celebration where they will sing

and dance to the tune of music supplied by the IGEDE NKWO group.

Also friends, relations and well wishers are invited from far and wide to

grace and participate in this great and honourable event.

EGBACHUKWU FESTIVAL

Egbachukwu festival is very popular in Edem and Ibagwa-Ani areas of the

local government. This festival is also celebrated between March and April every

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year. It is a festival dedicated to the God of creation and from that is generated

the name Egbachukwu (gods festival).

All the villages within the two communities take time to prepare for this

festival. Between January to March intense preparation is embarked on by young

men and certain age grades on getting their masquerade ready for the eventful

day. Public announcements are made about two months ahead of the occasion to

give ample time for all preparations.

On the actual day of the festival starting from 12pm all will start

converging at central school Edem-Ani known as “Nweke Edem” for the glorious

event. It is on this venue that the climax of the festival takes place. From 1pm

down wards, such cultural groups and masquerades like Ebule Umuchoke,

Ojolima Owerre, Atu Isu, Ekwe Umuchagwo, Adaka Owerre, Agbangbada

masquerade and Arichad Odojo will start arriving to the venue for the day’s

event. From 3pm to 7pm the whole arena turns into a bee hive of celebration and

dancing as every group tries to dominate the whole event.

Plate 12 Ekwe Masquerade on display during Egbachukwu festival

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An informant Mr. Uroko Ezema informed the researcher that in the time

past foreigners (white men) came from far and wide to witness the occasion. The

occasion is also marked with drinking as some notable individuals brings kegs of

palm wine and cartons of beer to the arena to share and commemorate with loved

ones and friends.

Customarily friends, relations and well wishers were invited to grace the

occasion.

POTTERY MAKING

Making of pots from clay is an ancient craft which has persisted in Nsukka

and environs. These pottery sites are potential tourist attractions which no

cultural tourist will like to miss as it will avail them the opportunity to encounter

the formation of local clay pots in its elementary form. In this field of study the

Plate 13 Arichad Masquerade on display during Egbachukwu festival

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production of pots is centered on Nrobo, a community about five kilometers from

Nsukka town.

An abundant supply of high quality clay pot is located in this area and

most of the women are clay pot makers. The pots are made without a wheel and

refined without a kiln.

The clay is first well kneaded and mixed with fine sand and then either moulded

or built up with superimposed clay. They are then polished with a fragmented

calabash or an oil bean, the perfect proportional symmetry being achieved by

hand.

An informant, Mrs. Ogoro Onojo said that colouring is by various

methods. The most popular method is by rubbing the sun dried pots with special

red earth or sprinkling it with an infusion of leaves or bark after firing while the

pots are still hot.

The pots are then stacked on a layer of faggots covered with grass and dry

leaves and then fired for 10-15 minutes. The pots are left until the embers are

quite cold. The principal products are pots of various shapes and sizes used

mainly for fetching water, storage, cooking, bathing and rituals.

Plate 14 Pottery making at Nrobo

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BLACKSMITHING

The art of blacksmithing is located in almost all communities in Nsukka

and the environs. Iron smelting abound in the area and that accounts for the

reason why iron smiths abound in the area as smelting is a means to an end, the

pig iron still need to be worked by smiths to turn it into articles for human life.

Blacksmiths in Nsukka produce wide varieties of articles for domestic use,

implements for hunting and for farming, gears for ceremonial occasions and

insignia for religious, social and political offices. Their products include knives,

hoes, diggers, axes, local guns, arrows, and sickle. Iron staff and other ornaments

worn by chiefs were also produced as well as these worn to indicate social

distinction and status which are formed from scrapes.

Plate 15 A blacksmith at his workshop in Owerre –Elu Nsukka

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ADADA RIVERS

Adada river presently has its source from lejja in Nsukka central, and the

river comes out of a very big rock. This river has started attracting tourists,

although domestic tourists. People visit Adada river mostly for picnic and

swimming.

At Nkologwu beside the Adada secondary school, if properly harnessed the

river will promote tourism development of the area, considering the number of

persons and that come from far and wide to swim, have fun and enjoy themselves

in the river. Among them are students from the university of Nigeria Nsukka and

Enugu state university of Science and Technology. Adada river has a hospitable

vegetation that can be utilized as an open air recreation center. The river is a very

big attraction in the area of study.

THE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN

The Garden is located in zoology department at the University of Nigeria

Nsukka. It has a forest that accommodated various types of animals when the

Plate 16 Adada River at Nkpologwu

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Garden was in proper care. The forest is still in existence and contains birds and

other small animals like squirrels, snakes and rabbits. If the Garden is properly

rehabilitated, harnessed and well managed, it will go a long way in boosting the

tourism potential of the university and the entire Nsukka community.

When the Garden was in full operation people came from far and wide to

watch wild life. However any tourist who came for recreation to the Garden may

also like to visit other tourist centers in Nsukka and the environs. Despite the

state of the zoological Garden, many tourists still patronize it but the fact is that

the tourism products are no longer there. I believe that if the university of Nigeria

zoological Garden is well managed and properly harnessed it will go a long way

in boosting the tourism potential of Nsukka and the environs.

LA VIE GARDEN

La-vie garden is located near Nsukka local government head quarters behind the

prison yard area of the local government. The garden is situated on a hill crescent

over looking the University of Nigeria Nsukka Campus.

The garden is an endowed natural landscape of beauty and attractions.

Presently it is being developed into a recreation center with an open air bar and a

restaurant that serves African/Continental dishes.

The natural beauty of the environment and position of the garden makes it

fascinating tourist attraction no tourist would like to miss.

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DATA ANALYSIS

Iron smelting sites are very important archaeological resources and their

abundance in the area under study may indicate settlements either before or

within the Iron Age period. Traditional iron smelting is a complex, skilled,

lenghty and very labour intensive process. Smelting simply expressed is the

process of extracting the ore from the matrix. Iron smelting was a means to an

end, the pig iron still needed to be worked by smiths to turn it into articles for

human use.

The abundance of iron smelting sites in the area under study helps us to

understand the ingenuity and early technology of the people of Nsukka and the

environs.

Ekechukwu (2006) rightly observed that the major tourism products of

developing nations are their cultural and natural heritage endowments.

Fortunately Nsukka and its environs where this research work is centered has a

rich store of these resources which can sustain a viable tourist industry if properly

harnessed and promoted in the international tourism market.

Plate 17 La vie garden ( A place of natural beauty and charm)

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Among the cultural resources with which Nsukka area is blessed are

archaeological sites, sacred grooves and shrines, cultural festivals of various

types and features, museum, as well as other relics that serve to remind us of our

shared heritage from the past.

Sacred grooves and shrines are archeological and cultural resources of

value and importance. They are very important in considering community values

in small towns and villages. The sacred structure is made up of places that

exemplify, typify, and reinforce the every day life patterns and special rituals of

community life.

Abandoned settlement sites are very relevant in archaeology. They are

potential excavation sites where information about the past ways can be

recovered. It can also be a source of potential tourism attraction like the ancient

Benin City wall.

Caves and rock shelters have been of particular interest to archaeologists.

They served as transient and or long term habitation sites for man at various

times in the past.

Consequently caves are believed to have preserved the cultural sequence of

human occupation that made use of cave at some point in time.

This is because most artifacts and eco facts in caves were in situ as they

were not disturbed by the activities of man and animals. On the other hand cave

sites are exceptional sources of data. They had from time to time provided shelter

for human groups and also served as fairly permanent post depositional

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containers for the material residue of human occupation. As a result caves and

rock shelters are excellent locations for test excavations.

The functions of the museum in society can be identified as those relating

to preservation, display, exhibition of objects and materials of art, science and

craft as well as research and education.

Nzewunwa (1983) stated that museums collect and conserve artifacts, entertain

people, and stimulate national interest, protect national heritage and promote

national identity and consciousness. Museums and museums centers are potential

centre of tourist attraction. They are also an authentic sources of information for

archaeologists, historians, sociologists and anthropologist or any one else whose

concern is to study the development of human societies.

Festivals form an integral aspect of tourism and it has been advised by

Wards et al (1994) that the heritage of a people should form the basis of their

tourism development. For a country like Nigeria festivals holds a lot of potentials

for the prospering industry. An indebt analysis of festivals shows that by its very

nature it is one of the art which influences the mind and being of man to an

appreciable extent. As a vital aspect of any culture it has been developed and

refined at various times by different people to attain to its modern forms which

however still respect the traits and characteristics of the originators. Many

festivals in Nsukka can boost and attract tourist interest and development.

Pottery making and black smiting are aspects of our art and culture. In the

olden days clay pots were used for cooking, storing water, bathing and other

rituals. It was also through the art of blacksmithing that man was able to

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manufacture such vital implements as hoes, cutlass, local guns for hunting and

cutlasses and knives for farming and other domestic activities.

Finally man has used rivers since the dawn of civilization as a source of

water, for food, for transport, and for disposing waste. Moreover rivers have been

a source of food since the dawn of civilization. A part from being a rich source of

fish, rivers indirectly aid cultivation with the supply of water for irrigation.

Rivers sustain its own food chain.

Archaeological resources are the major tourism products in this work.

Cultural and natural resources are supportive attraction which when developed

will make the archaeological resources more sustainable. Archaeological

resources in Nsukka and the environs can not be developed in isolation. For it to

achieve the desired sustainable economic objective, it must be developed along

with every other tourism attraction.

CHANGES AND CONTINUITY IN FESTIVALS

All the festivals documented in this research work presently are being

celebrated in different localities at their appointed times, though this time around

with decreased intensity due to modern civilization. Formerly during the Nkwo

Onunu festival young girls used to dance at the Nkwo square half naked in the

watchful eye of all and sundry while prospective husbands take advantage of the

celebration to choose prospective wives from the maidens, today the situation has

changed.

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In the olden days new Yam festival is celebrated in Nsukka by every

family with early Yams cultivated from their farms for that purpose. Today Yams

eaten in Nsukka come from Kogi State; the importance attached to Yam

cultivation has reduced as nobody pays attention to farming. The heats of the

festival are no longer what it used to be.

With respect to Egba chukwu in Edem and Ibagwa Ani communities, the

festival is still being celebrated at the appointed time but not all the villages are

able to bring their cultural groups to the festival arena for lack of capable youths

to pioneer the activities.

The only festival that had remained the same is the Omabe festivals. At

Obimo, Edem, Nsukka, Okpuje and Ibagwa-Ani communities the festival is still

being celebrated with full admiration and interest. It is the only festival that

irrespective of Christianity commands large followers, as men and women still

participate in the festival.

In addition there are some other small festivals and cultural groups in all

villages in Nsukka, I believe that both big and small festivals and all other

cultural groups will be revived once the villagers notices that their is something

to gain in the face of sustainable tourism developments.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

DEVELOPMENT

There is no gain saying the fact that effective understanding and

appreciation of archaeology in terms of its sustainable tourism potentials as well

as relevance in contemporary Nigeria is anchored on meticulous research and

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some appropriate and effective implementation and development. The country

Nigeria is blessed with wide range of potential archaeological tourism attractions,

divers but rich ecological features and rich cultural heritage which have special

appeal to various classes of tourists.

Nsukka and the environs which is the focal point of this research work is

very rich in archaeological/tourism resources which are scattered around the

whole communities. These resources are as diverse and vibrant as is seen from

the data presented that a great deal of money can be generated from them if

properly packaged. Equally a lot of job opportunities could be created for

different categories of youths.

It is very important to harness the tourism potential inherent in these

numerous archaeological resources for sustainable tourism development. The

economic value of these resources can be achieved through several ways. First

and most importantly is to let the world be aware of the archaeological resources

we have and their tourism potential and the developing of these resources in way

that will be most appealing to cultural tourist.

For such a development to achieve its sustainability, it should be initiated,

with broad based community inputs and the communities should be part of the

tourism development. The tourism developers in Nsukka must allow the

members of the community to feel that they are part of the development process

and must be involved in a way to feel that they are part of sustaining the

development of the tourism attractions.

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According to Ezeuzomaka (2006:104) any tourism project at community

level which does not actively involve the members of the community is bound to

fail. For tourism to be sustainable it must favour the community in all

ramifications both socially, environmentally and economically. This is where

stake holders have a vital role to play in the industry. Stakeholders here include

the local communities where the project is being initiated, concerned publics and

tourism experts and institutions involved tourism projects (private companies and

private enterprise), international organizations concerned with tourism and the

tourists themselves (Okpoko 2008).

For tourism to achieve sustainable development objective in Nsukka and

the environs it must endeavour to create job opportunities for the local people. It

must also offer many employment opportunities for unskilled labourers, lower

income women and the indigenes must be employed in the industry.

It is pointed out here once again that the only way of ensuring that tourism

is developed in a sustainable manner is to provide the local people with business

opportunities and also help create some sense of ownership within the local

communities. Tourism will only be sustainable if it gains the acceptance of the

community. Unless financial and economic benefits come to the local

communities where tourism activities take place, there will be little perceived

benefit to compensate for tourism’s bad effect on community life.

According to Falade (2001:50) many cases where the local communities

are often neglected or regarded as insignificant, they have the power to disrupt

the smooth running of affairs for tourism planners and thwart their aims and

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objectives. He further recommended that they should be regarded as important in

the implementation programme or else they will slow down the business process.

Nsukka people have taboos which must not be neglected or abused. These

taboos need to be studied and appropriated account of them should be taken.

Some of these taboos reflect their relationship with the land and where this is the

case like in shrines and sacred grooves, tourism planners must be careful how

they plan the visit of tourist so that they do not destroy or tamper with

community values during their visits.

For tourism to achieve sustainable development objectives in Nsukka area,

it must show respect for local culture, traditional life style and appreciation for

the environment. Tourism awareness is very important in the overall

development of tourism in a sustainable manner.

Sustainability of tourism in Nsukka and the environs depends not only on

the government, but also on the support of the private sector and the rural

communities. And it must also be in line with Steck (1999) who rightly

maintained that sustainable tourism must be developed in a manner that while

helping to sustain the industry through appropriate use and conservation of

resources (archaeological) it must have respect for local culture and tradition. It

must provide income earning opportunities and social services to the host

destinations and contributing to poverty alleviations. It must also be operated in

harmony with the local environment, community and culture, so that they

become the permanent beneficiaries and not the victims of tourism developments.

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THE IMPACT OF TOURISM

Tourism has negative and positive impact on rural and urban dwellers, but

we are inclined to discuss the negative impact here so that in the subsequent

headline we will discuss the positive impact along with the benefits of tourism.

Emphasis is here placed on identifying the environmental, economic and socio-

cultural negative impacts of tourism.

According to Davidson (1993) our environment consist of our natural

environment which includes lands form, plants and animals and also man made

environment which includes buildings and streets. It is the environment and the

natural attractions in it that initially attracts tourists to it.

The negative impact of tourism on the environment included defacing of

historic monuments and buildings and trampling upon archaeological sites and

features by over crowded visitors especially when passages provided get

congested. A community which is overwhelmed by tourists is likely to develop

antipathy and antagonism towards the visitors there by threatening the long term

sustainability of tourism in that particular location. Negative impact from tourism

transpire when the level of visitors use is greater than the environmental ability to

cope with it. To this effect Maldonado et al (1992) suggested that the calculation

of carrying capacity is an important method of assessing environmental impact

sustainability.

Uncontrolled conventional tourism would create potential problems to

archaeological and other natural resources in the area in question. It can put

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enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion, increase in

pollution, and natural habitat loss.

Also developers if not controlled can build high structures like hotels,

/accommodations in areas of natural beauty or of historic value or in open places

and strategic locations. Water pollution, ecological disruption, land degradation

and congestion typify negative environmental effect associated with tourism.

Another area of importance is culture. Cultural contact brings cultural

change. A community that has not evolved a culture strong enough to withstand

the negative impact of other cultures will inevitably experience cultural change

including its own language (Butler 1975)

Other areas where tourism can have a negative impact according to

Olokesusi (1987) are the growth of prostitution, cultural pollution and crime in

general. Prostitution, homo-sexualism and drug trafficking would be on the

increase if the tourism facilities such as hotels and guest houses which harbor

foreign visitors are located within reach or near the local population. This is

because the locals especially the youths may develop a new world view following

frequent contacts with foreigners. The new ideas may consequently pollute the

indigenous cultural values.

Tourism could also through prostitution and homosexualism bring about

the spread of communicable diseases across international boundaries. The

“Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome’’ (AIDS) is a case in point. For

instance most of the carriers of this deadly disease in Africa are to be found in

Kenya which happens to record the highest number of western tourist annually.

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Some tourist came with the sole aim of looting the valuable treasures of the

host destination or they may sometimes connive with dubious nationals to lift and

export valuable cultural objects of the destination areas.

The activities of these people according to Okpoko and Okpoko (2002)

culminated in the UNESCO recommendation of 1964 which prohibits the illegal

export, import and transfer of ownership of cultural property and reminds

member states about their moral obligation to protect their cultural heritage.

Equally, tourist could bring undue pressure on the infrastructural facilities

of the host destinations especially where the builders of such facilities did not

envisage the population of foreign visitors and therefore did not include them in

their projections.

THE BENEFITS OF TOURISM.

The benefits of tourism are numerous. They range from economic benefits

to socio-cultural and environmental benefits. Tourism enhances the social

standard of any given destination and it can change both the environment and the

lives of the members of that community or region.

According to Neto (2003), tourism is now the second largest source of

foreign exchange earning in the least developed countries as a whole. Tourism

acts as a catalyst for growth of trade and industry and increase in employment

opportunities. It provides training, skill acquisition, and employment

opportunities.

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Once an area is declared a tourist attraction, it is usually beautified and this

enhances the image of that area, creates a center of attention for commercial

investment both outside the tourism trade and within by signifying to potential

investors that the place is good to take their business.

One of the big benefits of tourism is the creation of jobs for local people.

Tourism has the potential of leading to the creation and proliferation of other

industries which are relevant to the existence and sustenance of the particular

tourist attraction. As a result it leads to the generation of jobs and increase in

income and standard of living.

Usually wherever a major tourist attraction is located, there is increased

influx of foreigners into that destination. As a result hotels and restaurants are

usually built to carter for their needs, as well as other places of recreation like

clubs and sports facilities. A follow up to this includes the provision of

supplementary income to many members of that community who need second

job or business.

According to Ashley (2001.1) tourism offers many employment

opportunities for unskilled labours, rural to urban immigrants and lower income

women. When a tourist attraction is located in a community, members of that

community are usually owners and land lords of the resources available in the

community and in many cases they are able to charge fees for the use of their

property.

Local people could act as suppliers of materials which are needed by the

tourism industry like fish, fruits, vegetables, local delicacies and building

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materials. As a result the standard of living will be improved and there will be a

consequent decrease in poverty level. There will be a marked decrease in poverty

level when people are engaged in productive ventures. Tourism provides jobs for

people with qualifications and for people who lack any form of training. Usually

the local people can benefit from jobs where academic qualifications are not

required.

Traditional skills are revived through tourism leading to supply and or sale

of souvenirs, traditional art and craft. On the cultural level, the members of the

community learn the importance of cultural diversity and some may also realize

that there is a big world outside their community. This could increase local pride

and self confidence and make provision for social inclusion of other peoples and

cultures.

On the national level, tourism is a solid source of foreign exchange

earning. International tourism offers among other things the opportunity for

travelers to widen their mental horizon. A positive social effect of tourism is the

avenue it opens for nationals of different countries to meet and share their

different values together. This will bring about an improved international

cooperation among nations while widening the mental horizon of the travelers.

On the local level, domestic tourism could foster national co-operation and

understanding among the various ethnic groups that made Nigeria as a country.

As observed by Alagoa (1988) domestic tourism has great potential in terms of

numbers and the benefit to the economy and to national understanding and

mutual respect between people and to national integration are enormous.

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Tourism could also be used to resuscitate the culture of a given tourist

destination. This would in turn lead to the overall development of the

environment.

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS

PROBLEMS

The problems facing archaeological resources in Nsukka area as

ingredients for sustainable tourism development is quite numerous.

One of these problems is on the protection and preservation of

archaeological sites and resources from destruction. Most of the archaeological

resources in Nsukka area are still silent in their various locations and are being

gradually destroyed by Christianity and modernization.

There is also the problem of bad and inaccessible roads to archaeological

sites and resources. Most of the archaeological sites and resources recommended

in this work are in the interior areas and can only be reached by trekking and a

times by climbing of hills. This situation is not conducive for sustainable tourism

development.

Another problem of sustainable tourism development in Nsukka is the

issue of accommodation. Presently there are very few hotels and restaurants in

Nsukka and even among the existing ones, most of the structures are in need of

very serious repair and renovations.

Co-existing with the problems of accommodation is the issue of Medicare.

There is no viable government hospital in Nsukka but scores of hospital owned

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by private medical practitioners all of which are lacking in poperly trained

medical personnel. Medical infrastructures are also lacking.

Electricity or power supply is nothing to go by because most of Nsukka

area remain in darkness for most parts of the month without light due to incessant

power cuts. Within Nsukka metropolis and parts of the environs water supply

which is an essential aspect of life has for long seized to exist.

Currently in Nsukka area and the environs crime rate is on the increase.

There is the problem of armed robbery attack and kidnapping all over the place.

On the national level there is the problem of political instability, incessant

ethnic clashes and religious disturbances. All these problems to mention but a

few make the atmosphere unconducive for a thriving and prosperous sustainable

tourism development. In addition is the problem associated with the lack of

tourism awareness on the part of the greater number of the masses.

I am of the view that should all these problems be over there is no doubt

that we could have a conducive atmosphere and adequate resources for an

attractive and competitive sustainable tourism development.

PROSPECTS

In spite of the problems enumerated above, the prospects of archaeological

resources as tools for sustainable tourism development in Nsukka and the

environs are very high. Nsukka area is blessed with abundant archaeological

resources that if well developed can attract both domestic and international

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tourists. A lot of revenue could be realized, employment opportunities created,

and poverty eradicated through such developments.

Nsukka is endowed with good natural environment and the climatic and

atmospheric conditions are very conducive for tourism and other businesses.

Judging by character, Nsukka people are quiet and an easy going people, highly

industrious and can easily blend and adapt to any condition once it will preserve

their cultural integrity and help achieve their economic ends.

Most of the archaeological resources in Nsukka with the exception of few

excavated areas are still virgin resources. They can be developed into tourist

resorts. However tourism does not just happen, it has to be planned, controlled

and developed if any real meaning in terms of job and visitors appreciation is

expected (Inskeep 1991).

Archaeological resources in Nsukka and its environs can never

dramatically develop them selves if the attention of tourism experts is not paid to

the industry. The industry is a driver of change and this change comes about as a

result of the benefits it brings any where it is given adequate attention.

Among all the archaeological and other cultural and natural resources surveyed in

this work, archaeological resources such as iron smelting sites, shrines, caves ,

rock shelters as well as Omabe and Egba Chukwu festivals have the prospects of

generating heavy tourist traffic and as such are viable tourism products that

require developments.

Sustainable development of archaeological resources in Nsukka has the prospect

of making Nsukka an unbeatable tourism center in Nigeria. Other cultural and

125

natural attractions like the Adada River and the festivals will be an added

advantage. These tourist products have the potential of boosting the economy of

Nsukka and their appropriation for tourism will not be capital intensive

considering their locations.

Another aspect of note is the weather condition of Nsukka area. Six

months every year from the months of November to March and June we have the

most part of the dry season which is a conducive period for tourism in this part of

the world.

These archaeological and other cultural and natural attractions when sustainably

developed have the prospects of motivating the revival of traditional skills and

industries like pottery making, cloth weaving, basket making, arts and sculptors

which have flourished in Nsukka in the olden days and are still thriving though in

small scale measures this time around.

126

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY

In summary, archaeological resources in Nsukka and the environs consist of iron

smelting sites, shrines and grooves, abandoned settlement sites , rock shelters,

caves and pottery site .

There are also natural and cultural attractions like rivers and cultural

festivals which will help tourism to be sustainably developed in Nsukka and

environs.

Three iron smelting sites, four shrines and a sacred groove , two abandoned

settlement sites , two caves and one rock shelter were presented as archaeological

resources in this work .

Also one river, three man made attractions like museum, zolological

garden, La vie garden and four festivals were presented in this work

From the findings Nsukka has sufficient tourism attraction that can make

tourism to be sustainably developed in the area. What is left is social amenities

and infrastructural facilities without which tourism can never be developed

sustainably.

127

CONCLUSION.

From the data presented, it is evident that Nsukka and the environs are endowed

with rich archaeological, cultural and natural resources which can be used to

achieve sustainable tourism development. What remains is how to preserve and

implement these potential resources to achieve the laudable sustainable tourism

development objectives.

Archaeological experts, government, and tourism boards in Nigeria here

have a big duty and role to play towards harnessing these tourism resources

Moreover there is the need for a comprehensive register of archaeological sites

and resources, historic cultural property and other works of art of historic values

in Nsukka and the environs.

Tourism is an engine house of economic growth and today it is considered

one of the world’s largest industries and the creator of jobs across national and

regional economies. If the growth and development of tourism is to be achieved,

there is the need to maintain a vibrant and healthy natural, cultural and social

environment (Modinos 2000:308)

This can only be attained if there is a collaborative effort by all the

participants in the trade, if they show commitment to the social, economic,

cultural and environmental sensitivities of destination areas, and if the message of

sustainability is appropriately spread and inculcated in all the stake holders.

If the tourism goldmine in Nigeria is well managed, it is capable of

bringing in the much needed foreign exchange, infrastructural development and

boosts the social, political and economic growth of the nation.

128

It will create employment opportunity across the country, alleviate poverty and

bring about an improved standard of living for host communities and destination

areas.

RECOMMENDATION

The recommendations in this research work are in two fold. First is on the

need for the preservation of archaeological, cultural and natural resources from

further destruction and the second is on how best to harness and bring the cultural

festivals together for sustainable tourism development, and the need for stable

political climate free from crime.

With proper education, the policy makers and legislators will be convinced to

take adequate measures to prevent the destruction of archaeological resources and

other cultural heritage by providing fund for general survey of archaeological and

other natural resources or insisting on rescue operations where damage cannot be

avoided. Through this means crucial information can be preserved and recorded

for the future.

Preservation of all archaeological resources including excavated sites are

vitally important because according to Ogundele (2006) sites both at the pre-

excavation and post excavation levels can become fascinating tourist centers.

According to him archaeological sites are in most cases (if not all) as important

as the artifacts and other forms of data retrieved from them. A site can give a

considerable amount of satisfaction and education after it has been subjected to a

good archaeological research.

129

It is necessary that urgent measures be taken to undertake a comprehensive

survey, inventory, and listing of all conservation areas and archaeological

resources in Nsukka and the environs. Such an exercise should include the

identification of their historical and cultural importance, thus the national

commission for museums and monuments should be involved.

There is also the importance of public education and out reach and the

integration of residential archaeologists, that is the need to educate the local

communities on the importance of these archaeological resources/materials in the

promotion of tourism and identification of peoples culture through the mass

media like radio and television and also to involve residential archaeologist and

custodians of cultures like the Chief priests and (Attamas) and the leaders of the

communities (Igwes), in any decision making concerning the maintenance and

preservation of archaeological sites and resources.

Serious efforts should be embarked on which should include far reaching

enlightenment campaign by government and the propagators of the

archaeological discipline to create awareness on the relevance of archaeological

sites and resources to the reconstruction of human origin and history. This will in

turn help stem the tide of further destructions.

Traditional festivals have been known to represent important resource

centers for participants and admirers and I recommend that the cultural festivals

in Nsukka be organized to take place at officially approved venues and on

appointed times and dates in accordance with the directions of the organizing

officials for a convenient sustainable tourism purposes.

130

The choice of a destination by any tourist can be influenced by three basic

factors namely attractions, amenities, and accessibility. We have the attractions I

recommend that government and the private sector endeavour to provide the

necessary amenities, including accommodations and accessibility of roads to all

the archaeological sites and other cultural and natural attractions.

There is the important need to reduce the incidence of high crime rate,

stem the tide of political and religious disturbances as sustainable tourism cannot

endure and thrive under this kind of atmospheric conditions.

Government should ensure that the country is above all politically stable for no

tourist would be willing to visit a country with an unstable political culture for

the purposes of leisure. A stable political climate is necessary if tourists are to be

attracted to a given destination. Tourism as Tilburg (1973) points out is by nature

a purely luxury demand, consequently the slightest inconveniences suffices to

divert this type of trade to other directions.

And finally I recommend according to Neto (2003) that government should

promote sustainable tourism development in order to ensure that the local

communities benefit from the tourism resources within their domain.

131

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APPENDIX I

TABLE OF INFORMANTS NAMES AGE DATE TOWN

Mathias Onah

57

18-04-20011

Edem

Jonathan Omada

63

18-04-2011

Edem

Bath Ugwu

48

28-04-2011

Obimo

Anthony Ossai

53

31-04-2011

Obukpa

Uroko Ezema

61

03-04-2011

Edem

Ogoro Onojo

63

07-04-2011

Nrobo

Rapheal Oti

45

15-04-2011

Lejja

Ezugwu Ugwoke

56

20-04-2011

Aro

Anthony Nnaji

49

28-04-2011

Nsukka

Mama Asadu

65

29-04-2011

Nru

Marcel Ododo Egbe

73

03-05-2011

Edem

Raymond Ugwuanyi

78

12-05-2011

Edem

139

APPENDIX II

INTERVIEW GUIDE

SECTION A: BIODATA

(i) Name of informant----------------------------------------------------------

(ii) Age of informant------------------------------------------------------------

(iii) Social Status-----------------------------------------------------------------

(iv) Occupation-------------------------------------------------------------------

SECTION B: ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

1. What do you understand by the term Archaeology?

2. What Archaeology resources do you have in your place or town?

E.g.

Iron smelting sites, Shrines, Caves, Grooves, Abandoned,

Settlements, Burial Sites etc.

3. What are the components of the sites? E.g. Shrines, Caves,

Abandoned settlements, etc and where are they located.

4. Do you know anything about the historical origin of the sites?

5. What are the dos and don’ts surrounding the sites?

6. Is there any historical importance attached to the sites?

7. If yes, what is the historical importance and how does it affect your

Village/ community today?

8. Do you know anything about excavation?

9. If yes, has any excavation been carried out in your locality?

10. If yes, when and what was their finding

SECTION C: FESTIVALS

11. Give a list of festivals in your town/community

12. Describe each festival mentioned, showing their significance

(Social, Political, Religious, economics etc)?

140

13. Give a calendar of Festivals in your town i.e. period in which they

are individually celebrated?

14. Are there link between one festival and another?

15. If yes, then explain.

16. What materials are used in celebrating each festival identifies and

what do they signify?

17. Who participate in each festival?

18. If people/visitors come from outside the community, please mention

the areas they come from.

19. Are these festival associated with any deity or deities?

20. What are the dos and the don’ts of the festivals?

SECTION D: OTHER TOURISM SITES/ATTRACTION

21. Give other landmark or places of historical importance in the town

e.g. sacred grooves, lakes and rivers, abandoned settlements, caves,

waterfalls.

22. Name the villages in which they are located.

23. Describe their various features i.e. the things that are found in such

sites.

24. Do they attract visitors and to your town.?

25. If yes, what type of visitors and where do they come from?

26. Are there festivals or deities associated with any these sites?

27. How are they celebrated and what period of the year?

SECTION E: GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNITY

EFFORTS IN THEIR PROJECTION

28. Has the community made any effort to project any of the sites to the

outsiders?

29. What role has government played in that regard?

30. What is the impact of modern civilization on these festivals/sites?

31. Is their any hope for their continued survival?