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Roads BranchPublic Works Department Malaysia
Jalan Sultan Salahuddin50582 Kuala Lumpur
Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86
5.0m0m
7.0m0m
A Guide on
Geometric Design of Roads
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Page 2ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
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Page 3ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
ADDENDUM NO. 1
This Addendum to the 'ArahanTeknik Galan) 8/86 - A Guide on
Geometric Design of Roads' shall bemade part of this Arahan Teknik and
users shall incorporate thisAddendum into the Arahan Teknik(jalan) 8/86.
1.0 TABLE 3-2A DESIGN SPEED
(RURAL) and
TABLE 3-2B : DESIGNSPEED (URBAN), page 25
Tables 3-2A and 3-?~B shouldread as table 3-2A : DESIGN
SPEED (RURAL) (AMENDEDSEPT. 1989) and table 3-2B :DESIGN SPEED (URBAN)(AMENDED SEPT. 1989)respectively, herewith asattached to this Addendum.
2.0 GENERAL SUMMARY -GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITE-RIA FOR ROADS INRURAL AREAS (METRIC),page 103
The above mentioned table issuperceeded by table 'GEN-ERAL SUMMARY - GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITERIA FORROADS IN RURAL AREAS
(METRIC) (AMENDED SEPT.1989)' herewith attached tothis Addendum.
3.0 GENERAL SUMMARY -
GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITE-RIA FOR ROADS IN URBANAREAS (METRIC),t4Age 104
The above mentioned table is
superceeded by table 'GEN-ERAL SUMMARY - GEOMET-RIC DESIGNED CRITERIAFOR ROADS IN URBANAREAS (METRIC) (AMENDED SEPT. 1989)' herewithattached to this Addendum.
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Page 4ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
TABLE 3-2A : DESIGN SPEED (RURAL) (AMENDED SEPT. 1989)
TABLE 3-213:DESIGN SPEED (URBAN) (AMENDED SEPT. 1989)
DesignStandard
Design Speed ( km / hr )
Terrain
Flat Rolling Mountainous
R6
R5
R4
R3
R2
R1
R1a
120
100
90
70
60
40
40
100
80
70
60
50
30
30
80
60
60
50
40
20
20
DesignStandard
Design Speed ( km / hr )
Area Type
I II III
U6
U5
U4
U3
U2
U1
U1a
100
80
70
60
50
40
40
80
60
60
50
40
30
30
60
50
50
40
30
30
20
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Note :
Type I - Relatively free iri road location with verylittle problems ns regards land acquisition, affected buildings or
other socially sensitive areas.Type II - Intermediate between I and II.
Type III - Very restrictive in road location with problems as regards landacquisition, affected buildings and other sonsiltive areas.
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Page 6ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
GENERAL SUMMARY - GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITERIA FOR ROADS IN RURAL AREAS ( METRIC) x 4
0 1 DESIGN STANDARD - R 6 R 5 R 4 R 3 R 2 R 1 R 1A
2 ACCESS CONTROL - FULL PARTIAL PARTIAL PARTIAL NIL NIL NIL
3 TERRAIN - F R M F R M F R M F R M F R M F R M F R M
0 4 DESIGN SPEED Km/hr 120 100 80 100 80 60 90 70 60 70 60 50 60 50 40 40 30 20 40 30 20
5 I LANE WIDTH m 3.50 ! 3.50 ( 3.15 3.00 I 2.75 I (5.00)0 (4.50)0I 6 1 SHOULDER WIDTH I m 13.00 3.00 2.50 13.00 3.00 1.50 13.00 3.00 2.00 12.50 2.50 2.00 12.00 1.00 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 ; 1.Y 1.50 I N I
1;HOULOrE~R~ allRI~trIVRLJ m 1:00 1.00 1: 00 0.50 0.50 0_50 0.50
z 8 I MEDIAN WIDTH (MINIMUM) m'
6.0 5.0 4.0 1 4.0 3.5 3.0 ! 3.0 2.5 2.0 1 N/A N/A N/A j N/A
N 9 MEDIAN WIDTH (DESIRABLE) m 18.0 12.5 8.0 12.0 9.0 6.0 9.0 6.5 4.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A
N 10 MARGINAL STRIP (WIDTH) m 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00
11 MINIMUM RESERVE WIDTH m 60 60(50)b
40(30)b
20 20 12 12
12 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE m 185 205 140 205 140 85 180 120 85 120 85 65 85 65 45 45 30 20 45 30 20
13 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE m N/A 700 550 450 625 500 450 500 450 350 450 350 300 300 250 200 300 250 200
z 14 MINIMUM RADIUS m 570 375 230 375 230 125 300 175 125 175 125 85 125 85 50 50 30 15 50 30 15
15 MINIMUM LENGTH OF SPIRAL m SEE TABLE 4 - 4A N/A N/A
0 16 MAXIMUM SUPERELEVATION RATIO 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
17 MAXIMUM GRADE (DESIRABLE) % 2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6 5 6 7 6 7 8 7 8 9 10
W
W18 MAXIMUM GRADE % 5 6 7 6 7 8 7 8 9 8 9 10 9 10 12 10 12 15 25
19 CREST VERTICAL CURVE (K) - 120 60 30 60 30 15 45 22 15 22 15 10 15 10 10 10 5 5 10 5 5
20 SAG. VERTICAL CURVE (K) - 60 40 28 40 28 15 35 20 15 20 15 12 -15 --12- 10 -I- 8 8 10 8 8 I
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Page 7ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
GENERAL SUMMARY - GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITERIA FOR ROADS IN URBAN AREAS ( METRIC )
s I DESIGN STANDARD - U 6 U 5 U 4 U 3 U 2 U i U la
o ~ 2 ACCESS CONTROL - FULL PARTIAL PARTIAL PARTIAL/NIL NIL NIL NIL
uN 3 AREA TYPE - I II III i II Itl I II III i il III I II III I II III I 11 III
0 4 DESIGN SPEED Km/hr 100 80 60 80 60 50 70 60 50 60 50 40 50 40 30 40 30 20 40 30 10
1~~, ;
6 1;
1 A\1
uvE 1 zI 1Z
J.5u J.uu IJ . L J I a.uu I L.ia irn i
-
(4.50;n I
-
6 !7
SHOULDER WIDTH !?SHOULDER WIDTH
STRUCTURES >1Wm
mm
3.003.001.00
2.50 3.003.001.00
2.503.00 2.501.00
2.00 2.502.000.50
1.501
2.001.500.50
1.501
1.501.500.50
0.50~
1.501.500.50
1.501
8 MEDIAN WIDTH (MINIMUM!) m 14.0 3.50 3.00 3.00 2.50 2.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 N/A N/A N/A
9 MEDIAN WIDTH (DESIRABLE) m 112-009- 6.00 9.00 6.50 4.00 7.50 5.00 3.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 N/A N/A N/A
v 10 MARGINAL STRIP (WIDTH) m 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00
11 MINIMUM RESERVE WIDTH m 60 50 40(30) b 30(20) b 20 11 12
12 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE m 205 140 85 140 85 65 115 85 65 85 65 45 65 45 30 45 30 20 45~ 30 20
13 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE m N/A 550 450 350 500 450 350 450 350 300 350 300 250 300 250 200 300 250 200Z 14 MINIMUM RADIUS m 465 280 150 280 150 100 210 150 100 150 100 60 100 60 35 60 35 15 60 35 15
15 MINIMUM LENGTH OF SPIRAL m SEE TABLE 4 - 4B N/A N/A N/A0
0 16 MAXIMUM SUPERELEVATION RATIO 0.060.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
17 MAXIMUM GRADE (DESIRABLE) % 3 4 5 4 5 6 5 6 7 6 7 8 7 8 9 7 8 9 7 8 9
W 18 MAXIMUM GRADE % 6 7 8 7 8 9 8 9 10 9 10 12 10 12 15 10 12 15 10 12 15
W 19 CREST VERTICAL CURVE (K) - 60 30 15 30 15 10 22 15 10 15 10 10 10 10 5 10 5 5 10 5 5
20 SAG. VERTICAL CURVE (K) 1 - 40 28 15 28 15 12 120 15 12 15 12 10 12 10 8 10 8 8 10 8 8
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Page 8ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
ERRATA
Replace section 5.14.2(c) (i) on pages 92 and 94 with the following :
Section 5.14.2 (c) Horizontal Alignment
(i) Minimum Radius
The following formula is used in determining the required. minimumradius for the curves.
R = V2.............127(e+f)
Where R = Minimum radius of curve in meters V = Designspeed, in km/hr
e = Maximum rate of superelevationJ- = Maximum allowable side friction factor.
Table 5-11 gives the minimum radius that are to be used in design. Flatter-curves should always be used wherever possible. There is no necessity toprovide any transition (spiral) curves.
Table 5-11: MINIMUM RADIUS FOR DESIGN
Design Speed (km/hr)Minimum Radius
e = 0.06 e = 0.10
203040506080100
120
153560100150280465
710
15305085
125230375
570
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Page 9ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
1.1 Introduction
CHAPTER 2 - DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROAD CLASSIFICATION
2.1. Road Standards
2.1.1 Standardisation2.1.2 Rural and Urban Areas2.1.3 Application of Standards
2.2 Road Classification
2.2.1 Function of Road
2.3 Road Administration
2.4 Access Control
2.4.1 Degree of Control2.4.2 Application
2.5 Design Standards
2.5.1 Selection of Design Standard
CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
3.1 Topography
3.2 Traffic
3.2.1 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)3.2.2 Design Hourly Volume (DHV)3.2.3 Design Hourly Volume Ratio (K)3.2.4 Directional Distribution Ratio (D)3.2.5 Traffic Composition
3.2.6 Projection of Traffic
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Page 10ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
3.3 Design Vehicles and Characteristics
3.3.1 Design Vehicles3.3.2 Summary of Dimension of Design
Vehicle
3.4 Speed
3.4.1 Operating Speed3.4.2 Design Speed3.4.3 Design Section
3.5 Capacity
3.5.1 Capacity Under Ideal Conditions
3.5.2 Design Volume3.5.3 Service Volume3.5.4 Design level of service and
Volume/Capacity Ratio
CHAPTER 4 - ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
4.1 Sight Distance
4.1.1 General4.1.2. Stopping Sight Distance4.1.3 Passing Sight Distance4.1.4 Criteria For Measuring Sight
Distance
4.2 Horizontal Alignment
4.2.1 General4.2.2 Superelevation Rates4.2.3 Minimum Radius
4.2.4 Transition (Spiral) Curves
4.2.5 Methods of Attaining Superelevation4.2.6 Superelevation Runoff with Medians4.2.7 Pavement Widening on Curves4.2.8 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves4.2.9 General Controls For Horizontal
Alignment
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Page 11ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
4.3 Vertical Alignment
4.3.1 Maximum Grades4.3.2 Minimum Grades4.3.3 Critical Grade Length
4.3.4 Climbing Lanes for Two Lane Roads4.3.5 Passsing Lane Section on Two Lane
Road4.3.6 Climbing Lanes on Multi lane Roads4.3.7 Vertical Curves4.3.8 General Controls for Vertical
Alignment
4.4 Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
CHAPTER 5 - CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
5.1 Pavement
5.1.1 Surface Types5.1.2 Normal Cross Slope
5.2 Lane Widths and Marginal Strip
5.3 Shoulders
5.3.1 General Characteristics5.3.2 Width of Shoulders5.3.3 Shoulder Cross Slope5.3.4 Shoulder Structure
5.4 Kerbs
5.4.1 General Considerations5.4.2 Types of Kerbs
5.5 Sidewalks
5.6 Traffic Barriers
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Page 12ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
5.7 Medians
5.7.1 General5.7.2 Median Types and Width
5.8 Service Roads
5.8.1 General
5.8.2 Design Requirements
5.9 Pedestrian Crossings
5.9.1 General Considerations5.9.2 School Level Crossings
5.10 U-Turns
5.10.1 General Considerations5.10.2 Design Considerations
5.11 Bridge and Structure Cross Sections
5.11.1 Width of Shoulders5.11.2 Required Clearances
5.12 Bias Laybyes
5.13 Minimum Reserve Width
5.14 Exclusive Cycle Lanes
5.14.1 General Considerations .5.14.2 Elements of Design5.14.3 Cross-Section Elements5.14.4 Intersection Treatment
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Page 13ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
CHAPTER 6 - OTHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING. GEOMETRICDESIGN
6.1 Road Safety
6.2 Drainage
6.3 Lighting
6.4 Utilities
6.5 Signing and markings
6.6 Traffic Signals
6.7 Erosion Control, Landscape Development andEnvironmental Impacts
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Page 14ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This Arahan Teknik. is limitedto the geometric features of roaddesign as distinguished from struc-
tural design. It is intended as a com-prehensive manual on the geometricdesign of road, inclusive both in ruralas well as in urban conditions. Thegeometric design of road isonly applicable to Rural or Urban
areas as specifically indicated in thisArahan Teknik.
This Arahan Teknik is to beapplied to all new construction andimprovements of roads for vehiculartraffic undertaken by JKR.
Modifications and updating will becarried out from time to time. In thisrespect, comments from users will bemost welcomed.
This Arahan Teknik is to beused in conjunction with other
Arahan Tekniks that have been orwill be produced by CawanganJalan.
The design of at-grade inter-sections and interchanges are pre-
sented individually in separate
Companion Arahan Tekniks.
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Page 15ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
CHAPTER 2.
DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROADCLASSIFICATIONS
2.1 ROAD STANDARDS
2.1.1 Standardisation
The geometric design of allroads need to be standardisedfor the following; reasons:
(a) to provide a uniformitythe design of roadsaccording to their per
formance requirements.(b) to provide a consistent,
safe and reliable roadfacilities for movementof traffic.
(c) to provide. a guide forless subjective deci
sions on road design.
2.1.2 Rural and Urban Areas
Urban areas are defined asareas having a population ofat least 1,000 where buildings
and houses are gathered andbusiness activity is prevalent.It covers all areas within thegazetted Municipality limitsand also includes areasexpected to becomeurbanised within the design
period. Rural areas can beregarded as areas other thanurban areas.
There is no fundamental difference in the principles ofdesign for rural and urban
roads. Roads in urban areas,however,are characterised bybusy pedestrian activities and
frequent stopping of vehicles
owing to short intersectionspacings and congested built-up areas. Lower designspeeds are usually adopted
for urban roads and differentcross-sectional elements are
applied to take into accountthe nature of traffic andadjoining land use. It is forthese reasons that variationsin certain aspects of geometric design are incorporated forthese two broad groups of
roads.
2.1.3 Application of Standards
The design standard is classi-fied into seven groups(R6,R5, R4,R3,R2,:R1 & R1a)
for rural areas and into sevengroups(U6,U5,U4,it3,U'2,U1,& Uta)for urban areas. These are indescending order of hierarchy.
Roads which function to provide long distance travel, willrequire higher, design speedswhilst road which serve localtraffic, where the effect ofspeed is less significant canhave a lower design speed.
Also roads with heavier trafficwill be provided with a higher
standard.
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Page 17
DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROADCLASSFICATIONS
ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
(h) Srandard U1a :
Applied to local accessto low cost housingareas.
2.2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION
2.2.1 Function of Road
Each road has its functionaccording to its role either in
the National Network,Regional Network, StateNetwork or City/TownNetwork. The most basic function of a road is transportation. This can be further divid-
ed into two sub-functions;namely mobility and accessibility. However, these two sub-functions are in trade-off. Toenhance one, the other mustbe limited. In rural areas,roadsare divided into five cate
gories, namely, EXPRESSWAY, HIGHWAY, PRIMARYROAD, SECONDARY ROADand MINOR ROAD and inurban areas, roads are divid-ed into four categories, name-ly, EXPRESSWAY, ARTERI-
AL, COLLECTOR AND
LOCAL STREET. They are inascending order of accessibili-ty and thus in descendingorder of mobility.
2.2.2 Categories of Road
Roads are divided into twogroups by area, i.e. rural andurban. Roads in rural areas
are further classified into fivecategories by function namely
Expressway, Highway,Primary Road, SecondaryRoad and Minor Road andinto four categories in urbanarea, namely, Expressway,Arterial, Collector and LocalStreet. Their general. appli-
cations are as follows.
CHAPTER 2
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DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROADCLASSFICATIONS
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(a) Expressway
An Expressway is adivided highway forthrough traffic with full
control of access andalways with grade sep
arations at all intersections.
In rural, areas, theyapply to the interstatehighways for through
traffic and make the
basic framework ofNational road transportation for fast travelling. They serve longtrips and provide higherspeed of travelling and
comfort. To maintainthis, they are fullyaccess-controlled andare designed to thehighest standards.
In urban areas, theyform the basic framework of road trans portation system inurbanised area forthrough traffic. Theyalso serve relatively
long trips and smoothtraffic flow and with full
access control andcomplements the RuralExpressway.
(b) Highways
They constitute theinterstate national network and complementsthe expressway net
work. They usually link
up directly or indirectlythe Federal Capitals,State capitals andpoints of entry/exit to
the country. They serveong to intermediate trip
lengths. Speed serviceis not so important asin an Expressway butrelatively high to medium speed is necessary.Smooth traffic is provid-ed with partial access
control.
(c) Primary Roads
They constitute themajor roads formingthe basic network of
the road transportationsystem within a state.They serve intermedi-ate trip lengths andmedium travellingspeeds. Smooth traffic
is provided with partialaccess control Theyusually link up theState! Capitals andDistrict Capitals orother Major Towns.
(d) Secondary Roads
They constitute themajor roads formingthe basic network ofthe road transportationsystem within a District
or RegionalDevelopment Areas.They serve intermedi-ate trip lengths withpartial access control.
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DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROADCLASSFICATIONS
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They usually link up the
raajor towns within theDistrict or RegionalDevelopment Areas.
(e) Minor Roads
They apply to all roadsother than thosedescribed above in therural areas. They formthe basic road networkwithin a Land Schemeor other inhabited
areas in a rural area.
They also includeroads with special func-tions such as holidayresort roads, securityroads or access roadsto microwave stations.
They serve mainly localtraffic with short triplengths and are usuallywith partial or noaccess control.
(f) Arterials
An arterial is a conti-nous road with partialaccess control forthrough traffic withinurban areas. Basically
it conveys traffic fromresidential areas to the
vicinity of the centralbusiness district orfrom one part of a cityto another which doesnot intend to penetrate
the city centre .Arterials do not pene-trate identifiable neighbourhoods. Smoothtraffic flow is essential
since it carries large
traffic volume.
(g) Collectors
A collector road is aroad with partial access
control designed toserve on a collector ordistributor of trafficbetween the arterialand the local road sys-tems. Collectors arethe major roads which
penetrate and serve
identifiable neighbourhoods, commercialareas and industrialareas.
(h) Local Streets
The local street systemis the basic road net-work within a neighbourhood and servesprimarily to offer directaccess to abutting land.
They are links to thecollector road and thusserve short trip lengths.Through traffic shouldbe discouraged.
CHAPTER 2
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Page 20
DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROADCLASSFICATIONS
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2.3 ROAD ADMINISTRATION
For the purposes of roadadministration, roads are clas-sified as Federal, State, Local
Authority (City Hall, Municipalor Local Council) or Kampong(District Office) Roads
depending upon their jurisdic-tion.
(a) Federal Roads areroads that are gazettedunder the FederalRoad ordinance and
are usually roads link-ing the State Capitals,Airports, RailwayStations and Ports.Roads within theFELDA Land Schemes
and those in otherRegional LandSchemes constructedwith Federal Fundsalso fall under this cat-egory. The maintnanceof these roads are the
responsibility of theFederal Governmentand is done through theState JKR with fundsfrom the FederalGovernment.
(b) State Roads are all the
other roads within theState outside the jurisdiction of the LocalAuthority or DistrictOffice, built to JKR
standards. They arenormally constructedwith State Funds. Themaintenance of theseroads are the responsi-
bility of the State
Government and isdone through the StateJKR.
(c) Local Authority Roadsare all those roads
within the limits of theLocal Authority and arenormally maintained bythe responsible localauthority.
(d) Kampong (District
Office) Roads are all
those roads directlyunder the jurisdiction ofthe District Office. Theyare usually earth roadswith no right of way.The maintenance of
these roads are theresponsibility of theDistrict Office.
2.4 ACCESS CONTROL
2.4.1 Degree of Control
Access control is the conditionwhere the right of owners oroccupants of abutting land orother persons to access, in
connection with a road is fully
or partially controlled by thepublic authority.
Control of access is usuallyclassified into three types forits degree of control, namely
full control, partial control andnon-control of access
CHAPTER 2
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Full Control of Access mean
that preference is given tothrough traffic by providingaccess connecting with selected public roads only and by
prohibiting crossings at gradeor direct private driveway con
nections.
Partial Control of Accessmeans that preference isgiven to through traffic to adegree that in addition toaccess connection with select-
ed public roads, there may be
some crossings traffickedroads, at grade intersectionsshould be limited and onlyallowed at selected locations.To compensate for the limitedaccess to fully or partially
access controlled roads,frontage or service roads aresometimes attached to thesides of the main roads.
In Non Control Access, thereis basically no limitations of
access.
2.4.2 Application
The selection of the degree ofcontrol required is important
so as to preserve the as builtcapacity of the road as well as
improved safety to all roadusers. Two aspects pertainingto the degree of control is tobe noted.
(a) during the time ofdesign in the consider-ation of accesses toexisting developments.
(b) after the completion of
the road in the controlof accesses to futuredevelopments.
The selection of degree ofaccess control depends on
traffic volumes, function of theroad and the road networkaround the areas. Table 2-2Aand 2-2B is general guide forthe selection of degree ofaccess control.
CHAPTER 2
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CHAPTER 2
TABLE 2--2A: ACCESS CONTROL (RURAL)
TABLE 2-2B: ACCESS CONTROL (URBAN)
NOTE :
F = Full Control of AccessP = Partial Control of AccessN = No Control of Access
Road CatagoryDesign Standard
R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 / R1a
Expressway
HighwayPrimary RoadSecondry RoadMinor Road
F
----
-
PP--
-
-PP-
-
--P-
-
---N
-
---N
Road CatagoryDesign Standard
U6 U5 U4 U3 U2 U1 / U1a
ExpresswayArterial
CollectorLocal Street
F-
--
-P
--
-P
P-
--
PN
--
-N
--
-N
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DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROADCLASSFICATIONS
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CHAPTER 2
2.5 DESIGN STANDARDS
The design standards used for various categories of roads are asshown in Table 2-3
TABLE 2-3: DESIGN STANDARDS
2.5.1 Selection of :Design Standard
The selection of the required design standard should begin with the assessment ofthe function of the proposed road and the area it traverses. This should generally bedone in conjunction with the Highway Planning Unit of the Ministry of Works. If there
is an overlapping of function, the ultimate function of the road shall be used for theselection criteria. The projected ADT at the end of the design life should then be calculated and from Table 2-3, the required design standard can be obtained. From thecapacity analysis (as in Chapter 3) the required number of lanes can then be calculat-ed.Figure 2--1 gives a flow chart indicating the processes for the selection of the,requireddesign standard.
Area Road Catagory
Projected ADT
AllTraffic
Volume
>100,00
10,000to
3,000
3,000to
1,000
1,000to
150
180 R-1- 230 R'-' 1100 R 2 880 Rar 680 R2510 R R'100 R' 68 R> 52 M39 39 MORE
M- 340- 20- 2309 1100>n 880- 670} 520;*- 68~ 52=- 39>
~-8U R-Ir
11-- R 1 30 R=340 R - 2 8 0 0 R ~ Z% R ICU I t - 4u R al.iI f -
a
180~' 150s- 130- 340- 280- 230y 190- J7~'
R~t150 R~-100 8286 R ~180 R~150 R'130 R'110 R'`24 1
86' 180' 150- 130=- 110=- 24 , . y
R264 R;!'150 R y100 R286 8274 4'-16
Note:64~8260
86aR265
74~R251
16~R' 15
1.25
is
65'R260
578245
154
45:
R238
1.75
35>
R2-- 35 2, 4
e
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attained owner the
superelavation runofflength with most of all,of' the wideningattained at the start of
circular curve point.
4.2.8 Sight Distance on HorizontalCurves
Another element of horizontallignment is the sight distanceacross the inside of curves.Where there are sight oba-
tructions (such as walls, cut
slopes, buildings andguardrails),a design to provideadequate sight distance mayrequire adjustment in the nor-mal road cross-section orchange) in alignment if the
obstruction cannot beremoved. Using the designspeed and a selected sightdistance as a control, thedesigner should check theactual condition and make the
necessary adjustments in themanner most fitting to provideadequate sight distance
4.2.9 General Controls forHorizontal Alignment
In addition to the specificdesign elements for horicontal
alignment, a number of gener-al controls are recognised andshould be used. These con-trols are not subject to empiri-cal or formula derivation but
are important for the attain-ment of safe and smooth-flow-ing roads. These are:
(a) The horizontal align-
ment should,be consis-tent with the topogra-phy and with preserv-ing developed proper
ties and community val-ues. Winding alignment
composed of shortcurves should beavoided. On the otherhand too long a straightshould also be avoided.
(b) The use of the mini-
mum radius for the par-
ticular design speedshould be avoidedwherever possible.Generally flat curvesshould be used, retain-ing the maximum for
the most critical condi-tions.
(c) Consistent alignmentshould always besought. Sharp curves
should not be intro-duced at the end oflong tangent. Wheresharp curves must beintroduced, it should beapproached, wherepossaible, by succes-
sively sharper curvesfrom the generally flat
curvature.
(d) For small deflectionangles, curves shouldbe sufficiently long to
avoid the appearanceof a kink. Curvesshould be at least150m long for a centralangle of` 50 and the
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length should be
increased 30 m foreach 10 decrease inthe central angle
(e) Any abrupt. reversal inalignment should be
avoided. The distancebetween reversecurves should be thesum of the supreleva-tion runoff lengths andthe tangent runoutlengths.
(f) The 'broken back'arrangement of curvesshould be avoided. Ilseof spiral transitions or acompound curve align-ment is preferable for
such conditions if it. isunavoidable.
4.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
4.3.1 Maximum Grades
The vertical profile of roadaffect the performance of
vehicles. The effect of gradeson trucks which have weight
power ratio of about 300lb/hp, is considered. Themaximum grade controls interms of design speed is sum-marised in Table 4-6
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4.3.2 Minimum grades
A desirable minimum grade or0.5 percent should be used. Agrade of 0.35 percent may beallowable where a high typepavement. accurately crownedis used. On straight stretchestraversing across wide areas
of low lying swamp use ofeven flatter grades may beallowable with prior approval.
4.3.3 Critical Grade Length
The term " critical grade
length" indicate the maximumlength of a designated
upgrade upon which a loadedtruck can operate without an
unreasonable reduction inspeed.
To establish the design vlauesfor critical grade lengths" forwhich gradeability of trucks is
the determining factor, the following assumptions are made:
(i) The weight-power ratioof a loaded truck is about 300 lb /hp .
(ii) The average runningspeed as related todesign speed is used to
CHAPTER 4
TABLE 4-6 : MAXIMUM GRADES
The desirable maximum should be aimed at in most cases. The maximumgrades should be used infrequently. The total upgrade for any section of roadshould not exceed 3000m, unless the grade is less than 4%.
Design Speed( km/hr )
Desirable MaximumGrade ( % )
Maximum Grade( % )
120100806050
4030
20
23456
78
9
56789
1012
15
Road StandardR1a
10 25
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approximate the speed
of vehicles beginningand uphill climb.
(iii) A maximum reduction
in speed to half thedesign speed is
allowed for designspeeds of 80km/hr orabove except fordesign speeds of 50and 40km/hr where theallowable minimumspeeds are 30 and
25km/hr respectively.
The critical gradelengths for the variousspeeds are as shodmin Table 4-7.
Where a particular section ismade up of a combination ofupgrades, the length of criticalgrade should take into consid-eration, the entire section ofthe combination. A speed
reduction/recovery curveshould be plotted to determinethe critical grade length baseon the assumptions usedabove. Figure 4-2 gives theacceleration and decelerationcurves that can be used for
this purpose.
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CHAPTER 4
Design Speed Gradient ( % ) Critical Grade
Length ( m )
120 345
500400300
100 456
500400300
80 567
500400300
60 678
300250200
50 789
250200170
40 8
910
200
170150
30 - Not defined - decisionleft to designer
20 - Not defined - decisionleft to designer
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Where the length of critical
grade is exceeded and espe-cially where grades exceed5%, consideration should begiven to providing an added
uphill lane, that is, the climb-ing lane, for slow moving vehi-
cles, particularly where thevolume is at or near capacityand the truck volume is high.
4.3.4 Climbing Lanes for Two LanedRoads
Climbing lanes are desirable
and should be consideredwhere the critical gradelengths are exceeded andprovided the volume of trafficand percentage of trucks justi-fy the additional cost. An
exception to the above wouldbe where overidding safetyconsiderations dictate theaddition of the climbing laneregardless of grade or trafficvolume. Where climbing lanes
are provided, the followingrequirements are to be fol-lowed.
(a) the climbing laneshould begin rear thefoot of the grade and
should be preceded bya tapered section of at
least. 50m long.
(b) the width of the -lirn-bing lane should be thesame as the main car-
riageway lane widthand in any case shouldnot be less than 3.25m.
(c) the section of the road
must be separated by aNew Jersey TypeConcrete Median withadequate signing and
markings and theopposing lane widened
also to 2 lanes to makeit a four-lane dividedcarriageway.
(d) the climbing laneshould end at least60m beyond the crest
and in particular should
be at a point where thesight- distance is suffi-cient to permit passingwith safety. In addition,a corresponding taperlength as in (a) of
100m should be provid-ed.
(e) the shoulder on theouter edge of the climb-ing lane should N a5
wide as the shoulderon the normal twolaved section, Whereconditions dictate oth-erwise, a usable stsulder widtn of 1.25m isacceptable.
4.3.5 Passing Lane Sections andLaybyes on Two-Lane Roads
Where a sufficient numberand length of safe passing
section cannot be obtained inthe design of horizontal andvertical alignment alone, anoccasional section of fourlanes may be introduced to
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provide more sections and
length safe for passing. Suchsection are particularly advan-tageous in rolling terrain,especially where the align-
ment is winding or where thevertical profile includes critical
lengths of grade. Four lanesections should be sufficientlylong to permit its effectiveusage.
The sections of four lanesintroduced need not be divid-
ed. The use of a median,
however is advantageous andshoed be considered on roadscarrying 500 vehicles per houror more.
The transitions between the
two lane and four lane pave-ments should be locatedwhere the change in width isin full view of the driver.Sections of four-lane road,particularly divided sections
should not be longer than 3km so as to ensure that triedriver, does not lose hisawareness that the road isbasically a two lane facility.
Where four lane sections are
riot practical, passing laybyesmay be introduced at regular
intervals. This passing laybyemust be at least 1'000rri longand of full lane width and pre-ceded by a taper of 50m atthe beginning and 100m at
the end.
4.3.6 Climbing Lanes on Multilane
Roads
Multilane roats more frequent-ly have sufficient capacity to
handle their traffic load,including the normal percent-
age of slow-moving vehicleswithout becoming congested.However where the volume isat or neat, capacity and thetruck volume is high so as tointerfere with the normal flowof traffic, climbing lanes
should be considered.
4.3.1 Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used toeffect a gradual charge
between tangent grades. Theyshould be simple in applica-tion and should result in adesign that is safe, comfort-able in operation, pleasing inappearance and adequate for
drainage. For simplicity, theparabolic curve with an equiv-alen-G vertical axis centeredon the vertical point of inter-section is used.
The rate of change of grade to
successive points on thecurve is a constant amount for
equal increments of horizontaldistance, and equals the alge-braic difference between theintersecting tangent gradesdivided by the length of curve
or A/L in percent per metere.The reciprocal L/A is the hori-zontal distance in metrerequired to ef:fec;t a 1 percentchange in gradient and is
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a measure of curvature. This
quantity (L/A), termed k, isused in determining the hori-zontal distance from thebegining of the vertical curve
to the apex or low point of thecurve. The k value is also
useful in determining the mini-mum lengths of vertical curvesfor the various des isanspeeds.
The lengths of vertical curvesused should be as long as
possible and above the mini-
mum values for the designspeeds where economicallyfeasible.
(a) Crest vertical curves
Minimum lengths ofcrest vertical curvesare determined by thesight distance require-ments. The Stoppingsight distance is the
major control for thesafe operation at thedesign speed chosen.Passing sight distancesare not used as it pro-vides for an. uneco-nomical design. An
exception may be atdecision. areas such as
sight distance to rampexit gores where longerlengths are necessary.
The basic formulas for length
of a parabclic vertical curve interms of algebraic differencein grade and sight distance(using an eye height of 0.92m
and object height of 0.15m)are as follows:
Where S is less than L,
L = AS2....................
405
Where S is greater than L,
L = 2S - 405........
A
Where :
L = length of verticalcurve(m)
S = sight distance (m)
A = algebraic difference ingrades (percent)
Table 4-8 indicates the mini-mum k values that are to beused design for the variousdesign speeds.
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(b) Sag Vertical curves
At least four different criteria forestablishing lengths of snagvertical curves are recognised.These are (1) headlight sightdistance, (2) rider comfort, (3)
drainage control and (4) a ruleof thumb for general appear-ance. However, the headlightsight distance basis appears tobe the most logical for generaluse and this criterion is used to
establish the design values fora range of lengths of sag verti-cal curves. It is again conven-ient to express the design con-trol in terms of the k value.
Table 4-9 indicates the minimutr, kvalues that are to be used.
Longer curves are desired whereverfeasible and should be used butwhere k values in excess of 55 art-USF:d, special attention to drainage
must be exercised. Shorter sag verti-cal curves may be justified for eco-nomic reasons, in cases where anexisting element, such as a. structurewhich is not ready for rei)lace:mentcontrols the vertical profile.
Drainage of curbed pavements areespecially important on sag verticalcurves where a grade line of not lessthan 0.3 percent ;within 15m of thelevel point must be maintained.
CHAPTER 4
TABLE 4-8 CREST VERTICAL CURVE (k values)
Design Speed
( km/hr )
120 100 80 60 50 40 30 20
Minimum k value 120 60 30 15 10 10 5 5
TABLE 4-9 SAG VERTICAL CURVE (k values)
Design Speed( km/hr )
120 100 80 60 50 40 30 20
Minimum k value 60 40 28 15 12 10 8 8
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4.3. 8 General Controls For Vertical
Alignment
In addition to the specific con-trols, there are several gener-
al. controls that should beconsidered.
(a) A smooth gradelinewith gradual changesshould be strived for inpreference to a linewith numerous breaksand short lengths of
grade. While the maxi-
mum grade and thecritcal length are con-trols, the manner inwhich they are appliedand fitted to the terrainon a. continous line
determines the suitabili-ty and appearance ofthe finished product.
(b) The 'roller coaster' orthe 'hidden-dip' type of
profile should be avoid-ed. They are avoidedby use of horizontalcurves or by moregradual grades.
(c) A broken back grade-
line should be avoiled,particularly in sags
where the full view, ofboth vertical curves isnot pleasing. This effectis very notice able endivided roadways with
open median sections
(d) On long grades, it is
preferable to place thesteepest grade at thebottom and lighten thegrades near the top of
the ascent or to breakthe sustained grade
by short intervals oflighter grade instead ofa uniformed sustainedgrade that might beonly slightly below theallowable minimum.
(e) Where intersections at
grad occur on sectionswith moderate to steepgrades, it is desirableto reduce the gradientthrough the intersec-tion.
4.4 COMBINATION OF HORIZON-TAL AND VERTICAL ALIGN-MENT
Horizontal and vertical align-ment should not be designedindepeni-Jilently. They com-plement each other.Excellence in their design and
in the design of their combina-tion increase utility and safety,
encourage uniform speed,and improve appeararce,almost always without addi-tional cost.
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Proper combination of hori-
zontal alignment and profile isobtained by engineering studyand consideration of the fol-lowing general controls.
(a) Curvature and grades
should be in proper bal-ance. Tangent align-ment or flat curvatureat the expense of steepor long grades, andexcessive curvaturewith flat grades, are
both poor design. A log-
ical design is a compro-mise between the two,which offers the most insafety, capacity, easeand uniformity of oper-ation, and pleasing
appearance within thepractical limits of terrainand area traversed.
(b) Vertical curvaturesuperimposed upon
horizontal curvature, orvice versa, generallyresults in a more pleas-ing facility but it shouldbe analyzed for effectupon traffic. Successivechanges in profile rot in
combination with hori-zontal curvature may,
result in a series ofhumps visible to thedriver for some dis-tance, a hazardouscondition.
(c) Sharp horizontal curva-ture should not beintroduced at or nearthe top of a pro-
nounced crest vertical
curve. This condition ishazardous in that thedriver carinot perceivethe horizontal change
in alignment, especiallyat night when the head-
light beams go straightahead into space. Thehazard of this arrange-merit is avoided if thehorizontal curvatureleads the vertical cur-vature, i.e. the horizon-
tal curve is made
longer than the verticalcurve. Also, suitabledesign can be made byusing design valueswell above the mini-mums for the design
speed.
(d) Somewhat allied to theabove, sharp horizontalcurvature should not beintroduced at or near
the low point of a pro-nounced sag verticalcurve. Because theroad ahead is fore-shortened any but flathorizontal curvatureassumes an undesir-
able distorted appear-ance. Further, vehicular
speeds, particularly oftrucks, often are high atthe bottom of gradesand erratic operationmay result, especially
at night.
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(e) On 2-lane roads the
need for safe passingsections at frequentintervals and for, anappreciable percentage
of the length of theroad often supersedes
the general desirabilityfor combination of hori-zontal and verticalalignment. In thesecases it is necessary towork toward long tan-gent sections to secure
sufficient passing sight
distance in design.
(f) Horizontal curvatureand profile should bemade as Qat as feasi-
ble at intersectionswhere sight distancea1mg both roads isimportant and vehiclesmay have to slowdown or stop.
(g) On divided roads, vari-ation in the width ofmedian, and the use ofseparate profiles andhorizontal alignmentsshould be considered
to derive design andoperational advantages
of one-way roadways.Where traffic justifiesprovision of 4 lanes, asuperior design withoutadditional cost general-
ly results from the con-cept and logical designbasis of oneway road-ways
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Page 70ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 8/86
CHAPTER 5
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
5.1. PAVEMENT
5.1.1 Surface Type
The selection of the pavement
type is determined by the vol-
ume and composition of traf-fic, soil characteristics, weath-er, availability of materials, theinitial cost and the overallannual maintenance and serv-ice life cost.
Pavements may be consid-ered as three general types -high, intermediate and low.High type pavements are justi-fied for high volume traffic for
which it is fitting that the sur-face have smooth riding quali-ties and good nonskid proper-ties in all weather.Intermediate type pavementvary from those only slightlyless costly and with somewhat
less strength than high typepavements to surface treat-
ments. Low type pavementsrange from surface treatedearth roads and stabilized,materials to loose surfacesuch as earth and gravel.
The important characteristics
of surface type in relation togeometric design are the abili-ty of a surface to retain theshape and dimensions, the
ability to drain, and the effecton driver's behavior. Table 5-1
gives the general selection ofthe pavement surface typesfor the various road stan-dards. For minor roads ofgrades exceeding 8%, thesurface and shoulder shouldbe sealed to prevent erosion.
The structural design of thepavement should be in accor-dance to Arahan Teknik(Jalan) - 5/85 "Manual OnPavement Design''.
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CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-1 : PAVEMENT SURFACE TYPE
Where : H : High Type Pavement
I : Intermediate Type Pavemant
L : Low Type Pavement
Design Standard PavementType
Description
R6 / U6 H / H Asphaltic Concrete / Concrete
R5 / U5 H / H Asphaltic Concrete / Concrete
R4 / U4 I / H Dense Bituminous Macadam / Asphaltic Concrete / Concrete
R3 / U3 I / I Bitumenous Macadam / Concrete
R2 / U2 I / I Surface Treatment / Semigrout
R1 / U1 L / I Earth Gravel / Semigrout
R1a / U1a L Surface Treatment / Semigrout
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5.2 LANE WIDTHS AND MARGINALSTRIPS
Lane widtlis and the conditionof the pavement surface arethe most important features ofa road pertaining to the safetyand comfort of driving, The
capacity of a highway ismarkedly affected by the 'lane
width and in a capacity sense,the effective width of a trav-elled way, is further reducedwhen adjacent obstructions
such as retaining walls, bridgepiers and parked cars restrictthe lateral clearance.
Marginal strip is a narrowpavement strip attached to
both edges of a carriageway.It is paved to the same stan-dard as the pavement struc-tures. For divided roads, themarginal strips are providedon both sides of the carriage-
way in both directions. Themarginal strip is included aspart of the shoulder width andis demarcated from the
through lane by lane edgemarkings on the marginalstrip.
Table 5-3 indicates the laneand marginal strip widths thatare to be used for the variousroad standards.
CHAPTER 5
5.1.2 Normal Cross Slope
Cross slopes are an important element in the cross-section designand a reasonably steep lateral slope is desirable to minimise waterponding on flat sections of uncurbed pavements due to pavement
imperfections or unequal settlements and to control the flow of wateradjacent to the curb on curbed pavements. Table 5-2 indicates the
range of cross slopes for various pavement types.
TABLE 5-2: NORMAL PAVEMENTS CROSS SLOPE
Surface Type Cross Slope Rate ( percent )
High
Intermediate
Low
2.5
2.5 - 3.5
2.5 - 6.0
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On 6-lane: divided highways,
the middle lane of the threelanes on each direction shouldhave a wider lane of 3.75m
when the commercial vehiclevolume exceeds 20% of thetotal traffic.
Figure 5-10A and 15-10Bshows examples of the usageof the above wider lama of3.75m and the usage of themarginal strips.
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-3 : LANE AND MARGINAL STRIP WIDTH
NOTE : ( ) denotes the total two-way lane width
Design Standard Lane Width ( m ) Marginal StripWidth ( m )
R6 / U6
R5 / U5
R4 / U4
R3 / U3
R2 / U2
R1 / U1
R1a / U1a
3.50
3.50
3.25
3.00
2.75
( 5.00 )
( 5.40 )
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.00
0.00
0.00
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5.3 SHOULDERS
5.3.1 General Characteristics
A shoulder is the portion ofthe roadway continuous with
the travelled way for accomo-dation of stopped vehicle, foremergency use and forLateral support of the pave-ment.
Their main functions are :
(a) space is provided foremergency stoppingfree of the traffic lane.
(b) space is provided forthe occasional motorist
who desires 'to stop forvarious reasons.
(c) space is provided toescape potential acci-dents or reduce their
severity.
(d) the sense of opennesscreated by shoulders ofadequate width con-tributes to driving easeand comfort.
(e) sight distances is
improved in cut sec-tions, thereby improv-ing safety.
(f) highway capacity is
improved and uniformspeed is encouraged.
(g) lateral clearance is pro-
vided for signs andguardrails.
(h) structural support is
given to the pavement.
5.3.2 Width of Shoulders
The normal. usable shoulderwidth that should be providedalong high type facilities is3m. However, in difficult ter-
rain and on lout volume roads,
usable shoulders of this widthmay not be feasible. A mini-mum usable shoulder width of0.6m should be considered insuch cases.Table 5--4A and 5--4B gives
the widths of shoulders for thevarious road standards in ruraland urban areas.
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CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-4 : SHOULDER WIDTH ( RURAL )
TABLE 5-4Ba SHOULDER WIDTH (URBAN)
( * ) For Area Type see Table 3-2B
DesignStandard Usable Shoulder Width ( M )
Terrain
Flat Rolling Mountainous
R6R5R4
R3R2R1R1a
3.003.003.00
2.502.001.501.50
3.003.003.00
2.502.001.501.50
2.502.502.00
2.001.501.501.50
DesignStandard
Usable Shoulder Width ( M )
Area Type *
I II III
U6U5
U4U3U2U1
U1a
3.003.00
3.002.502.001.50
1.50
3.003.00
2.502.001.501.50
1.50
2.502.50
2.001.501.501.50
1.50
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5.3.3 Shoulder Cross Slope
All shoulders should, besloped sufficiently to rapidlydrain surface water but not to
the extend that vehicular usewould be hazardous. Because
the type of shoulder construc-tion has a bearing on thecross-slope, the two should bedetermined jointly.
Bituminous and concrete sur-faced shoulders should be
sloped from 2, to 6 percent,
gravel or crushed rock shoulders from 4 to 6 percent andturf shoulders 6 percent.Where kerbs are used on theoutside of the shoulders, theminimum cross-slope shoud
not be less char 4 percent toprevent ponding on the road-way.
At supereleiated areas, theshoulder cross-slopes should
be adjusted to ensure that themaximum "roll over" does notexceed 8 percent.
5,3.4 Shoulder Structure
For shoulders to functioneffectively, they must be suffi-
ciently stable to support occa-sional vehicle loads , in allkinds of weather without rut-ting. Paved or stabilisedshoulders offers many advan-
tages in this aspect, Pavedshoulders of the samestrength and standard as thepavement should be consid-ered for road standards R6,
R5 and U6, U5 while sta-
bilised shoulders designed tocater for 50% of the designtraffic should be consideredfor road standards R4, R3 and
U4, U3. For road standardsR2, R1, U7,, U1 and R1a, the
normal earth type shouldercan be used. However, wheregradients exceed 8% theshoulders should also bepaved to prevent erosion.
5.4 KERBS
5.4.1 General Consideration
The type and location of kerbs
appreciably affect driver'sbehaviour and in turn thesafety and usage of a road.Kerbs are used for drainagecontrol, pavement edge delin-eation, aesthetics, delineationof pedestrian walkways and to
assist in the orderly develop-ment of the roadside.
Kerbs are needed mostly onroads in urban areas. In ruralareas, the use of kerbs shouldbe avoided as far as possible
except in localised areas
which has predominantaspects of an urban condition.
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5.4.2 Types of Kerbs
The two general classes ofkerbs are BARRIER KERBSand MOUNTABLE KERBS
and each has numerous typesand detail design. Each may
be designed as a separateunit or integrally with thepavement. They may also bedesigned with a gutter te, forma combination kerb and guttersection.
Barrier kerb are relatively high
and steep faced and aredesigned to inhibit or discour-age vehicles from leaving theroadway. They should not beused on expressways. Theyshould alsc not be used
where the design speedsexceed 70 km/hr. or in combi-nation with traffic barriers.They are recommended foruse in built-up areas adjacentto footpaths with considerable
pedestrian traffic, wherepedestrian traffic is light, asemibarrier type may be used.
Mountable kerbs are used todefine pavement edges ofthrough carriageways. For
channelisation islands, medi-ans, outer separators or any
other required delineationwithin the roadway, a ,semi-mountable type may be used.
Figure 5-1 shows the various
standard types of kerbs thatare to be used.
The width of kerbs are con
sidered as cross section elements entirely outside the traf-fic lane width. However, fordrainage kerbs, the gutter
section may be considered aspart of the marginal strip.
Where roadways do not haveany marginal strip, an offset of0.3 to 01.6m is desirable.
5.5 SIDEWALKS
Sidewalks are accepted asintegral parts of urban roadsand should be providedexcept on Urban Expresswaysor Major Arterials where the
presence of pedestrians areminimal. However, the needfor sidewalks in many ruralareas is great because of thehigh speed and general lackof adequate lighting and due
consideration must be givenfor it especially at points ofcommunity development suchas schools, local business andindustrial plants that results inhigh pedestrian concentra-tions. While there are no
numerical warrants, the justifi-cation for a sidewalk depends
on the vehicle-pedestrian haz-ard which is
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governed by the volumes of
padestrian and vehicular. traf-fic, their relative timiag andthe speed of the vehiculartraffic.
In urban areas, sidewalks can
be placed adjacent to the curband raised above the pave-ment. In the absence of curbs,a strip of a minimum width of1.0m must be providedbetween the sidewalk and thetravelled way to allow for
planting of trees or safety bar-
riers.
In rural areas, sidewalks mustbe placed well away from thetravelled way and separatedfrom the shoulder by at least
1.0m.
A desriable minimum width of2.Om is to be provided for allsidewalks. Where there arerestrictions on right of way, a
minimum of 1.25m can beconsidered. When provided,sidewalks must have allweather surfaces.
5.6 TRAFFIC BARRIERS
Traffic barriers are used tominimise the severity ofpotential accidents involvingvehicles leaving the travelledway. Because barriers are a
hazard in themselves, empha-sis should be on minimisingthe number of such installa-tions. Arahan Teknik (Jalan)1/8.5 "A2anual On Design
Guidelines of Longitudinal
Traffic Barrier" (May, 1984)should be used for the designof longitudinal traffic barriers.
5.7 MEDIANS
5.7.1 General
A median is a highly desirableelement on all roads carryingfour or more lanes and should
be provided wherever possi-
ble. The principal functions ofa median are to provide thedesired freedom front theinterference of opposing traf-fic, to provide a recovery areafor out-of-control vehicles, to
provide for speed changesand storage of right-turningand U-turning vehicles and toprovide for future lanes.
For maximum efficiency, a
medium should be highly visi-ble both night and day and indefinite contrast to the throughtraffic lanes.
5.7.2 Median Types and Width
Medians may be depressed
raised or flush with the pave-ment surface. They should beas wide as feasible but of adimension in balanced withother components of the
cross-section. The generalrange of median width variesfrom a minimum of 1.0 m in aType III urban situation to adesirable width of 18m on
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a rural expressway. On wide medi-
ans, it is essential to have adepressed centre or swale to providefor drainage.
Figure 5-2 gives examples of kerbedand unkerbed medians while Table 5-
5A and 5-5B gives the minimum anddesirable widths and types of medi-ans that are to be applied to the vari-ous road standards. The medianwidths as expressed are the dimen-sions between the through laneedges and includes the right shoul-
ders if any.
CHAPTER 5
TABLE5-5A : MEDIAN WIDTH AND TYPES (RURAL)
Note : Min. - MinimumDes. - Desirable (for consideration of landscaping)
DesignStandard
Median Width ( M )
MedianTypeTerrain
Flat Rolling Mountainous
Min. Des. Min. Des. Min. Des.
R6
R5
R4
6.0
4.0
3.0
18.0
12.0
9.0
5.0
3.5
2.5
12.5
9.0
6.5
4.0
3.0
2.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
B, C, E, F
E, F
E, F
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5.8 SERVICE ROADS
5.8.1 General
Service roads are generallyfound in urban areas and theycan have numerous functions,depending on the type of road
they serve and the characterof the surrounding area. Theymay be used to controlaccess or function'as a streetfacility serving adjoining prop-erty. They segregate local traf-
fic from the higher speedthrough traffic and interceptdriveways of residences andcommercial establishmentsalong the road. Service roadsalso not only provide morefavourable access for com-
mercial and residential devel-ovment than the faster movingarterials but also helps to pre-serve the safety and capacity
of the latter.
5.8.2 Design Requirements
From an operational. andsafety standpoint, one wayservice roads are nuch prei-ferred to two-way and should
be considered. One-way oper-
ation inconveniences localtraffic to some degree, but theadvantages in reduction invehicular and pedestrian con-flicts at intersecting streetsoften fully compensate for this
inconvenience.
Two-way service roads may
be considered for partiallydeveloped urban areas wherethe adjoining road system isso irregular and disconnected
that. one-way operation wouldintroduce considerable added
travel distance and causeundue inconvenience. Two-way service roads may alsobe necessary for suburban orrural areas where points ofaccess to the through facilityare infrequent; where only one
service road is provided,
where roads connecting withthe service roads are widelyspaced or where there is noparallel street within reason-able distance of the serviceroads in urban areas that are
developed or likely to b edeveloped.
The design of a service roadis affected by the type of serv-ice it is intended to provide.
When provided, they shouldalways cater or at least oneside on-street parking. Theyshould be at least: 7.25mwide for one-way operationand 9.25m for two-way opera-tion. Figure 5-3 gives the rec-
ommended layout for a tw-o-way operation service road
fronting an urban arterialwhere the distance betweenjunctions is greater than 0.5km. The minimum reservewidth for a service road is
12m.
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5. 9 PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS
5. 9.1 General Considerations
Pedestrian crossings (whetherlevel, overpass or underpass)
should be provided wherepedestrian volumes, traffic vol-umes, intersection capacityand other conditions favourtheir use. They may be war-ranted in areas of heavy peakpedestrian movements such
as factories, schools, athletic
fields or control business dis-tricts or where abnormal haz-ards or inconveniences topedestrians would otherwiseresult.
Table 5-6 gives the general
guidelines for determining thetype of crossing that isrequired. Where the pedestri-an and vehicle volumes does
not fit into any of the categoryshown, judgement is needed
in the assessment of the typeof crossing required.
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-6 : GUIDELINE FOR TYPE OF CROSSING REQUIRED
Pedestrian Volume atpeak hour
Traffic Volume ( 1 way )at peak hour
Type of Crossing
< 50
50 - 100
> 100
< 1000
100 - 2000
> 2000
Ordinary level crossing
Signalised level srossing
Overhead crossing /underpass
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For roads with dual 3-lanes or
more, an overhead crossingor underpass hcali aI.wz!ys heconsidered if a pedestriancrossing is justified so as not
to impede the smooth flow oftraffic unduly.
Where justified, the locationand design of the pedestriancrossing would require anindividual study. Where over-head pedestrian crossings areprovided, side barriers must
be installed. to prevent jay-
walking. Such barriers shallbe installed for a distance of75m on both sides of the loca-tion of the crossing. The mini-mum spacing between cross-ings is 400m.
For overhead pedestriancrossings, standard JKRdesigns shall be used as faras possible. These are avail-able from the Road Design
Unit.
5.9.2 School Level Crossing
The installation of a full trafficsignal school level crossing
should be considered whenthe following warrants are
met:
Either (a) 500 vehicles /hour on the roadand 100 school
children/hourcrossing duringthe peak hours.
Or (b) 500 vehicles /
hour on the roadduring the peakhour and a mini-mum of 500
school childrenduring the entire
day.
Where the above warrant fora full traffic signal school levelcrossing is not met, anunsignalised crossing mustalways be provided.
5.10 U-TURNS
5.10.1 General Considerations
Divided highways requiremedian openings to accomo-date vehicles making U turnsin addition to right turning andcross traffic. Separate U-turnmedian openings may be
required at the following loca-tions :
a. Locations beyond inter-sections to accomodate
minor turuing move-nente not otherwise
provided in the inter-section or interchangearea. The major inter-section area is keptfree for the important
turning movements, insome cases obviatingexpensive ramps oradditional structures.
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b. Locations just ahead of
an intersection to acco-modate U-turn move-ments that would inter-fere with through and
other turning movements at the intersec-
tion. Where a fairlywide median on theapproach roadway hasfew openings, 1U-turn-ing is necessary toreach roadside areas.Advance separate
openings to accomo-
date them outside theintersection proper willreduce interference.
c. Locations occurring inconjunction with minor
crossroads where traf-fic is not permitted tocross the major roadbut instead is requiredto turn left, enter thethrough traffic stream,
weave to the right, U-turn, then return. Onhigh-speed or high-vol-ume roads,the difficultyand long lengthsrequired for weavingwith safety usually
make this design pat-tern undesirable unless
the volumes intercept-ed are light and themedian is of adequatewidth. This conditionmay occur where a
crossroad with highvolurne traffic, a shop-ping area, or other traf-fic generator thatrequires a median
opening nearby and
additional medianopenings would not bepractical.
d Locations occurringwhere regularly spaced
openings facilitatemaintenance opera-tions, policing, repairservice of stalled vehi-cles, or other highway-related activities.Openings for this pur-
pose may be needed
on controlled-accessroads and on dividedroads through undevel-oped areas.
e. Locations occurring on
roads without control ofaccess where medianopenings at optimumspacing are provided toserve existing frontagedevelopments and at
the same time minimizepressure for futuremedian openings.
5.10.2 Design Considerations
U-turning vehicles interferewith through traffic by
encroaching on part or all ofthe through traffic lanes. Theyare made at low speeds andthe required speed change isnormally made on the through
traffic lanes with weaving toand from the outer lanes. Assuch U-turn facilities arepotential hazard areas.Careful consideration should.
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be made not only on the need
for it but also on the type andlocation of the U-turns.
(a) Minimum Design four
Direct U-Turns
For direct U-Turns, thewidth of the highway,including the medianshould be sufficient topermit the turn to bemade withoutencroachment beyond
the outer edges of the
pavements. Figure 5-4gives the minimumwidth of the mediumrequired for the varioustypes of maneuvers fordirect U-turns.
For direct U-Turns, thelayout in Figure 5-5Aand B is suggestedWhere direct U-Turnswill not be feasiblebecause of median
restrictions, indirect U-Turns can be used.
(b) Indirect U-Turns
Indirect U--Turns can
take many forms, thesimpliest being to allow
traffic to use existinglocal streets or to goaround the block fortheir turning move-ments. Where medians
are narrow, the specialindirect U-turn asshown in Figure 5-6can be used. IndirectU-Turns are only to be
used for Road
Standards R4, U4 andU3 only.
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CHAPTER 5
TABLE 4-s P ~t Widening On Open Road Curves
PKNW Win (m ) 7 5.5 5-5 REU8iE0
DESM SPEED (Km/h) 80 50 50 l0 60 50 40 30 50 40 30 70 (M)
P--470 8-340 R> 180 R-1- 230 R'-' 1100 R 2 880 Rar 680 R2510 R R'100 R' 68 R> 52 M39 39 MORE
M- 340- 20- 2309 1100>n 880- 670} 520;*- 68~ 52=- 39>
~-8U R-Ir 11-- R 1 3 0 R=340 R - 2 8 0 0 R ~ Z% R ICU I t - 4u R al.i
I f - a
180~' 150s- 130- 340 - 280- 230y 1 90- J7~'
R~t150 R~-100 8286 R ~180 R~150 R'130 R'110 R'`24 1
86' 180' 150- 130=- 110=- 24 , . y
R264 R;!'150 R y100 R286 8274 4'-16
Note:64~8260
86aR265
74~R251
16~R' 15
1.25
s
65'R260
578245
154
45:
R238
1.75
35>
R2-- 35 2, 4
e
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CHAPTER 5
DIMENSION MINIMUMDISTANCE ( m )
DIMENSION MINIMUMDISTANCE ( m )
m
1
a
4
8
20
R1
R2
b
50
100
60
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CHAPTER 5
(c) Locations for U-Turns
The locations of U-Turns are very important and proper consid-eration should be given to it. As a general guide, Table 5-8 canbe used to determine the minimum distances between U-turns.
TABLE 5-8 : DISTANCES BETWEEN U-TURNS
5.11 BRIDGE AND STRUCTURE CROSS-SECTIONS
5.11.1 Width of Shoulders
For bridges that are less than 100m long, the width of the usableshoulders should follow that as indicated in Table 5-4A and 5-4B.Where bridges are longer than 100m, the values as shown inTable 5-9 should be used. Figure 5-7 shows the typical bridge cross-
section to be used.
Design
Standard
Distance between
U-turns
Design
Standard
Distance between
U-turns
R6
R5
R4
No. U-Turns allowed
3 km
2 km
U6
U5
U4
U3
No. U-Turns allowed
2 km
1 km
0.5 km
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CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-9 : USABLE SHOULDER WIDTH FOR BRIDGES > 100m
Design Standard Usable Shoulder Width ( m )
R6 / U6
R5 / U5
R4 / U4
R3 / U3
R2 / U2
R1 / R1a
R1a / U1a
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
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CHAPTER 5
NOTE:1) ALL DIMENSIONS ARE. IN MILLIMETRES UNLESS STATED
OTHERWISE.
2) DESIRABLE WIDTH Of SIDEWALK I'' is 2- 0 m. A MINIMUM WIDTH TOBE USED IS 1.25 m.
3 ) WIDTH OF CYCLE LANE "C" 15 AS INDICATED IN TABLE 5 - 12.
4) MINIMUM WIDTH Of 'K' TO HE USED IS 300mm. FOR PROVISION OFSERVICE DUCTS THIS VALUE IS TO BE INCREASED.
5) KERBS FOR BRIDGES ARE LEFT TO DISCRETION.
DESIGNSTANDARD
CARRIAGEWAY( L )
SHOULDER ( S ) MARGINALSTRIP( M )
SPAN < 100m SAPN > 100m
R5 / U5
R4 / U4
R3 / U3
R2 / U2
R1 / U1
R1a / U1a
7000
6500
6000
6000
6000
6000
3000
3000
2500
2000
1500
1500
1500
1000
1000
500
500
500
500
250
250
0
0
0
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5.11.2 Required Warance
(a) The clear verticalheight of all structuresshould be at least 5.0m
over the entire width oftraffic lanes, auxiliamy
lanes and lateral clear-ance areas to kerbs,walls on piers includingshoulders. However, forstructures over railwaylines, the minimum ver-tical clearance above
the rail level should be
at least 6.5m to meetthe requirements ofKeretapi Tanah Melayu.For underpasses, anadditional clearance of300mm should be pro-
vided initially to allowfor one to two cycles offuture resurfacings.
(b) For minor roads andlocal streets or where
alternative routes withclearances above 5.Omwithin a reasonable dis-tance are available, theclear vertical clearancemay be reduced to aminimum of 4.6m.
(c) Figure 5-8 indicates the
clearance required atunderpasses for vari-ous types of cross-sec-tions.
5.12 BUS LAYBYES
Bus laybyes serve to removethe bus from the through traf-fic lanes. Its location and
design should therefore pro-vide ready access in the
safest and most efficient man-ner possible. The basicrequirenent is that the decel-eration, standing and acceler-ation of the buses be effectedon pavement areas clear ofand separated from the
through traffic lanes.
The locations of bus laybyesare important so as not toimpede the normal flow oftraffic. In this respect, bus lay-byes must not be located on
any interchange ramps orstructures, slip roads or within60m of any junction or inter-section. The distance betweenlaybyes too should not be lessthan 150m. Liason will need
to be made also with the rele-vant bus companies and therespective Local Authority.
For school areas, provision ofbus laybyes and parkingareas should be specifically
studied so as to ensure theunimpeded flow of traffic.
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F1gure 5-9 show the typical
layout and dimensions of buslaybyes that are to be use inboth rural and urban areas. Ifpossible dividing area
between the outer edge of theroadway shoulder rind the
edge of the bus laybye laneshould be provided. Thisdividing area should be aswide as possible but not lessthan 0.6m.
The pavement areas of the
laybyes Should be of concrete
for contrast in ce)lour and tex-ture with the through trafficlanes to discourage throughtraffic from encroaching on orentering the bus stop.
5.13 MINIMUM RESERVE WIDTH
An adequate road reservewidth is important to cater notonly for the present demandsof traffic but more so for the
future requirements as bythen,it may not be possible toacquire any more additionalland. Figure 5-2 OA and 5-108 show examples of thetypical cross-sections for vari-
ous road standard in rural andurban areas together with the
minimum reserve required,while Table 5-10 lists the mini-mum reserve widths for thevarious road standards. Thevalues as shown in Table 5-10
are for road standards in flatareas and will need to beincreased accordingly forareas involving deep cuts orfills.
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CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-10 : MINIMUM RESERVE WIDTH
Area Road Category Design Standard Minimum Reservewidth ( m )
RURAL
Expressway R6 60
Highway R5 60
Primary Road R5R4
5040
Secondary Road R4R3
3020
Minor Road R2R1R1a
201212
URBAN
Expressway U6 60
Arterials U5U4
5040
Collector U4U3
4030
Local Street U3U2U1U1a
20201212
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5.14 EXCLUSIVE CYCLE LANES
5.14.1 General Considerations
In areas where there is usual-ly a high proportion of motor
cyclists, the volume may beso substantial as to affect thesmooth flow of traffic. In suchinstances, the provision ofseparate and exclusive cyclelanes should be considered.Figure 5-11 shows the various
types of cycle tracks used.
The general warrant for deter-mining the need for an exclu-sive cycle lane are:
(i) the total volume of traffic exceeds the provid-
ed lane cspacity
and
(ii) the volume of motorcy-cles exceeds 20% of
the total volume of traf-fic.
5.14.2 Elements of Design
(a) Design Speed
The design speed to beused is 60 km/hr.However, where thereare physical constraints, this may be
lowered.
(b) Sight Distance
The priciples as estab-lished in Section 4.1also applies.
(c) Horizontal Aligriment
(i) Minimum Radius
The followingformula is usedin determining
the required min-
imum radius forthe curves.
R = 0.24V + 0.43
where R = radius ofcurve in(m)
V = speed inkm/hr
Table 5-11 gives theminimum radius thatare to be used indesign. Flatter curvesshould always be used
wherever possible.There is no necessity
to provide any transi-tion ( spiral ) curves.
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CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-11 : MINIMUM RADIUS FOR DESIGN
(ii) Curve Treatment
To allow for the motorcyclist to lean on curves, there is aneed to increase the width through the curve. A maxi-mum widening of 1.2m is to be allowed. Figure 5-12shows the curve treatment that is to be used.
(iii) Superelevation
The maximum superele-vation to be used is 0.06.Superelevation should be applied from the tangent pointto its required value at the point of maximum widening.This is as shown in Figure 5-13.
(d) Vertical Alignment
(i) Grades
The maximuin grade allot,7ed is 10% with a minimumgrade Df 0.5%. At very flat areas, the minimum gradecan be reduced further but with prior approval.
Design Speed ( km / hr ) Minimum Radius ( m )
30
40
50
60
70
80
8
10
13
15
18
20
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CHAPTER 5
R - RADIUS OF CURVEW - WIDTHA - CENTRAL ANGLE OF IHE CURVE OF THE DEFLECrION BETWEEN TAN-
GENTS,
MAXIMUM WIDEWING SHALL BE LIMITED TO 1.2M.
WHEN WKNK WANES I- 2M. (A 2' 95 - 4.) THAI WITH SHALL BE CAN G ON A MIS OF R-4 THROUGH THE CENTRAL PORITION OF THE CURVE (A>96.4) ASSHOWN
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CHAPTER 5
(ii) Vertical Curves
The minimum vertical curve length to be used is15m. On sag vert.ical curves, the design shouldbe such as to avoid any ponding of surface water.
5.14.3 Cross-Section Elements
(a) Lane Width
The required widths of the cycle lane is as shown inTable 5-12, The cycle lane must be separated from anypedestrian sidewalk and the width of separation must be
at Least 10-in.
TABLE 5-12 : WIDTH OF CYCLE LANE
(b) Pavement
The pavement structure will vary according to groundand sub-surface conditions, volume of motorcycles andand type of use. Two types of standard design havebeen selected and are to be used. They are as indicated
in Figure 5-14. The normal crossfall of the pavement is2 %.
Volume ofmotorcycle / hr
Width of Cycle Lane ( m )
Minimum Desirable
1000 - 1500
1500 - 2000
> 2000
2.0
2.5
3.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
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5.14.4 Intersection Treatment
At intersection or interchangex, some form of chan-nelisation with specific roaces
for rhe motor should be pro-vided to minimise conflicts
that will arise. Possible inter-section treatment typesinclude (i) at-grade or(ii) gzade-separated. The typeof intersection treatment willdepend on the volume of thetraffic and the volume of
motorcycles.
(a) An-Grade IntersectionTreatment
An at-grade intersec-tion treatment is suffi-
cient where the volumeof motorcycles dces notexceed 30 percent ofthe total volume of traf-fic at the particularintersection at. the
peak hour.An at-grade intersec-tion treatment is suffi-cient with propeyAgning, speed limitsand lane markings.
(b) Grade SeparatedIntersection Treatment
When the volume ofmotorcycles exceeds30 percent of the totalvolume of traffic at the
particular intersectionat the peak hour orwhen an at-grade inter-secricn treatment doesnot provide a smooth
flow or adequate safety
to the motorcyclistsgrace separated inter-section treatmentshould be considered.
These can be easily
incorporated at round-about and other inter-sections with the provi-sion of underpasses(box culvert type).
The type of the under-
pass must have a 2.5m
clearance with a maxi-mum slope of 10 per-cent. They should belighted to give bettervisibility and safety dur-ing the night Lime.
CHAPTER 5
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CHAPTER 6
OTHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING
6.1 Road Safety
Road safety have been amuch neglected area in thedesign of roads. With anincreasing number, of acci-dents each year, attention to
road safety should be empha-
sised. While the road elementis only one of the three groupsof influences causing acci-dents, it is nonetheless theresponsibility of the designerto provide as safe a road envi-
ronment as possible.
In this aspect, the road designshould be one with uniformlyhigh standards applied consis-tently over a section. It should
avoid discontinuities such asabrupt maljior changes indesign speeds, trarisitions inroadway crass-section, theintroduction of a short-radiuscurve in a series of longerradius curves, a change from
full to partial control of access,constrictions in roadway width
by narrow bridges or otherstructures, intersections with-out adequate sight distances,or other fail