Applied linguistics seminar oct 6th 2009 - age of acquisition

““How Languages are How Languages are Learned”Learned”

Patsy Lightbown and Nina SpadaPatsy Lightbown and Nina Spada

Factors affecting second Factors affecting second language learninglanguage learning

Rhaíza Bastos

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE VIÇOSAUNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE VIÇOSACENTRO DE CIÊNCIAS HUMANAS, LETRAS E ARTESCENTRO DE CIÊNCIAS HUMANAS, LETRAS E ARTES

DEPARTAMENTO DE LETRASDEPARTAMENTO DE LETRASSECRETARIADO EXECUTIVO TRILÍNGUESECRETARIADO EXECUTIVO TRILÍNGUE

IntroductionIntroduction

Characteristics of the learner > Characteristics of the learner > affect learning of the second affect learning of the second language.language.

- intelligence- intelligence-aptitude-aptitude-personality-personality-motivational’-motivational’

Focus on Focus on age.age.

IndexIndex

1) Age of Acquisition1) Age of Acquisition 2) Critical Period Hypothesis: More than just 2) Critical Period Hypothesis: More than just

accent?accent? 3) Mastery of the spoken language (Mark 3) Mastery of the spoken language (Mark

Patkowski 1980)Patkowski 1980) 4) Intuitions of grammaticality (Johnson and 4) Intuitions of grammaticality (Johnson and

Newport 1989).Newport 1989). 5) Is younger really better? (Snow and 5) Is younger really better? (Snow and

Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978) 6) At what age should L2 instruction begin?6) At what age should L2 instruction begin? 7) Final Considerations 7) Final Considerations 8) Further Reading8) Further Reading Brief comment on Acquisition X Learning Brief comment on Acquisition X Learning

(Krashen´s Theory)(Krashen´s Theory) 9) Proposal Debate (suggested questions)9) Proposal Debate (suggested questions)

Age of acquisitionAge of acquisition Children from immigrant families eventually Children from immigrant families eventually

speak the language of their new community speak the language of their new community with native-like fluency, but their parents with native-like fluency, but their parents rarely achieve such high levels of mastery of rarely achieve such high levels of mastery of the spoken languagethe spoken language . .

Many adult second language learners become Many adult second language learners become capable of communicating very successfully in capable of communicating very successfully in the language but, for most, differences of the language but, for most, differences of accentaccent, , word choiceword choice, or , or grammatical grammatical featuresfeatures distinguish them from native distinguish them from native speakers and from second language speakers speakers and from second language speakers who began learning the language while they who began learning the language while they were very young.were very young.

Age of acquisition Age of acquisition The The Critical Period HypothesisCritical Period Hypothesis suggests suggests

that there is a time in human development that there is a time in human development when the when the brain is predisposedbrain is predisposed for for successsuccess in language learningin language learning..

According to this view, language learning According to this view, language learning which occurs which occurs afterafter the end of the critical the end of the critical period may period may not be based on the innate not be based on the innate biological structuresbiological structures believed to contribute believed to contribute to first language acquisition or second to first language acquisition or second language acquisition in early childhood. language acquisition in early childhood.

Age of acquisitionAge of acquisition It is most often claimed that the critical It is most often claimed that the critical

period period ends somewhere around pubertyends somewhere around puberty but but some researches suggest it could be even some researches suggest it could be even earlier.earlier.

Younger learners in Younger learners in informal language informal language learning environmentslearning environments usually have more usually have more time to devote to learning language > time to devote to learning language > environments where they environments where they do not experience do not experience strong pressure to speak fluently and strong pressure to speak fluently and accuratelyaccurately from the very beginning. from the very beginning.

Age of acquisitionAge of acquisition

On the other hand, older learners > On the other hand, older learners > situations which demand much more situations which demand much more complex languagecomplex language and the expression and the expression of much more of much more complicated ideascomplicated ideas. . Adults are often Adults are often embarrassed by embarrassed by their lack of mastery.their lack of mastery.

The Critical Period Hypothesis has been The Critical Period Hypothesis has been challenged in recent years from several challenged in recent years from several different points of view.different points of view.

Some studies of the L2 development of older and Some studies of the L2 development of older and younger learners who are learning in similar younger learners who are learning in similar circumstances have shown that:circumstances have shown that: - - at least in the early stages of L2 developmentat least in the early stages of L2 development, , older learners are more efficient that younger older learners are more efficient that younger learners;learners; - in educational research, it has been reported - in educational research, it has been reported that learners who began learning an L2 at the that learners who began learning an L2 at the primary school level did not far better in the long run primary school level did not far better in the long run that those who began in early adolescence;that those who began in early adolescence; - furthermore, there are countless anecdotes - furthermore, there are countless anecdotes about older learners (adolescents and adults) who about older learners (adolescents and adults) who have reached high levels of proficiency in a second have reached high levels of proficiency in a second language.language.Does this mean there is no critical period for Does this mean there is no critical period for

second language acquisition?second language acquisition?

Critical Period Hypothesis: Critical Period Hypothesis: More than just accent?More than just accent?

Usual focus on pronunciation Usual focus on pronunciation achievementachievement

Older learners almost inevitably Older learners almost inevitably have a noticeable “foreign accent”have a noticeable “foreign accent”

What about other linguistic features What about other linguistic features such as morphology and syntax?such as morphology and syntax?

Mastery of the spoken Mastery of the spoken languagelanguage

(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980) Study > effect of age on the acquisition of Study > effect of age on the acquisition of

features of na L2 other than accent.features of na L2 other than accent. He hypothesized that, He hypothesized that, even if accent even if accent

were ignoredwere ignored, only who had begun , only who had begun learning their L2 before the age of 15 learning their L2 before the age of 15 could ever achieve full, native-like mastery could ever achieve full, native-like mastery of that language. of that language.

67 highly educated immigrants67 highly educated immigrants 15 native-born Americans English 15 native-born Americans English

speakersspeakers Tape recorded interview Tape recorded interview


(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980) Samples rated by trained native-speaker Samples rated by trained native-speaker

judgesjudges Rating scale > from 0 to 5 Rating scale > from 0 to 5

(no knowledge of the language X level (no knowledge of the language X level expected from an educated native speaker)expected from an educated native speaker)

““Will there be a difference between Will there be a difference between learners who began to learn English learners who began to learn English before puberty and those who began before puberty and those who began learning English later?”learning English later?”

Amount of time speaker had been in the U.SAmount of time speaker had been in the U.S Amount of formal ESL instructionAmount of formal ESL instruction


(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980) Thirty-two out of 33 subjects who had Thirty-two out of 33 subjects who had

begun learning English before the age begun learning English before the age of 15 scored at the 4+ or the 5 level.of 15 scored at the 4+ or the 5 level.

Homogeneity > pre-puberty learners > Homogeneity > pre-puberty learners > suggest that, for this group, success in suggest that, for this group, success in learning an L2 was almost inevitable.learning an L2 was almost inevitable.

The majority of the post-puberty The majority of the post-puberty learners centred around the 3+ level, learners centred around the 3+ level, but there was a wide distribution of but there was a wide distribution of levels achieved. levels achieved.


(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980) Patkowski´s first question was answered with a Patkowski´s first question was answered with a

very resounding “YES”.very resounding “YES”. Other factors affecting success in L2 Other factors affecting success in L2

acquisition > often turned out that age was so acquisition > often turned out that age was so closely related to the other factors that it was closely related to the other factors that it was not possible to separate them completely.not possible to separate them completely.

E.g.: Length of residence in the U.SE.g.: Length of residence in the U.S Thus, Patkowski found that age of acquisition is Thus, Patkowski found that age of acquisition is

a very important factor in setting limits on the a very important factor in setting limits on the development of native-like mastery of an L2 development of native-like mastery of an L2 and that this limitation does not apply only to and that this limitation does not apply only to accent. accent. These results gave added support to the These results gave added support to the Critical Period Hypothesis for L2 acquisition.Critical Period Hypothesis for L2 acquisition.

Intuitions of Intuitions of grammaticality (grammaticality (Johnson Johnson

and Newport 1989)and Newport 1989) Forty-six Chinese and Korean speakers who had Forty-six Chinese and Korean speakers who had begun to learn English at different agesbegun to learn English at different ages

All subjects were students or faculty at an American All subjects were students or faculty at an American university and all had been in the US for at least university and all had been in the US for at least three years. three years.

Twenty-three native speakers of EnglishTwenty-three native speakers of English Judgement of grammaticality task to test 12 rules of Judgement of grammaticality task to test 12 rules of

English morphology and syntax.English morphology and syntax. For those who began before the age of 15, and For those who began before the age of 15, and

specially before the age of 10, there were few specially before the age of 10, there were few individual differences in L2 ability. Those who began individual differences in L2 ability. Those who began later did not have native-like language abilities and later did not have native-like language abilities and were more likely to differ greatly from one another in were more likely to differ greatly from one another in ultimate attainment.ultimate attainment.

This study, then, further supports the This study, then, further supports the hypothesis that there is a critical period for hypothesis that there is a critical period for attaining full native-like mastery of a second attaining full native-like mastery of a second languagelanguage. .

Is younger really better? Is younger really better? (Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle (Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle

1978)1978) The progress of a group of English The progress of a group of English

speakers who were learning Dutch as an speakers who were learning Dutch as an L2.L2.

The learners they were following included The learners they were following included children as young as three years old as children as young as three years old as well as older children, adolescents, and well as older children, adolescents, and adults.adults.

PronunciationPronunciation Auditory discriminationAuditory discrimination test test MorphologyMorphology Sentence repetitionSentence repetition


1978)1978) Sentence translationSentence translation Sentence judgment taskSentence judgment task Peabody Picture Vocabulary TestPeabody Picture Vocabulary Test Story comprehension taskStory comprehension task Storytelling taskStorytelling task

Children (aged 3 to 10), Children (aged 3 to 10), adolescents (12 to 15 years), and adolescents (12 to 15 years), and adults (18 to 60 years).adults (18 to 60 years).


1978)1978) The children and adolescents all attended The children and adolescents all attended

Dutch schools. Dutch schools. Some of the adults worked in Dutch work Some of the adults worked in Dutch work

environments, but most of their Dutch environments, but most of their Dutch colleagues spoke English well. colleagues spoke English well.

The learners were tested three times, at The learners were tested three times, at four- to five-month intervalsfour- to five-month intervals. They were . They were first tested within first tested within six monthssix months of their of their arrival in Holland and within arrival in Holland and within six weekssix weeks of of their starting school or work in a Dutch-their starting school or work in a Dutch-language environment.language environment.


1978)1978)Activity > Comparing child, adolescent, Activity > Comparing child, adolescent,

and adult language learnersand adult language learners The The adolescentsadolescents were by far the most were by far the most

successful learners. They were ahead of successful learners. They were ahead of everyone on all but one of the tests everyone on all but one of the tests (pronunciation) on the first test session. (pronunciation) on the first test session.

It was the adults who were better than the It was the adults who were better than the children and adolescents on pronunciation in children and adolescents on pronunciation in the first test session. the first test session.

In other words, adolescents and adults In other words, adolescents and adults learned faster than children in the first few learned faster than children in the first few months of exposure to Dutch.months of exposure to Dutch.

By the end of the year, the children were catching up, or By the end of the year, the children were catching up, or had surpassed, the adults on several measure. had surpassed, the adults on several measure. Nevertheless, it was the adolescents who retained the Nevertheless, it was the adolescents who retained the highest levels of performance overall.highest levels of performance overall.

Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle concluded that their Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle concluded that their results provide evidence that there is no critical results provide evidence that there is no critical period for language acquisition.period for language acquisition.

Other interpretations:Other interpretations:. Some of the tasks, (for e.g. sentence judgement or . Some of the tasks, (for e.g. sentence judgement or

translation) were too hard for young learners. Even in their translation) were too hard for young learners. Even in their native language, these tasks would have been unfamiliar native language, these tasks would have been unfamiliar and difficult. In fact, young Dutch native speakers to whom and difficult. In fact, young Dutch native speakers to whom the L2 learners were compared also had trouble with these the L2 learners were compared also had trouble with these task.task.

. Adults and adolescents may learn faster in the early . Adults and adolescents may learn faster in the early stages of L2 development (especially if they are learning a stages of L2 development (especially if they are learning a language which is similar to their first one). Young children language which is similar to their first one). Young children eventually catch up and even surpass them ir their eventually catch up and even surpass them ir their exposure to the language takes place in contexts where exposure to the language takes place in contexts where they are surrounded by the language on a daily basis.they are surrounded by the language on a daily basis.

. Adults and adolescents can make considerable and . Adults and adolescents can make considerable and rapid progress towards mastery of an L2 in contexts where rapid progress towards mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make use of the language on a daily basis in they can make use of the language on a daily basis in social, personal, professional, or academic interaction.social, personal, professional, or academic interaction.

At what age should L2 At what age should L2 instruction begin?instruction begin?

It is essential to think carefully about the goals of It is essential to think carefully about the goals of an instructional program and the context in which an instructional program and the context in which it occurs before we jump to conclusions about the it occurs before we jump to conclusions about the necessity of the earliest possible start.necessity of the earliest possible start.

Age factor cannot be separated from factors such Age factor cannot be separated from factors such as motivation, social identity, and the conditions as motivation, social identity, and the conditions for learning. for learning.

Older learners may well speak with an accent Older learners may well speak with an accent because they want to continue being identified because they want to continue being identified with their first language cultural group.with their first language cultural group.

Adults rarely get access to the same quantity and Adults rarely get access to the same quantity and quality of language input that children receiver in quality of language input that children receiver in play settings.play settings.


Objective of L2 learning is native-like mastery Objective of L2 learning is native-like mastery of the target language > usually desirable for of the target language > usually desirable for the learner to be completely surrounded by the learner to be completely surrounded by the language as early as possible. the language as early as possible.

Early intensive exposure to the L2 may entail Early intensive exposure to the L2 may entail the loss or incomplete development of the the loss or incomplete development of the child´s first language.child´s first language.

We have often seen second or foreign We have often seen second or foreign language programs which begin with very language programs which begin with very young learners but offer only minimal contact young learners but offer only minimal contact with the language.with the language.


Even when students do make progress in these early-start Even when students do make progress in these early-start programs, they sometimes find themselves placed in programs, they sometimes find themselves placed in secondary school classes with students who have had no secondary school classes with students who have had no previous instruction. previous instruction.

When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per week, learners who star later (for e.g., at age 10, 11, or week, learners who star later (for e.g., at age 10, 11, or 12) often catch up with those who began earlier.12) often catch up with those who began earlier.

After years of classes, learners feel frustrated by the lack After years of classes, learners feel frustrated by the lack of progress, and their motivation to continue may be of progress, and their motivation to continue may be diminished.diminished.

One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when they L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when they began.began.

Final ConsiderationsFinal Considerations Age is Age is oneone of the characteristics which of the characteristics which

determine L2 learningdetermine L2 learning It is difficult to make precise predictions It is difficult to make precise predictions

about how a particular individual´s about how a particular individual´s characteristcs influence his or her success as characteristcs influence his or her success as a language learner.a language learner.

Nonetheless, in a classroom, a Nonetheless, in a classroom, a sensitive sensitive teacherteacher, who takes , who takes learners´ individual learners´ individual personalitiespersonalities and learning styles into and learning styles into account, can create a account, can create a learning environmentlearning environment in which all learners can be in which all learners can be successful in successful in learning an L2.learning an L2.

Further ReadingFurther Reading

Lighbown and Spada haven´t made Lighbown and Spada haven´t made a distinction between the terms a distinction between the terms learning learning and and acquisitionacquisition throughout throughout their study. However, according to their study. However, according to Krashen they are different systems.Krashen they are different systems.

Acquisition X LearningAcquisition X Learning

Proposal DebateProposal DebateSuggested QuestionsSuggested Questions

Is there actually a critical period for second Is there actually a critical period for second language acquisition?language acquisition?

Is it actually important/necessary to have native-Is it actually important/necessary to have native-like proficiency of the target language? Isn´t like proficiency of the target language? Isn´t being able to communicate enough? Is native-being able to communicate enough? Is native-like mastery always a goal to be achieved? like mastery always a goal to be achieved?

Now, if you have native-like mastery, what does Now, if you have native-like mastery, what does it bring about?it bring about?

On the text, it´s said that “One or two hours a On the text, it´s said that “One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when speakers, no matter how young they were when they began.” So how many hours of instruction they began.” So how many hours of instruction should we have in school programs? How to should we have in school programs? How to define that?define that?

Thank you very Thank you very much!much!

Rhaíza BastosRhaíza [email protected]@hotmail.com

Applied linguistics seminar oct 6th 2009 - age of acquisition

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