AOPA - Operations at Towered Airports

8/14/2019 AOPA - Operations at Towered Airports

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There are two kinds of airportsthose with anoperating control tower and those without. When apart-time tower is closed, the airport is considerednontowered. Every year, there are more than 40 millionarrivals and departures at FAA ATC towered airports.Nearly half of these are general aviation operations.

Although its possible for a pilot to avoid toweredairports, doing so impacts the flexibility and utility oflying. Two things distinguish a towered airport. Oneis the presence of air traffic controllers (ATC), whosprimary function is to coordinate traffic flow andprevent collisions. The second is that a pilot must maintain two-way radio contact with ATC and obtainclearances to land, taxi, and take off.

Because ATC coordinates traffic at towered airportpilots generally follow different procedures than at nontowered fields. For example, a pilot approachin

a nontowered airport would normally plan the

arrival to make a 45-degree entry to the downwindleg of the active runway. As you approach a towerairport, however, ATC can clear you to enter thepattern at any leg. The entry point will depend on

Operations & Proficiency No. 2

Operations at

Towered Airports

S A F E T Y A D V I S O R

R u n w a y

i n c u r s i o n

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a r e d o w n

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View from the Tower A great way to get an all-encompassing view of atowered airport and also learn about operatingprocedures is to visit a control tower. Because of security considerations, its a good idea to telephoneahead to makean appointment.Take a diagramof the airport and charts(sectional or IFRenroute) withyou to askquestions.

Every year, there aremore than 40 millionarrivals and departuresat FAA ATC toweredairports. Nearly half of these are generalaviation operations.

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the runway in use, the direction of arrival, and thelocations of other arriving aircraft.

The key to safe operations at towered airports, both inthe air and on the ground, is awareness. Good preflight planning is essential. Focus on the task at hand, organizethe cockpit to minimize your work load, and know

where you are in relation to other aircraft in the vicinity.

Planning Your FlightThe basic aircraft requirement for operating at a tow-ered airport is a two-way radio. If your flight involves atakeoff or landing at a Class B or C airport, the aircraft also must be equipped with a Mode C transponder.

Basic planning should include knowledge of localdeparture and arrival procedures for noiseabatement, obstacle clearance, and traffic flow inbusy terminal areas. When obtaining your preflight weather briefing from flight service, ask for anyspecial procedures, and if you are unsure, check withan instructor based at the airport. FBOs sometimespost notices about special noise-abatement departureprocedures and routes that avoid obstacles orcontrolled-access airspace.

When planning your flight to or from a towered airport,look at the big picture. Is the airport near or within Class

B or C airspace that will require you to communicatewith approach/departure controllers, in addition totower controllers? If you want to avoid entering Class Bor C airspace (assuming that the towered airport youare using is not within the airspace), be sure you areaware of any altitude restrictions. Know the route youwill use and how you will navigatevisually usinglandmarks depicted on the chart, or with VORs or GPS.

Do large aircraft operate from your departure ordestination airport? Be aware of potential jet orpropeller blast from larger aircraft when taxiing, andavoid wake turbulence on takeoff and approach.

Information about individual towered airports can be foundin the (Airport/Facility Directory), as well as in AOPAs

Airport Directory. Changes will be publicized in notices toairmennotamswhich should be included in yourpreflight briefing from a flight service station or DUATS.

Charts Youll need the appropriate sectional aeronautical chartsand, if the airport is within or under Class B airspace, theappropriate terminal area chart. Towered airports aredepicted in blue. Information printed next to the airport symbol includes: (see terminal area chart next page)

The airport name and location identifier;Control tower frequency;

ATIS (automated terminal information service), ASOS (automated surface observation system), or

Noise AbatementFlying neighborly isnt just agood idea. At some airports,its policy. Before flying to orfrom an unfamiliar airport,check the Airport/FacilityDirectory or call the airport manager or FBO to see if noise-abatement procedures apply. Noise-abatement procedures avoid noise-sensitive areas near the airport such as hospitals or residential areas. On arrival, that could mean adjusting course to avoid those areas orremaining above traditional pattern altitudes.Departure noise-abatement procedures usually call forturning to a specified heading soon after takeoff toavoid noise-sensitive areas. Many airports place a signnear the departure end of noise-sensitive runwaysspecifying noise-sensitive departure procedures pilotsshould fly. Use a best rate of climb speed, reduce toclimb power, and retract flaps as soon as practical aftertakeoff to minimize the noise of your aircraft.

Wake TurbulenceWake turbulence is aconcern whenever smallaircraft share an airport with larger ones. Thepowerful vortices that

spiral off the wing tips of heavier aircraftturboprops and business jets, aswell as airlinerscan suddenly and unexpectedlytoss a small airplane out of control. Always avoidthe area below and behind a large aircraft.Standard air traffic control spacing of four to six milesbetween aircraft on approach, and two or threeminutes between departures from the same orclosely spaced parallel runways, offer protection. Forextra insurance, be aware of wind speed anddirection and adjust your approach and/or departurepath to stay above and upwind of where wakevortices might linger. When in doubt, ask for extraspacing or time to allow wake vortices to dissipate.

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AWOS (automated weather observation system)frequency, whichever is applicable to the airport;

Airport elevation in feet;Runway lighting; andLength of longest runway in hundreds of feet.

VFR charts also note if a flight service station facility is on the

field, airport surveillance radar is available, the tower is part-

time or a non-federal facility, if special VFR is not permittand the unicom and VFR advisory frequencies, if applicable. A complete explanation is printed on the chartlegend and in the NACO Aeronautical Chart Users Guid

Study the airport layout so you can taxi to and fromthe active runway without getting lost. Instrument

approach procedure (IAP) charts are required forIFR operations, and they are also a great referencefor the VFR pilot. All pertinent information about thairport is provided, including elevation, navigationaids and communications frequencies, as well as asmall diagram of the runway, taxiways and ramps. If the airport has a complex runway or taxiwayconfiguration, the IAP charts will include a separate,detailed airport diagram page. These airport diagramare invaluable for finding your way around largeairports, but never hesitate to ask for progressive taxinstructions if needed. Airport diagrams can also be

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VFR Terminal Area Chart

NOT TO BE USED FOR NAVIGATION

Airport/Facility Directory

Airport Diagram Page

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found online (www.aopa.org/asf/taxi/) or in the back of the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD).

Navigation AidsBecome familiar with the terminal area navigationaidsthe VOR, ADF, localizer, and glideslopeat theairports youll be using. They are critical to

instrument operations and can be very helpful to VFRpilots as well. It can be a challenge to find anunfamiliar airport if its immersed in an urban sea of

buildings and lights or hidden among hills. On-airport navaids, or GPS, make the job a lot less stressful.

CommunicationBecause two-way communication is required to operateat towered airports, good radio skills go a long waytoward ensuring smooth operations.

A good communications system includes at least one 720-or 760-channel transceiver with enough power to transmit and receive communications without static or interference.If the aircraft transceiver is not working properly, thecommunications process will be difficult and could beunsafe. Get it fixed before operating at a towered airport. A

headset with an attached boom microphone and a push-to-talk switch greatly simplifies the task of flying andcommunicating simultaneously. Just be sure the airplane isequipped with a handheld microphone and speaker asbackup in the event the headset or intercom system fails.

Even the best radios fail occasionally. When that happens, you can still receive tower instructions vialight gun signals. Because we get very little practicewith these signals, theyre easily forgotten. Wesuggest you copy the light gun signal chart above andtape it to your clipboard. Acknowledge the signals by

rocking your wings or flashing your landing light.

ClearancesFlying to and from towered airports involves a series of controller instructions and clearances. Its vital that boththe pilot and the controller recognize and understandeach instruction, clearance, and acknowledgment.Communications should be simple and clear. Youll takeup minimum time on the frequency, and controllers willunderstand you the first time. A misinterpretation byeither party can have serious consequences. To ensuremutual understanding, read back the clearance.Controllers are required to get an acknowledgment of hold short instructions, so a hold shortclearance must be read backbut you shouldreally read back every clearance.Controllers issue clearances using specific words andphrases. If you dont fully understand a controllersinstructions, ask for clarification. The Pilot/ControllerGlossary in the AIM is an excellent source for reviewingthe terms and phrases.Controller with light gun

Color andType of Signal

Steady green

Flashing green

Steady red

Flashing red

Flashing white

Alternatingred and green

Aircraftin Flight

Cleared to land

Return for landing(to be followed by

steady greenat the proper time)

Give way toother aircraft andcontinue circling

Airport unsafedo not land

Not applicable

Exerciseextreme caution

Aircrafton the Ground

Cleared for takeoff

Cleared for taxi

Stop

Taxi clear of the runway in use

Return to starting pointon airport

Exerciseextreme caution

Light Gun Signals



ATC Instructions ATC instructions common at towered airports include: Taxi to.... In the absence of holding

instructions, a clearance to taxi to any point other than an assigned takeoff runway is aclearance to cross all runways that intersect thetaxi route to that point. It does not include

authorization to taxi onto or cross the assignedtakeoff runway at any point. Taxi tohold short of.... A clearance to begin

taxiing, but enroute to the taxi clearance limit youmust hold short of another taxiway or a crossingrunway as specified by the controller.

Cross runway.... You are cleared to taxi across therunway that crosses your taxi route and continue tothe taxi clearance limit.

Hold short.... Do not enter or cross the taxiway orrunway specified by the controller. If there is apainted hold line, do not cross it.

Cleared for immediate takeoff. A clearanceto initiate the takeoff without delay. Thisclearance usually means another aircraft is onfinal approach. If you are not ready, do not accept this clearance.

Report location.... Identify your location on theairport (Five-Eight Quebec at the transient ramp)or in the air with respect to the airport (Five-Eight Quebec is seven miles southeast of the airport at one thousand five hundred).

Squawk.... Tune a discrete four-digit code into

your transponder (the controller will specify thecode or say VFR, which is 1200). Make sure thetransponder is in the alt mode.

Report entering.... Call the tower when youare turning onto a leg in the airport patternspecified by the controller. For example, Repoentering lef t downwind for Runway Two-Three

Cleared to land ... cleared for touch and go ...cleared for the option. A controller may issuethis clearance, even though one or more aircraft w

land ahead of you.Cleared for the option is usually requested byinstructors during training flights. It means you arecleared for either a full-stop landing, a stop and go


Ground FatalitySt. Louis, MODuring the takeoff roll on Runway 30R, an MD-82with 140 people on board collided with a Cessna441 with two people on board. The Cessna pilot had received clearance to back-taxi into positionand hold on Runway 31. The pilot taxied intoposition at an intersection of Runway 30R, whichwas the assigned departure runway for the MD-82. Both people aboard the Cessna were killed;there were a few minor injuries to the passengerson the MD-82.


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DEECORP

touch and go, low approach, or missed approachwhatever you or an instructor aboard the aircraft decides to do.

Go around! Abort the final approach! The towercontroller may issue the instructions, or the pilot can state the fact. Unless otherwise instructed, thepilot should overfly the runway while climbing totraffic pattern altitude and reenter the pattern on acrosswind leg.

Contact.... Switch frequencies and communicatewith another specified controller.

Expedite.... Comply promptly to avoid aconflicting situation.

Traffic. Other aircraft are in your vicinity. Forexample, Traffic, nine oclock, one-two miles,southeast bound, one thousand feet below you.

Report traffic/runway/airport in sight. Advise

the controller when you visually identify the otheraircraft, runway, or airport. Land and hold short. At busy airports with

intersecting runways, controllers often use morethan one runway for arrivals and/or departures.Be prepared for a controller to issue a land andhold short (LAHSO) restriction when flying tosuch an airport. You can ask the controller for thelanding distance available to you. That informa-

tion, along with details on land and hold short operations, can be found in the (Airport/FacilityDirectory) listing for the airport. Configure theairplane for a short-field landing if necessary, andfly a precise final approach airspeed. If you havedoubts about being able to comply with thehold-short restriction, inform the controllerimmediately. Dont wait until youre rolling out too fast and too far down the runway to stopbefore the hold-short line.

Nonstandard ProceduresBe flexible. Controllers at busy airports use a variety of techniques to keep traffic flowing smoothly. You may beasked to: Fly a faster than normal final approach; Extend your downwind;

Switch to another runway at the last minute;

Runway IncursionBurbank, CA

A Piper PA-32 was issued a landing clearance onRunway 8 and instructed to hold short of Runway15. A Beech Baron was issued a landing clearanceon Runway 15. The Piper landed and continuedpast the hold-short line, entering the runwayintersection. The Baron was unable to stop prior tothe Runway 8 hold-short bars, but did stop beforethe Runway 8 edge line.

Departure Procedures

Plan your route.Get a preflight

weather briefing.Consider filing aVFR flight plan.

Tune beforetaxiing or at

the runup pad not while taxiingor in the

terminal area.

Have chartsand notes handy

for readyreference.

Minimize cockpitdistractions.

Get ATIS,AWOS, or

ASOS beforecalling

clearance orground control.Read back all

clearances.

Heed all taxiwayand runway

hold markings.Be extra

careful at nightor in

low visibility.

When clearedto cross an

active runway,or for takeoff,

scan the area andcomply quickly or

notify ATC of the delay.

Scan the finalapproach area

as you taxiinto positionfor takeoff.

P lan Radios Organize Clearance ExerciseCaution

Expedite D epart

Safety Tip A clearance to maintain runway heading aftertakeoff means that you should maintain the compassalignment of the departure runway, not track theextended runway centerline. In other words, aftertakeoff, do not make heading corrections to account for wind drift.

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Do a 360-degree turn or S-turns on final to allow

preceding traffic to clear; or Taxi around another aircraft in the runup area.

Be proficient so you can handle such unusualprocedures safely. Remember: The pilot incommand has the right to decline any procedurethat may put the flight in jeopardy. Cooperate, but dont hesitate to decline a request or to change your

mind if something isnt working out.

How the Pros Do ItThe airlines and many corporate pilots have detailedprocedures for operations at towered airports. While thefollowing list of procedures is not exhaustive, it givesmany useful piloting techniques that will make allground operations more professional. The airport diagram is reviewed during preflight

planning. The current position of the aircraft is noted relative

to the active runways, the most likely route to the

runway, and any special notes. (Many of theairlines provide notes and list restricted taxiways

The first officer communicates with ground controwhile the captain taxis the aircraft. Whencommunicating with ATC, both pilots focus onwhat is being said and no other cockpit duties areaccomplished during this time.

Safety TipTo reduce work load and improve visual scan, programGPS and radios prior to departure, when clear of theterminal area, or prior to arrival in the terminal area.

Sterile CockpitThis is a term coined by the airlines to limit conversation topics to flight operations when pilot work load is highwhich, in high density airspace, canbe as far as 20 miles from an airport. Ask passengers toavoid unnecessary conversation until safely out of theterminal area or parked on the ramp. They should, asalways, point out a potential hazard, but this is not thetime to talk about how small the houses look.

Runway IncursionSanta Ana, CA

A C-188 Agwagon was told to taxi across 19L andhold short of Runway 19R. The pilot correctlyread back the instructions but proceeded acrossthe hold bars and did not stop. A Boeing 757 had

been cleared for takeoff on Runway 19R andsuccessfully aborted its takeoff 1,000 feet into thetakeoff roll.


LAVIRRA Arrival Procedures

Before callingapproach or

tower controllers,check ATIS,

AWOS, or ASOS.

Study the airportdiagram,

anticipate theactive runway,and visualize

your taxi route.

Preset the towerand ground

frequencies.

Turn on lightswhen 5-10 miles

out. Begin thebefore-landing

checklist.

Look fortraffic when

approaching theairport. Be

accurate in yourposition reports.

Complete thebefore-landing

checklist.Follow towersinstructions for

landing.

Clear therunway ASAP.Dont switch

to groundcontrol untilinstructed.

ATIS Review Radios Inbound VisualCheck

Arrival Landing




If there is any doubt by either pilot about what is

said or intended by ATC, they ask for clarification. The first officer writes down complex taxiinstructions and asks for a repeat, if needed.

A full readback of all ATC instructions on the groundis required.

An airport diagram is used while taxiing, and both pilotslisten to ATC and visualize the positions of other aircraft.

Other cockpit duties stop just prior to crossing arunway to focus on the event. Both pilots must agreethat ATC has cleared them to cross, and both pilotsmust visually check the runway in both directions.

Taxi lights are used day and night to communicate withother aircraft on the ground. If the aircraft is moving, orhas received clearance to taxi, the taxi light is turnedON. When the aircraft stops, the taxi light is turnedOFF. When ATC issues a takeoff clearance, landing andstrobe lights are turned ON to let other aircraft knowthey are beginning the takeoff roll.

Once you understand towered airport operating rulesand procedures and have thoroughly prepared, you

should have no trouble working with tower andapproach controllers.

When things get busy in the cockpit, stay focused onthe critical taskflying the airplane. Trying to do toomany things at onceshuffle through charts, read theairport diagram, tune the radios, program the GPS,

configure the aircraft, jot down a clearancecanquickly overwhelm a single pilot. The result may be amissed critical clearance, such as hold short of therunway, and a potentially disastrous runwayincursion. Aircraft control takes priority overcommunication. Act first, talk second. Think aheadof the aircraft and stay flexible, ready to change toplan B if necessary.

Lets Go Flying!PreflightOur flight plan calls for flying VFR into Long Beach,Californias Daugherty Field (LGB) and thendeparting the airport. LGB is a large Class D airport

that lies under the floor of Los Angeles Class Bairspace and in close proximity to several Class Cairports in the busy Los Angeles Basin. Long Beachhas six published instrument approaches, scheduledairline service, and a high volume of general aviationpiston and jet aircraft, including flight trainingactivity. With two sets of parallel runwaysone set perpendicular to the otherand a long, mainrunway that bisects the other four, LGB presents asignificant challenge, both on the ground and in theair, to any pilot not familiar with it.

Our aircraft more than meets the minimumequipment requirements for operating at a Class D

Midair CollisionEast Farmingdale, NY On April 9, 1994, aCessna 152 collided witha Piper PA-24 and crashedinto a factory building in

East Farmingdale, New York. The airplanes wereon final approach toRunway 19 at Republic

Airport. The ceiling was25,000 feet with scatteredclouds and 25-milevisibility. The pilots were in radio contact with thetower. The Cessna, occupied by a student and aninstructor, was doing touch-and-go landings in aright-hand traffic pattern on Runway 19. The Piperpilot, with one passenger, was returning to theairport from East Hampton, New York. They wereinstructed to enter a left downwind for Runway 19.

At the time, the traffic pattern extended to about asix-mile final leg. The Cessna was on final approachabout 200 to 300 feet agl. The Piper was above,making a descending left turn. The Piper pilot hadbeen advised that the Cessna was on final; he waslooking, but did not see it and descended into it.

All four people aboard were killed.



airport and within a Class B Mode C veiltwo-waycommunications transceiver and Mode C transponder.For navigation guidance, well use the current Los

Angeles VFR Terminal Area Chart for maximum detailand scale.

Given the complexity and activity level at LGB, refer-

ring to an airport diagram from an instrument approach booklet is an excellent idea, even thoughwell be flying VFR. Both NACOTerminal Proceduresand Jeppesens Airway Manualdevote a separate pageto a plan view graphic of LGBs airport/taxiwayconfiguration. (Refer to the airport diagram for LGB onpg. 3.) Itll be a big help in planning the arrival andnegotiating the complex taxiway layout. Thefrequency listing for the airport will also be helpful inplanning and preparing for controller handoffs.

ArrivalWere arriving from the east, and because of the trafficcongestion, we ask for and receive traffic advisories fromSoCal Approach Control. About 15 minutes east of ourdestination, we tune LGBs ATIS frequency on thenumber-two radio and listen to the current report,Hotel, while also monitoring the approach controlfrequency on radio number one.

ATIS says that runways 25L, 25R, and 30 are active.Separate tower frequencies are in effect for the northand south runways. Because intersecting runways are

in use, we mentally prepare for a land and holdshort instruction.

About five miles east of the airport, we inform SoCal Approach that we have Long Beach in sight, we have ATIS information Hotel, and were requesting 25L, therunway most convenient to our destination on theairport. The controller says to expect 25L and instructsus to switch to the Long Beach Towersouthfrequency. Weve already obtained the frequency fromthe airport diagram page and loaded it in the standby

window on the number-one com, so were preparedfor the handoff.

Long Beach Tower, Cessna Seven-Zero-Five-Eigh

Quebec, five east, inbound to Two-five Left.Cessna Five-Eight Quebec, Long Beach Tower.Make straight in Runway Two-five Left.

Cleared for the straight-in to Two-five Left. Five-Eight Quebec. Great! This is going to be easier thanwe thought. Well be able to exit the runway right ontothe ramp where well be parking to refuel. Then thetower controller throws us a curve.

Cessna Five-Eight Quebec, change to RunwayTwo-five Right. I have an aircraft stopped on Two-fiveLeft. Contact tower one-two-zero point five.

Roger, contact tower on one-two-zero point five. Five-Eight Quebec. We dont know what thetrouble is on 25L, but theres no point in worryingabout it. As we bank into a right turn and then backto the left to line up with 25R, we tune the towerfrequency and check in. The tower controller isready for us.

Cessna Seven-Zero-Five-Eight Quebec, RunwayTwo-five Right, cleared to land. Hold short RunwayThree-zero.

Safety TipIf you have difficulty with reading runway markingsor airport signs at a particular airport, contact theairport manager and report the problem. Also file areport with NASAs ASRS. Reporting forms can beobtained online (http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/forms.htm)or by calling NASA at 650-969-3969.



Cleared to land Two-five Right. Five-Eight Quebec.The controller immediately responds to my readbackwith an insistent voice, Five-Eight Quebec, HOLDSHORT RUNWAY THREE-ZERO.

Roger, hold short Three-zero. Five-Eight Quebec.Oops. Fortunately, the controller caught my negligence.I shudder as I think about the potentially catastrophicconsequences of rolling out on Runway Two-five Right and blithely crossing Runway Three-zerojust asanother airplane comes barreling down the crossingrunway.

As it turns out, the hold-short restriction is unnecessarybecause we easily slow and exit the runway long before

reaching the intersection of 25R/30. After completingthe after-landing checklist, we are told to contact ground control. Long Beach Ground, Cessna Seven-Zero-Five-Eight Quebec off of Two-five Right, going tothe south ramp. Request progressive taxi instructions. It looks like a long, complicated route to the south side of the airport, and we can use the controllers help ingetting there safely.

Five-Eight Quebec, Ground. Taxi west on Kilo, holdshort of Runway Three-zero.

West on Kilo, hold short of Three-zero. Five-Eight Quebec.

Just as we roll to a stop on Kilo at the hold line for 30, aLearjet glides past on the runway. If we hadnt stopped.

A few seconds later, the ground controller instructsus to Cross Three-zero, then left on Bravo. Taxi southon Bravo, hold short of Runway Two-five Left.

Roger, cross Three-zero, left on Bravo, hold short of Two-five Left. Five-Eight Quebec.

Evidently the problem that forced us to switch runwayshas cleared, because we watch an airplane slow on 25Land exit the runway to the south.

Five-Eight Quebec, cross Two-five Left, turn left on

Foxtrot. The south ramp will be on your right.Cross Two-five Left, left on Foxtrot to the ramp.Five-Eight Quebec. Thanks for your help.

After turning left on Foxtrot, we confirm that we cancross the approach end of 34L and then taxi onto theramp. A lineman directs us to a parking spot, and weshut down. Time to refuel and grab some lunch beforeheading back out.

DepartureThe drill on departure will be the same as thearrival, only in reverse. After completing theappropriate checklists, starting the engine, and

powering up the avionics, we configure thecommunications radios based on the frequenciesspecified on the airport diagram, with LGB ATIS inthe active window and ground control in thestandby window. Next we set up the navigationradios with the appropriate VOR frequencies andradials for the outbound course. We want to haveeverything done before leaving the ramp so that allwe have to do is taxi to the assigned runwayadifficult enough challenge when the airport is aslarge and complex as LGB.

The first task is to get the current ATIS information. According to India, land and hold-short operationsare still in effect for 25 Right and 30. Because LGB is



a Class D airport, a VFR departure clearance isnt necessary, but local procedure recommends we callclearance delivery. The controller there prepares aflight stripa document that includes informationabout our aircraft and runway assignment. This ispassed to ground control. Because the strip is pre-pared for them, ground controllers can keep

focused on the aircraft and vehicles moving on thefield. So, we call clearance, tell the controller ourposition on the airport and that we have India, andwill be departing to the east. We then contact ground control.

Cessna Five-Eight Quebec, Long Beach Ground.Taxi to Runway Two-five Left at Delta via Foxtrot.Would you like to depart Two-five Left fromintersection Delta?

Hmmm. I study the airport diagram and see that anintersection takeoff from Delta would give meapproximately 4,000 feet of runway. Based on mypreflight planning, I know thats plenty of runway forthe airplanes weight and the weather conditions, but if more runway is available, why not use it?

Ground, thanks, but Id like full length on Two-five Left.

Five-Eight Quebec, Runway Two-five Left. Taxi viaFoxtrot and Delta to Delta Three, hold short RunwayThree-zero.

Roger, taxi to Two-five Left via Foxtrot and Delta toDelta Three. Hold short of Three-zero. Five-Eight Quebec.

At the hold line on Taxiway Delta Three, we watch aDC-10 on final for 30 sink toward the runway. Twinpuffs of blue smoke trailing from the main gear bogiesannounce the touchdown.

Cessna Five-Eight Quebec, cross Runway Three- zero, left on Lima to Lima Four, call the tower whenready to depart.

Roger, cross Three-zero, left on Lima to Lima Four,contact the tower. Five-Eight Quebec.

We contact the tower and are issued a clearance totake off. Following takeoff and initial climb, we turnleft to an easterly heading as instructed by the toweron our takeoff clearance. Soon weve flown out of theLGB terminal area and are heading east toward ourhome base. Its been a hard-working lunch flight but worth it. Weve negotiated Long Beach for the first time, with no trouble. In fact, the flight was virtuallywithout erroran accomplishment we rightfullyattribute to the study and preparation done beforeever climbing into the airplane.

Airport Pavement Markings(For further information, refer to the AeronauticalInformation Manual, Chapter 2, Section 3.)

Taxiway markings are yellow. The centerline is asingle yellow line, and the taxiway edge is marked by double yellow line. Dashed edge markings allow theaircraft to cross to the adjoining apron.

Runway holding position markingsconsist of four yelllinestwo solid and two dashed (see picture below).

Aircraft should stop on the solid-line side. A pilot should not cross this marking without ATC clearance. An aircraft exiting the runway is not clear the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed tholding position marking. These markings are installeon runways only if the runway is normally used by ATfor Land and Hold Short (LAHSO) or taxi operations.

All runway markings are white.



Airport Signs

There are many types of signs on airfields. The infor-mation on the signs may also be painted on the airport pavement. The following examples are described as if you were on the taxiway or runway, looking at the sign.

Taxiway location sign:Indicates the taxiway youare on.

Holding position sign:Hold here. Fromyour position on the taxiway, thethreshold for Runway 15 is to your left

and the threshold for Runway 33 is to your right. This signis located next to the yellow holding position markingspainted on the taxiway pavement.

Runway boundary sign:This sign facesthe runway and is visible to pilotsexiting the runway. Taxi past this sign

(dash past the dashed lines) to be sure you are clear of the runway.

ILS holding position sign: ATC may hold

you at this sign when the instrument land-ing system is being used at the airport. Aircraft taxiing beyond this point may interfere with theILS signal to approaching aircraft.

ILS critical area boundary sign:Seenwhen exiting the runway , this signmarks the boundary of the ILS critical

area. When ILS approaches are in use, be sure youraircraft has passed beyond this sign before stopping onthe taxiway.

Holding position sign forapproach areas: If instructed by ATC, hold

here until cleared to cross. Taxiing past this sign mayinterfere with aircraft arriving on Runway 15 ordeparting on Runway 33.

Taxiway entrance at intersection of two runways (seeleft). You are on Taxiway A. The arrows pointing to

ILS

15-APCH

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1 5 -A P C H

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i d e

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15-33


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Approach light systemsare a configuration of signal lights starting at thelanding threshold andextending into the

approach area a distanceof 2,400 to 3,000 feet forprecision instrument runways and 1,400 to1,500 feet fornonprecision runways.

Visual approach slopeindicators (VASIs)providevisual descent guidanceduring the approach to arunway. The lights arearranged in bars and vary in number from two to 1


Runways 5-23 and 9-27 indicate the approximatealignment of the runways relative to you and point toeach runway threshold.

Taxiway intersection(see above). You are on Taxiway A.The orientation of these signs is from left to right in aclockwise manner. Left turn signs are on the left side of the location sign and right turn signs are on the right sideof the location sign.

No entry sign: Do not enter this area. Aircraft are prohibited. This sign would be found at theentrance to a one-way taxiway or at the

intersection of a road intended for vehicles.Inbound destination sign: The militaryinstallation is to your right. Otherinformation signs are Cargo, Term

(Terminal), Ramp, etc.

Outbound destination sign todifferent runways: Runways 27and 33 are to your right.

For more information, see www.faa.gov/runwaysafety.

Airport Lighting (For further information and a complete set of approachlighting system diagrams, refer to the AeronauticalInformation Manual, Chapter 2, Section 1.)

Approach lighting systemsprovide the basic means totransition from instrument flight to visual flight forlanding.

Example of locationsign shown on farside of intersection

Alternate array of signs shown toillustrate signorientation whenlocation signnot installed

A

C A

C CA

A C

A

A

C C

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MIL

27 33

VASI

High

Red VASI Lights

STANDARD (3-bar)

White VASI Lights

High

Low

OnGlideslope

Lights UpTower controllers can operate many of the airportslights at various intensities. Ask them to turn uprunway and lead-in lights when youre trying tolocate the field. Most pilots prefer these lights to bedimmed for landing.

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LANDINGTHRESHOLD

2 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 4 0 0

2 4

0 0 ( t o

3 0 0 0 )

MALSR

LANDINGTHRESHOLD

ALSF-IIMay operate as a SSALR when

weather conditions permit.

1 0 0 0

5 0 0

1 0 0 s p a c

i n g

2 4 0 0 ( t o 3 0 0 0 )

Steady Burning Red LightsHigh Steady Burning White LightsMed. Steady Burning White LightsSequenced Flashing White LightsThreshold Lights

Two Kinds of Approach Lighting Systems



The lights are arranged so that the pilot will see thecombination of lights shown here.

Precisionapproach pathindicators (PAPIs)use light units

similar to theVASI but areinstalled in asingle row of either two orfour light units.They arenormallyinstalled on theleft side of the runway, and the glidepathindicators are shown below.

Runway end identifier lights (REILs)consist of apair of synchronized flashing lights located oneach side of the runway threshold.

Runway edge lightsare white and outline the edges of runways at night or in restricted-visibility conditions. Oninstrument runways, yellow replaces white on the last 2,000 feet or half the runway length. The lightsmarking the ends of the runway are red for departingaircraft and green for landing aircraft.

Blue taxiway edge lightsoutline the taxiways. Green lightsmark the taxiway centerline as well as taxi paths. Yellowclearance bar lights are installed at holding positions ontaxiways and at the location of an intersecting taxiway.Flashing yellowrunway guard lights are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. Stop bar lights consist of arow of red lights that extend across the taxiway at the

runway holding position. Following the ATC clearanceto proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-onlights are turned on. Pilots should never cross a redilluminated stop bar, even if an ATC clearance hasbeen given to proceed.

Note: Not all airports are equipped with taxiway

centerline lights, yellow clearance bar lights, runwayguard lights, or stop bar lights.

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Red PAPI Lights

High

White PAPI Lights

Slightly Low Low

Slightly High

OnGlideSlope

PAPI

REIL

LANDINGTHRESHOLD

Taxi Tips If in doubt about where you are while taxiing onthe airport, bring the aircraft to a stop and askGround Control for progressive taxi instructions:Ground, Five-Eight Quebec requests progressive

taxi instructions. Never stop on an active runwayafter landing to ask for directions. Clear the runwayfirst, then stop on a taxiway.

Do not taxi onto or across a runway unless youare certain the ground controller has given youclearance to do so. If there is the slightest doubt, ask.

At night, taxi with other pilots in mind. Minimizeuse of distracting aircraft lights. Use position lightsat all times and the taxi light as needed, but keepstrobes and landing lights off until the towercontroller has issued you a takeoff clearance. Thenturn on all lights. Adhere to operating time limits onlights if specified by the manufacturer.

Always have an airport diagram available andcheck your assigned route against the chart before moving. Airport taxi diagrams are available via the Web at www.aopa.org/safet

The heading indicator is as useful on the ground as it is in the air. Use it together with the airport diagram to maintain orientation.


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AOPA Air Safety Foundation421 Aviation Way, Frederick, MD 21701

800/638-3101E-mail: [email protected]: www.aopa.org

Copyright 2006, AOPA Air Safety Foundation

Publisher: Bruce LandsbergEditors: David Wright, Brian D. Peterson

Statistician: Kristen HummelConsultants: Mark Twombly, Captain Jeff Jones

SA07 02/07 Edition 3

AOPA - Operations at Towered Airports

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