City as a Hydro centric Construction: The Water Corridors of Kumbakonam City in the Cauvery Delta

Anitha SuseelanAssistant Professor, School of Architecture (PG Urban Design Program), R V College of

Engineering, R V Vidya Niketan Post, Bangalore 560 059, India(E-mail: anithasuseelan@gmail.com)

Abstract

Historically the relationship of water to urbanization holds a privileged position in India. In this era where water is a shrinking resource the paper underlines the possibility of simultaneously protect the landscape and impose radically new spatial configuration in urban development. It discusses one of the hydrological civilizations in the Cauvery Delta – Kumbakonam which has not only imbibed the inherent potentials of the landscape but also followed a hierarchical societal modus, accommodating collective construction, living and maintenance. The worldview, with its mystic reverence for the powers of the nature, evolved a water urbanism transforming nature into culture and subsequently in the shaping of the city. It stresses on the ambivalent relationship between urban & rural, manmade and natural and accommodative and resistive forces and projects how a hydro centric strategy can trigger sustainable form of urbanism. This indigenous regenerative strategy of urban development in concurrence with the natural water structure, though facing a major crisis now, opens up new possibilities of sustainable management of water resources in the region.

1. Introduction

In this era of decreasing natural diversity, increasing floods, decreasing potable water supply, weakening natural barriers and inefficient water structures, Kumbakonam represents a sustainable model of an organised human settlement set within the Cauvery delta region in Tamilnadu. The morphology of the settlement has been, to a large extent, shaped by the way the water runs through its landscape and historically how man has dealt with it.

Kumbakonam, in Thanjavur district, is located at 10° 57’ north latitude & 79° 23’ longitude It is about 313kms from Chennai on the north, 40kms from Mayiladuthurai on the east, 40kms from Thiruvarur on the south & 40kms from Thanjavur on the west. Kumbakonam, known as Kashi on Cauvery, is an ancient South Indian City located in Cauvery River Basin, with the Cauvery in the north and river Araslar in the south.

It occupies a unique position in Hindu Myth & legend, because of the invaluable inscriptions, iconography, religious architecture & highly articulated cosmic geography, in terms of its urban structure. Its position in Hindu Myth, urban configuration of temples & tanks, palaces & civic buildings, institutions, religious scholarships, Brahmin elite, arts & crafts, all lead to the traditions of Urbane Tamil Culture [4]

2. The regional setting

2.1. The Urbane Tamil city

Kumbakonam city today occupies an area of 12.58 sq km with a population of 1.4 lakhs inhabitants with firmly established urban social space, building typology and landscape. The site interpretation echoes environmental aspects related to very specific waterscape. The urban tissue explains the integrated appropriations at the social, economic and

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Fig 1 Location Map

environmental levels thus bridging the stratified urban conditions in cities [6].

The structuring of social institutions, housing, urban agricultural lands, natural and manmade water tanks, and parks maintain the identity of the site’s historical layers and the strong connection with water. Unlike other religious centres, organized around a single core, Kumbakonam is unique being one of the very few multi core temple cities. The urban fabric includes temples, matams, chattrams, agraharams, paditorais (ghats), making it one among the best surviving of ancient Tamil cities. Its strategic location along the Cauvery delta region renders it as an ecologically sensitive zone and its continuous habitation since ninth century adds to its strong socio religious significance.

2.1. The religious centre in the Cauvery Delta

In India, along certain holy rivers, the river-edge settlements have grown into religious centres or holy cities. Kumbakonam is one such city in Tamilnadu, along the Cauvery River; located in the delta between the Cauvery & its distributary Arasalar.

Cauvery originates in Karnataka at Talakaveri, in Kodagu and flows down through Kushalnagar, Srirangapatna & Shivanasamudram, before reaching Hogenikal & Srirangam in Tamil Nadu. In Erode in Tamil Nadu, two more tributaries join it – Noyyal & Amravathi. In Tiruchirapally, it branches out in to Coleroon & Cauvery. Cauvery again divides into Arasalar & Cauvery at Papanasham, near Kumbakonam. Cauvery further fans out into 32

branches. These distributaries further branch off into a number of small streams, to reach the Bay of Bengal at Nagapattinam. Along its course, it is intercepted by various falls at Shivasamudram & Hogenekal, dams at Krishna Raja Sagar & Mettur, & religious towns like Srirangam, Papanasham, Gangaikondacholapuram, Kumbakonam & Nagapattinam

3. Worldview narratives

3.1. Portraying the History

The sacred-royal configuration of Kudamukku (Kumbakonam) - Palaiyarai, together with a wider network of subsidiary agglomerations, constituted one of the earliest settlements of the Cholas in the Cauvery. The Cauvery river delta was first recognized by the Chola rulers, as an ideal place to settle, as it was rich in alluvial soil, which was best suited for agriculture. They set up their capital at Uraiyur in Tiruchirapalli. Kumbakonam was the second capital of Cholas, who ruled since 3rd century. It was developed as a religious center

organized around several temples. Most of the old Shiva temples, mandapam & padithore belong to this period.

The Pandyas of Madurai came into power in 13th century. Hoysalas ruled from 14th century onwards, who were overpowered by the Vijayanagar kings, who appointed Nayaka to rule the region. The Nayakas made additions to the existing Shiva temples & made new Vaishnava temples. Art, architecture, crafts,

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Fig 3 Cauvery Delta

Fig 4 Cambridge of South India

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Fig 2 The regional setting of River Cauvery

literature, music & dance were patronized by Chola, Nayaka & Maratha rulers in the region. Later, the city was, recognized for its importance; as a centre for handicrafts & artifacts. The British established the cities’ Municipality, Magistrate Court, institutes, Road & Rail connectivity. The city has been a seat of intellectual legacy, hence commonly referred to as the Cambridge of South India.

3.2. The myth related to water evolving as a structuring technique

Kumbakonam is associated with the cosmogonic myth of Shiva as “Adikumbeshwara” or “Lord of the Pot”. As per the Myth, “the creator (Brahma) seeks to preserve the most precious things from destruction, which completes a cosmic cycle. So, he places the Hindu scriptures & the seed of creation in a golden pot, which floats south on the cosmic flood, till it is shattered by Shiva’s arrow. Thereby, releasing the embryonic amrita (nectar), which flows & congeals to form Kumbakonam’s tanks & temples, marking the start of a new creation [3].

The two holy tanks of Kumbakonam, Mahamakam tank & Pottramarai tank, are considered the most sacred & beautiful, as they tie up with the legend – “they are the pools of nectar that fell from Shiva’s pot of creation” [3]. When the Jupiter lies in line with the Moon, on a full moon day; the sacred planet combination is supposed to cast certain radiations on the Mahamakam tank. The Mahamakam tank has the teertam of creation [1]. This particular day is celebrated as the Mahamaham Festival. The Mahamaham festival happens once in 12years, during the Tamil month of Masi. It invites pilgrims from all over the country.

Mahamakam tank is a fine reservoir articulated with steps & plinths, surrounded with fifteen sacred pavilions (each with surmounting vimana, containing

a linga & a sixteen-pillared mandapam): with the Kasi

Vishvanatha temple (north) & Abimukeshwara temple (east), which are associated with the tank’s legend of purification & creation – “the tank is supposed to

receive water from nine springs (representing nine holy rivers – Nava Kanyaka, the presiding deities of Kasi Vishwanatha temple). A holy bath, in the auspicious Mahamakam tank, washes off all sins. Mahamakam tank, in the heart of the city, is a meeting point for 9 sacred river goddesses (represented by wells), namely, Sindu, Ganges, Yamuna, Saraswathi, Sarayu, Godavari, Mahanadi, Narmada, Payashul & Cauvery. Pottramarai tank is located between Sarangapani temple & Kumbeshwara temple [3].

4. The Urban tissue – the concept of Hydro social city

The resultant urban tissue, which grew around these genius loci, the main religious institutions and water tanks, illustrates its flexibility to cope with abundance and scarcity thus doing significantly more with significantly less. The layered interpretations on

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Fig 7 Mahamakam tank and the springs

Fig 5 Myth and the spatial elements

Fig 6 The Mahamakam Tank

Fig 7 Mahamakam tank and the springs

landscape and water courses, the urbanity structured by water, the ritual topography, and the urban morphology stresses on the ambivalent relationship between urban & rural, manmade and natural and accommodative and resistive forces and projects how a hydro centric strategy can trigger sustainable form of urbanism.

4.1. Landscape layer – tracing the topography and natural water courses

The area is strewn with a number of water channels flowing from west to east. It has a shallow slope down from north to south with the many ridgelines running east west.

Traditionally, the tanks could be classified into 3 types, as 1. those, which are associated to the temple rituals, 2. those, which are part of the irrigation system and finally 3. those which are the intermediate over flow tanks in the surface drainage system. The former type has religious institutions as part of the physical built and streets built around the edges. The second type of tanks varies in sizes and is essentially the part of the hinterland. The tanks which are the part of the

surface drainage net work remain as ponds surrounded by the urban fabric which are the most susceptible to conversion into slums, parks, playgrounds etc. due to the changing meaning and associations of these elements to the users.

The site interpretation echoes environmental aspects related to very specific waterscape and the morphology of the settlement has been, to a large extent, shaped by the way the water runs through its landscape.

4.2. The water sensitive city - Water structuring urbanity

Different spatial organisation or grouping of urban water distribution has been very sensitive to the specific waterscape of the city evolving an urbanity integrating social engineering and accepting water as a cycle. The sophisticated system of hydraulic control for wet rice cultivation in the beginnings necessitated a strict civic, social and political discipline creating an inter dependant urban water morphology. The temple city has been conceived with the underlying canonical principles in its overall structure.

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Fig 8 Ridge–Valley diagram

Fig 9 Water channels system

Fig 10 Spatial Configuration

Fig 11 Type 1: Mahamakam Tank

Fig 12 Type 2: Reddirayar Tank

Fig 13 Type 3: Varahakulam Tank

Fig 14 Main spine and institutions

The plan contemplates the Swastika mandala, a diagram that allows the flexibility to be marked out

into a square, or rectangle or it may be of any shape. The diagram suggests that the town to be surrounded by a rampart wall, with a moat at its foot filled with water. Two main streets cross each other at the center, running North south and East west. The resultant quadrants would follow a street network in the swastika pattern, with the principal streets in each running in one cardinal direction. The central location of the main Siva or Vishnu temple, the presence of a Jain temple in the SW quadrant, the palace in the west and the kalyani are also comparable to this temple city.

4.2.1. The Ritual Topography. The city is defined by reciprocities & relationships between ritual & civic life & their embodiment in architectural settings [3]. The city originated as a religious city, with areas like Kumbeshwara Temple & Mahamakam tank in the core of the city.

The urban realm in a sacred city is a continuum of ritual space articulated through a hierarchy of

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Fig 15 The Canonical Principle Swastika

Fig 16 The Urban tissue

Fig 17 The Land use Plan

Fig 18 The Cauvery & Arasalar Edge

Fig 19 The Ritual topography Map

Fig 20 The Sky line of Kumbakonam

localized levels, ranging from the public domain of the temple to the private socio-microcosms of its agraharams & residential sectors of various jatis [3] and has been structured within a well articulated network of canals and tanks with a hierachical order defined by its role in the landscape. There are several agraharams, dwelling quarters of various Brahmin communities, each with its own shrines, mandapams & chatrams. Each dwelling in an agrahara is organized around one or more courtyards.

Kumbakonam has several institutes – Mathams (religious establishments & hermitages of specific cults), Chatrams (charitable institutes for pilgrims) & Mandapams (civic & cultural institutions), which are of great importance & antiquity, containing valuable books, manuscripts & inscriptions.eg. Shankaracharya Matham, Vaishnavite Ahobila Matham, etc. The sixteen-pillared Bhagawath Padithore is a beautiful mandapam, with its own temple & ghats, located on the banks of the Cauvery River.

4.2.2. Response of street network to the water- courses. The State highway acts as a main spine of Kumbakonam that runs through the ridge with all the secondary and tertiary streets meeting it. The street network responds to the topographical features and the network of canals. Though deeply ingrained to cosmological principles in the structuring of the town, the physical construct of it responds to the geographical context invariably.

The development of religious institutions of the higher hierarchy earlier (the shaivite temples) took in the east west axis, parallel to the syatem of canals. The north south axis connecting Ramaswami and Chakrapani temples in later dates has been a conscious urban insert attempt, historically.4.2.3. The linear urban blocks. The urban block is primarily defined with a main temple as the core, thus rendering a multi loci configuration to the urban

fabric. The urban block is defined by the streets with the contiguous built abutting it, leaving an extensive collective backyard that forms the larger system of open spaces with the canal in the centre running in the east west direction.. The peripheral built of the block responds to the configuration of the streets. The average size of a block varies from 180m x 300m to 400m x 600m.

Streets run parallel to the water network giving access to the private plots, which are often subdivided perpendicular to the watercourse thus facilitating access to the water as well in the watershed zone. The average plot size is 2.5m x 120m running perpendicular to the canals. This system of alternating strips urban-water morphology illustrates a distribution of responsibility from the whole to the part.

The Kulams, canals, temples of varying hierarchy, the streets abutting the block often lend to its imageabiity with its associated myths religious functions and historicity, which makes the setting more meaningful.

4.2.4. The Continuum of open spaces - the green corridors. The figure ground in early phase represents a balanced system of built and open with the larger concern to maintain the rear set backs as a collective open space to conserve the watershed. The network of surface run off canals thus accommodated as part of this collective private green open spaces. This concept of green corridors, which over lapped with the water, shed zone also allowed for future densification. The rear set backspaces could be converted into new plots by introducing a new road with a common consent amongst the landowners and the block could thus be densified. The speculated scene of the urban block shows an increase in the built, and the introduction of new streets. But recently due the changing value systems and life styles the attitude to water has been reversed and the canals and

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Fig 19 The Street Hierarchy map

Fig 20 The Figure Ground map

open spaces are fast vanishing in the process of over densification, which addresses a serious conservation concern

5. Conclusions

Urban centres often portrayed as economic engines, where water is sanitised, cleaned, hidden and detached and water channels misinterpreted as waste water drains need to be readdressed. The paper highlights a paradigm of hydro social city where the water structures the urban morphology and water viewed as a resource rather than a waste. Though the concept has been radically altered in recent years, it offers an opportunity to re-establish the link of water to cities and the ambivalent relationship between the man made and the natural. A well planned hydrological infrastructure with the normative mobility / transport network and land uses proposals offer possibility to protect the collective public realm of rapidly urbanising cities.10. References

[1] Urban Design Studio 2 - 2007 Batch, A Report on Kumbakonam: the temple city; the Cauvery delta studio 2, Unpublished M.Arch Studio Project Report, School of Architecture, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore, (2008).

[2] Action Plan for the provision of basic amenities & infrastructure development works in Kumbakonam town for the Mahamaham festival, Local Planning Authority, Kumbakonam, (2004).

[3] Carl, P., Dallapicola, A., Michell, G., Nanda, V., “Cambridge Kumbakonam Project – Kumbakonam: A Ritual Topography”, Architecture Design, Vol.66, 1998, pp. 7-12.

[4] Carl, P., Dallapicola, A., Michell, G., Nanda, V., Kumbakonam – Art, Architecture & Urbanism: Space, Ritual & Meaning in a Sacred – Royal City of South India, Cambridge University, U.K, 1998.

[5] Urban Design Studio Project, Kumbakonam – An Urban Study, Unpublished B Arch Studio Project report, Periyar Maniammai College of Technology for Women, Vallam, Thanjavur, (2005).

[6] Regional Directorate, Tiruchirapalli Region, Master Plan – Kumbakonam, Local Planning Authority, Kumbakonam, 2004

[7] National Atlas & Thematic Mapping Organisation, District Planning Map Series - Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, Survey of India, 1997.

[8] Operations Research Group, Integrated Development Plan for Heritage Areas in Tamil Nadu Kumbakonam Town, Directorate of Town & Country Planning, Chennai, 1999.

[9] Priya, M.R., Master Plan – Kumbakonam – Manifestations of a Traditional Setting, Unpublished B.Arch. Project Thesis Report, N.I.T., Trichy, 1998.

[10] Feyen, Jan, et al., Water and Urban Development Paradigms, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, UK, 2008.

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Fig 21 The morphological evolution of the Urban Block