An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphereocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/17/349/【L16...
Transcript of An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphereocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/17/349/【L16...
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
BiologyEighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Chapter 52Chapter 52
An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
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Overview: The Scope of Ecology
• Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment
• These interactions determine distribution of organisms and their abundance
• Ecology reveals the richness of the biosphere
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The Scope of Ecological Research
• Ecologists work at levels ranging from individual organisms to the planet
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• Organismal ecology studies how an organism’s structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental challenges
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Fig. 52-1
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Fig. 52-2Organismalecology
Populationecology
Communityecology
Ecosystemecology
Landscapeecology
Globalecology
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Fig. 52-2a
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• A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in an area
• Population ecology focuses on factors affecting how many individuals of a species live in an area
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Fig. 52-2b
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• A community is a group of populations of different species in an area
• Community ecology deals with the whole array of interacting species in a community
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Fig. 52-2c
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• An ecosystem is the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with which they interact
• Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components
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Fig. 52-2d
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• A landscape is a mosaic of connected ecosystems
• Landscape ecology deals with arrays of ecosystems and how they are arranged in a geographic region
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Fig. 52-2e
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• The biosphere is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems
• Global ecology examines the influence of energy and materials on organisms across the biosphere
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Fig. 52-2f
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Concept 52.1: Ecology integrates all areas of biological research and informs environmental decision making
• Ecology has a long history as a descriptive science
• It is also a rigorous experimental science
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Fig. 52-3
TroughPipe
“Dry” “Wet” “Ambient”
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Linking Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
• Events that occur in ecological time affect life on the scale of evolutionary time
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Ecology and Environmental Issues
• Ecology provides the scientific understanding that underlies environmental issues
• Ecologists make a distinction between science and advocacy
• Rachel Carson is credited with starting the modern environmental movement with the publication of Silent Spring in 1962
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Fig. 52-4
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Concept 52.2: Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species
• Ecologists have long recognized global and regional patterns of distribution of organisms within the biosphere
• Biogeography is a good starting point for understanding what limits geographic distribution of species
• Ecologists recognize two kinds of factors that determine distribution: biotic, or living factors, and abiotic, or nonliving factors
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Fig. 52-5Kangaroos/km2
0–0.10.1–11–55–1010–20> 20Limits ofdistribution
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• Ecologists consider multiple factors when attempting to explain the distribution of species
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Fig. 52-6
Why is species X absentfrom an area?
Does dispersallimit its
distribution? Does behaviorlimit its
distribution?
Area inaccessibleor insufficient time
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
YesHabitat selection
Do biotic factors(other species)
limit itsdistribution?
Predation, parasitism,competition, disease
Do abiotic factorslimit its
distribution?
Chemicalfactors
Physicalfactors
WaterOxygenSalinitypHSoil nutrients, etc.
TemperatureLightSoil structureFireMoisture, etc.
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Dispersal and Distribution
• Dispersal is movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or from their area of origin
• Dispersal contributes to global distribution of organisms
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Natural Range Expansions
• Natural range expansions show the influence of dispersal on distribution
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Fig. 52-7
Current
1966
1970
1965 1960
19611958
1951
19431937
1956
1970
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Species Transplants
• Species transplants include organisms that are intentionally or accidentally relocated from their original distribution
• Species transplants can disrupt the communities or ecosystems to which they have been introduced
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Behavior and Habitat Selection
• Some organisms do not occupy all of their potential range
• Species distribution may be limited by habitat selection behavior
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Biotic Factors
• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms may include:
– Interactions with other species
– Predation
– Competition
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Fig. 52-8
RESULTS
Sea urchin
100
80
60
40
20
0
Limpet
Seaw
eed
cove
r (%
)Both limpets and urchinsremoved
Only urchinsremoved
Only limpets removedControl (both urchinsand limpets present)
August1982
August1983
February1983
February1984
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Abiotic Factors
• Abiotic factors affecting distribution of organisms include:
– Temperature
– Water
– Sunlight
– Wind
– Rocks and soil
• Most abiotic factors vary in space and time
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Temperature
• Environmental temperature is an important factor in distribution of organisms because of its effects on biological processes
• Cells may freeze and rupture below 0°C, while most proteins denature above 45°C
• Mammals and birds expend energy to regulate their internal temperature
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Water
• Water availability in habitats is another important factor in species distribution
• Desert organisms exhibit adaptations for water conservation
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Salinity
• Salt concentration affects water balance of organisms through osmosis
• Few terrestrial organisms are adapted to high- salinity habitats
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Sunlight
• Light intensity and quality affect photosynthesis
• Water absorbs light, thus in aquatic environments most photosynthesis occurs near the surface
• In deserts, high light levels increase temperature and can stress plants and animals
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Fig. 52-9
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Rocks and Soil
• Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of plants and thus the animals that feed upon them:
– Physical structure
– pH
– Mineral composition
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Climate
• Four major abiotic components of climate are temperature, water, sunlight, and wind
• The long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area constitute its climate
• Macroclimate consists of patterns on the global, regional, and local level
• Microclimate consists of very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms underneath a fallen log
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Global Climate Patterns
• Global climate patterns are determined largely by solar energy and the planet’s movement in space
• Sunlight intensity plays a major part in determining the Earth’s climate patterns
• More heat and light per unit of surface area reach the tropics than the high latitudes
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Fig. 52-10aLatitudinal Variation in Sunlight Intensity
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Sun directly overhead at equinoxes
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Atmosphere90ºS (South Pole)60ºS
30ºS
23.5ºS (Tropic ofCapricorn)
0º (equator)
30ºN23.5ºN (Tropic ofCancer)
60ºN90ºN (North Pole)
Seasonal Variation in Sunlight Intensity
60ºN30ºN
30ºS
0º (equator)March equinox
June solstice
Constant tiltof 23.5º
September equinox
December solstice
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Fig. 52-10b
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Sun directly overhead at equinoxes
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Atmosphere90ºS (South Pole)60ºS
30ºS
23.5ºS (Tropic ofCapricorn)
0º (equator)
30ºN
60ºN
23.5ºN (Tropic ofCancer)
90ºN (North Pole)
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• Seasonal variations of light and temperature increase steadily toward the poles
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Fig. 52-10c
March equinox
60ºN30ºN
0º (equator)
30ºSJune solstice
Constant tiltof 23.5º
September equinox
December solstice
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• Global air circulation and precipitation patterns play major roles in determining climate patterns
• Warm wet air flows from the tropics toward the poles
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Fig. 52-10dGlobal Air Circulation and Precipitation Patterns
60ºN
30ºN
0º (equator)
30ºS
60ºS
Global Wind Patterns
Descendingdry airabsorbsmoisture Ascending
moist airreleasesmoisture
Descendingdry airabsorbsmoisture
Aridzone
Tropics Aridzone
0º
66.5ºN(Arctic Circle)
60ºN
30ºN
0º(equator)
30ºS
60ºS66.5ºS(Antarctic Circle)
Westerlies
Northeast tradesDoldrums
Southeast trades
Westerlies
23.5º30º 23.5º 30º
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Fig. 52-10e
Descendingdry airabsorbsmoisture
Descendingdry airabsorbsmoisture
Ascendingmoist airreleasesmoisture
Aridzone
Aridzone
Tropics30º 23.5º 0º 23.5º 30º
60ºN
30ºN
0º(equator)
30ºS
60ºS
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• Air flowing close to Earth’s surface creates predictable global wind patterns
• Cooling trade winds blow from east to west in the tropics; prevailing westerlies blow from west to east in the temperate zones
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Fig. 52-10f
0º(equator)
30ºS
60ºS66.5ºS(Antarctic Circle)
30ºN
66.5ºN(Arctic Circle)
60ºNWesterlies
Northeast tradesDoldrums
Southeast trades
Westerlies
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Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on Climate
• Proximity to bodies of water and topographic features contribute to local variations in climate
• Seasonal variation also influences climate
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Bodies of Water
• The Gulf Stream carries warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic
• Oceans and their currents and large lakes moderate the climate of nearby terrestrial environments
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Fig. 52-11
Labradorcurrent
Gulfstream
Equator
Cold water
Warm water
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• During the day, air rises over warm land and draws a cool breeze from the water across the land
• As the land cools at night, air rises over the warmer water and draws cooler air from land back over the water, which is replaced by warm air from offshore
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Fig. 52-12
Warm airover land rises.1
23
4
Air cools athigh elevation.
Cool air over watermoves inland, replacingrising warm air over land.
Coolerair sinksover water.
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Mountains
• Mountains have a significant effect on
– The amount of sunlight reaching an area
– Local temperature
– Rainfall
• Rising air releases moisture on the windward side of a peak and creates a “rain shadow” as it absorbs moisture on the leeward side
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Fig. 52-13
Winddirection
Mountainrange
Leeward sideof mountain
Ocean
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Seasonality
• The angle of the sun leads to many seasonal changes in local environments
• Lakes are sensitive to seasonal temperature change and experience seasonal turnover
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Microclimate
• Microclimate is determined by fine-scale differences in the environment that affect light and wind patterns
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Long-Term Climate Change
• Global climate change will profoundly affect the biosphere
• One way to predict future global climate change is to study previous changes
• As glaciers began retreating 16,000 years ago, tree distribution patterns changed
• As climate changes, species that have difficulty dispersing may have smaller ranges or could become extinct
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Fig. 52-14
CurrentrangePredictedrangeOverlap
(a) 4.5ºC warming overnext century
(b) 6.5ºC warming overnext century
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Concept 52.3: Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth
• Biomes are the major ecological associations that occupy broad geographic regions of land or water
• Varying combinations of biotic and abiotic factors determine the nature of biomes
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• Aquatic biomes account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area
• They can contain fresh water or salt water (marine)
• Oceans cover about 75% of Earth’s surface and have an enormous impact on the biosphere
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Fig. 52-15
LakesCoral reefsRiversOceanicpelagic andbenthic zonesEstuariesIntertidal zones
Tropic ofCancerEquator
Tropic ofCapricorn
30ºN
30ºS
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Stratification of Aquatic Biomes
• Many aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or layers defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth
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Fig. 52-16
Littoralzone Limnetic
zone
Photiczone
PelagiczoneBenthic
zone Aphoticzone
(a) Zonation in a lake (b) Marine zonation
2,000–6,000 mAbyssal zone
Benthiczone
Aphoticzone
Pelagiczone
Continentalshelf
200 mPhotic zone
0
Oceanic zoneNeritic zone
Intertidal zone
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Fig. 52-16a
Littoralzone Limnetic
zone
Photiczone
PelagiczoneBenthic
zone Aphoticzone
(a) Zonation in a lake
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Fig. 52-16b
(b) Marine zonation
2,000–6,000 mAbyssal zone
Benthiczone
Aphoticzone
Pelagiczone
Continentalshelf
200 mPhotic zone
0
Oceanic zoneNeritic zone
Intertidal zone
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• The upper photic zone has sufficient light for photosynthesis while the lower aphotic zone receives little light
• The organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all aquatic zones is called the benthic zone
• The communities of organisms in the benthic zone are collectively called the benthos
• Detritus, dead organic matter, falls from the productive surface water and is an important source of food
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• The most extensive part of the ocean is the abyssal zone with a depth of 2,000 to 6,000 m
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• In oceans and most lakes, a temperature boundary called the thermocline separates the warm upper layer from the cold deeper water
• Many lakes undergo a semiannual mixing of their waters called turnover
• Turnover mixes oxygenated water from the surface with nutrient-rich water from the bottom
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Fig. 52-17-1
Winter
0º2º
4º4º
4º4ºC
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Fig. 52-17-2
Spring
4º4º
4º4ºC
4º4º
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Fig. 52-17-3
Summer
8º6º
5º4ºC
18º20º
Thermocline
22º
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Fig. 52-17-4
Autumn
4º4º
4º4ºC
4º4º
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Fig. 52-17-5
Winter
4º4º
4º
4ºC
4º4º
Spring Summer Autumn
Thermocline
4º4º
4º
4ºC
4º4º
4º4º
4º4ºC
2º0º
4ºC5º6º
8º18º
20º22º
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Aquatic Biomes
• Major aquatic biomes can be characterized by their physical environment, chemical environment, geological features, photosynthetic organisms, and heterotrophs
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Lakes
• Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich
• Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter
• Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in the shallow and well-lighted littoral zone
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• Water is too deep in the limnetic zone to support rooted aquatic plants; small drifting animals called zooplankton graze on the phytoplankton
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Fig. 52-18a
An oligotrophic lake in GrandTeton National Park, Wyoming
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Fig. 52-18b
A eutrophic lake in theOkavango Delta, Botswana
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Wetlands
• A wetland is a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
• Wetlands can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on the coasts of large lakes and seas
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• Wetlands are among the most productive biomes on earth and are home to diverse invertebrates and birds
Video: Swans Taking FlightVideo: Swans Taking Flight
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Fig. 52-18c
Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia
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Streams and Rivers
• The most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is current
• A diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers and streams
• Damming and flood control impair natural functioning of stream and river ecosystems
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Fig. 52-18d
A headwater stream in the GreatSmoky Mountains
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Fig. 52-18e
The Mississippi River far fromits headwaters
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Estuaries
• An estuary is a transition area between river and sea
• Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides
• Estuaries are nutrient rich and highly productive
• An abundant supply of food attracts marine invertebrates and fish
Video: Flapping GeeseVideo: Flapping Geese
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Fig. 52-18f
An estuary in a low coastal plain of Georgia
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Intertidal Zones
• An intertidal zone is periodically submerged and exposed by the tides
• Intertidal organisms are challenged by variations in temperature and salinity and by the mechanical forces of wave action
• Many animals of rocky intertidal environments have structural adaptations that enable them to attach to the hard substrate
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Fig. 52-18g
Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast
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Oceanic Pelagic Zone
• The oceanic pelagic biome is a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind- driven oceanic currents
• This biome covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface
• Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in this biome; also found are free-swimming animals
Video: Shark Eating a SealVideo: Shark Eating a Seal
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Fig. 52-18h
Open ocean off the island of Hawaii
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Coral Reefs
• Coral reefs are formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals (phylum Cnidaria)
• Corals require a solid substrate for attachment
• Unicellular algae live within the tissues of the corals and form a mutualistic relationship that provides the corals with organic molecules
Video: Coral ReefVideo: Coral Reef Video: Clownfish and AnemoneVideo: Clownfish and Anemone
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Fig. 52-18i
A coral reef in the Red Sea
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Marine Benthic Zone
• The marine benthic zone consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal, or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone
• Organisms in the very deep benthic, or abyssal, zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high water pressure
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• Unique assemblages of organisms are associated with deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges; here the autotrophs are chemoautotrophic prokaryotes
Video: Hydrothermal VentVideo: Hydrothermal Vent Video: TubewormsVideo: Tubeworms
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Fig. 52-18j
A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community
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Concept 52.4: The structure and distribution of terrestrial biomes are controlled by climate and disturbance
• Climate is very important in determining why terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas
• Biome patterns can be modified by disturbance such as a storm, fire, or human activity
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Fig. 52-19
Tropical forest
Savanna
Desert
Chaparral
TemperategrasslandTemperatebroadleaf forestNorthernconiferous forestTundra
High mountains
Polar ice
30ºNTropic ofCancerEquatorTropic ofCapricorn
30ºS
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Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
• Climate has a great impact on the distribution of organisms
• This can be illustrated with a climograph, a plot of the temperature and precipitation in a region
• Biomes are affected not just by average temperature and precipitation, but also by the pattern of temperature and precipitation through the year
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Fig. 52-20
Tropical forestTemperate grasslandDesert
Temperatebroadleafforest
NorthernconiferousforestArctic andalpinetundraA
nnua
l mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
Annual mean precipitation (cm)
30
15
0
0–15
100 200 300 400
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General Features of Terrestrial Biomes and the Role of Disturbance
• Terrestrial biomes are often named for major physical or climatic factors and for vegetation
• Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries
• The area of intergradation, called an ecotone, may be wide or narrow
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• Vertical layering is an important feature of terrestrial biomes, and in a forest it might consist of an upper canopy, low-tree layer, shrub understory, ground layer of herbaceous plants, forest floor, and root layer
• Layering of vegetation in all biomes provides diverse habitats for animals
• Biomes are dynamic and usually exhibit extensive patchiness
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Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes can be characterized by distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, and animals
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Tropical Forest
• In tropical rain forests, rainfall is relatively constant, while in tropical dry forests precipitation is highly seasonal
• Tropical forests are vertically layered and competition for light is intense
• Tropical forests are home to millions of animal species, including an estimated 5–30 million still undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods
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Fig. 52-21a
A tropical rain forest in Borneo
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Desert
• Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year; deserts may be hot or cold
• Desert plants are adapted for heat and desiccation tolerance, water storage, and reduced leaf surface area
• Common desert animals include many kinds of snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents; many are nocturnal
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Fig. 52-21b
A desert in the southwesternUnited States
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Savanna
• Savanna precipitation and temperature are seasonal
• Grasses and forbs make up most of the ground cover
• Common inhabitants include insects and mammals such as wildebeests, zebras, lions, and hyenas
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Fig. 52-21c
A savanna in Kenya
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Chaparral
• Chaparral climate is highly seasonal, with cool and rainy winters and hot dry summers
• The chaparral is dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; many plants are adapted to fire and drought
• Animals include amphibians, birds and other reptiles, insects, small mammals and browsing mammals
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Fig. 52-21d
An area of chaparralin California
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Temperate Grassland
• Temperate grasslands are found on many continents
• Winters are cold and dry, while summers are wet and hot
• The dominant plants, grasses and forbs, are adapted to droughts and fire
• Native mammals include large grazers and small burrowers
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Fig. 52-21e
Sheyenne National Grasslandin North Dakota
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Northern Coniferous Forest
• The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, extends across northern North America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth
• Winters are cold and long while summers may be hot
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• The conical shape of conifers prevents too much snow from accumulating and breaking their branches
• Animals include migratory and resident birds, and large mammals
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Fig. 52-21f
Rocky Mountain National Parkin Colorado
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Temperate Broadleaf Forest
• Winters are cool, while summers are hot and humid; significant precipitation falls year round as rain and snow
• A mature temperate broadleaf forest has vertical layers dominated by deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere and evergreen eucalyptus in Australia
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• Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest
• In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals hibernate in the winter
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Fig. 52-21g
Great Smoky MountainsNational Park in North Carolina
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Tundra
• Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes
• Winters are long and cold while summers are relatively cool; precipitation varies
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• Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, prevents water infiltration
• Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees, and lichen) and supports birds, grazers, and their predators
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Fig. 52-21h
Denali National Park, Alaska,in autumn
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Fig. 52-UN1Why is species X absent from an area?
Does dispersal limit its distribution? Area inaccessible orinsufficient time
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Does behavior limit its distribution?
Do biotic factors (other species)limit its distribution?
Do abiotic factors limit its distribution?
Habitat selection
Predation, parasitism,competition, disease
Water, oxygen, salinity, pH,soil nutrients, etc.
Chemicalfactors
Physicalfactors
Temperature, light, soilstructure, fire, moisture, etc.
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Fig. 52-T1
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Fig. 52-UN2
Sierra NevadaGreat Basin
Plateau
Mea
n he
ight
(cm
)A
ltitu
de (m
)
Seed collection sites
100
50
0
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
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Fig. 52-UN3
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You should now be able to:
1. Distinguish among the following types of ecology: organismal, population, community, ecosystem, and landscape
2. Explain how dispersal may contribute to a species’ distribution
3. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: potential and actual range, biotic and abiotic factors, macroclimate and microclimate patterns
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4. Explain how a body of water or mountain range might affect regional climatic conditions
5. Define the following terms: photic zone, aphotic zone, benthic zone, abyssal zone, thermal stratification, thermocline, seasonal turnover, climograph, disturbance
6. List and describe the characteristics of the major aquatic biomes
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7. List and describe the characteristics of the major terrestrial biomes
8. Compare the vertical layering of a forest and grassland