aksi nirkekerasanpengantar studi perdamaian 2007

No Kasus PP NK I ? 1 Anak-anak muda menggunakan kaos bergambar Che Guevara (tokoh revolusi

sosial Amerika Latin).

2 Beberapa bhiksu di Vietnam membakar diri guna memprotes pemerintah Vietnam Selatan yang dianggap sebagai boneka Amerika Serikat.

3 Buruh melakukan pemogokan menuntut kenaikan upah. 4 Diplomat dari negara-negara yang berkepentingan bertemu guna menegosiasikan

status Kepulauan Spratley.

5 Kelompok Amish di Amerika membentuk komunitas dan sistem sendiri, yang relatif terisolasi dari sistem sosial, politik, dan ekonomi Amerika Serikat.

6 Mahasiswa menduduki gedung DPR-RI menuntut turunnya Soeharto. 7 Sejumlah warga menjahit mulut mereka memprotes pemasangan saluran udara

tegangan tinggi (SUTET) di daerah mereka.

8 Sekelompok warga sipil Amerika Serikat terbang ke Iraq sebelum terjadinya invasi militer Amerika Serikat ke Iraq 2002 guna menjadi “tameng manusia”.

9 Seseorang memutuskan tidak menjadi tentara atau menolak wajib militer. 10 Tidak ikut bertepuk tangan seusai mendengar pidato, karena orang yang memberi

pidato adalah seorang pelanggar HAM.

11 Warga Bolivia melakukan mogok makan menuntut transisi politik (1980an). 12 Warga NU melakukan istighosah massal sebagai reaksi dari carut-marut politik

yang berkepanjangan di akhir dekade 1990an.

apa? • aksi: berbuat sesuatu / melawan; bukan hanya diam / pasrah / takluk

pacifism?

active nonviolence?

• nirkekerasan: tidak menggunakan kekerasan, baik terhadap diri sendiri maupun lawan

jahit mulut, mogok makan, puasa, bakar diri, lempar batu?

“an umbrella term for describing a range of methods for dealing with conflict which share the common principle that physical violence, at least against other people, is not used” (Weber & Burrowes 1991: 1)

diplomasi, negosiasi?

prasyarat: complementarity of nonviolent action & conflict resolution (Veronique Dudouet)

diwarnai bentrokan dan makian, mengganggu kepentingan umum, dll?

untuk menggulingkan kekuasaan?

apa?Gene Sharp (1973: 64)Nonviolent action is about “deny(-ing) the enemy the human assistance and cooperation which are necessary if he is to exercise control over the population” It is one response to the problem of how to act effectively in politics, especially on how to wield power effectively (Sharp 1973: 64).

Peter Ackerman and Christopher Kruegler (1994: 4)Nonviolent actions are “methods capable of bringing pressure to bear against the most ruthless opponents, by mobilizing social, economic, and political power, without recourse to killing or otherwise causing direct physical injury to the opponents or their agents”.

Mohandas Karamchad Gandhi Ahimsa, or the principle of non-violence, is in man’s nature itself (Gandhi, in Merton 1964: 23) and can be effectively taught only by living it (Gandhi 1966: 5), or in other words, embracing it as a way of life. The Gandhian concept of nonviolence is more than merely rejecting violence. It is also about love, seeking for truth, building positive relationships, and developing just structures – sometimes involving self-suppression and suffering. The term satyagraha, which in many literatures is simply translated as nonviolent action, actually means an ongoing and persistent search for truth and a determination to achieve truth. Here, the exclusion of violence is based on the notion that no one is capable of knowing the absolute truth (Gandhi, cited in Burrowes 1996: 107-108).

(1) ideologis/pragmatis? (2) mengapa perlu dibedakan?

the consent theory of power• power is pluralistic, not monolithic or inherently possessed by one

party• political power emerges from the interaction of all or several of these

sources: (1) authority, or the acceptance by others of one’s right to command, (2) human resources, (3) skills and knowledge of the power holder and his or her supporters, (4) intangible factors, such as psychological considerations and ideological conditioning, (5) material resources, meaning one’s possession and, or, control, over properties, natural and financial resources, economic system, means of communication and transportation, and (6) the type and extent of sanctions at the power holder’s disposal

• a power holder is dependent on the obedience and cooperation of others in allowing him or her to gain access to the above sources – nonviolence is about exploiting this dependency, i.e. by withdrawing the consent or obstructing the power holder from getting the resources needed for exercising power

• “nonviolent action is possible, and is capable of wielding great power even against ruthless rulers and military regimes, because it attacks the most vulnerable characteristic of all hierarchical institutions and governments: dependence on the governed” (Sharp cited in Ackerman and Duvall 2000: 9).

beberapa cerita

“… when the Japanese approach, the people evacuate the village completely, bury their food, remove all animals and utensils, and retire to the hills. The Japanese must, therefore, bring with them everything they need” (George Taylor, cited in Sharp 1973: 211).

beberapa cerita

“… each morning an entire platoon of Chinese soldiers would march out on the ice and lowering their trousers train their buttocks towards the Soviet side, the ultimate in Chinese insults. This exercise continued until one morning just as the Chinese assumed their positions the Russians set up large portraits of Mao facing in their direction. The Chinese hastily covered themselves and retired in confusion. There were no repetitions” (Edmund Stevens, cited in Sharp 1973: 145).

beberapa cerita

“The year was 1600, or thereabouts, when these tribal feminists decided that they had enough of unregulated warfare by their men. Lysistratas among the Indian women proclaimed a boycott on lovemaking and childbearing. Until the men conceded to them the power to decide upon war and peace, there would be no more warriors. Since the Iroquois men believed that women alone knew the secret of birth, the feminist rebellion was instantly successful” (Stan Steiner, cited in Sharp 1973: 191).

198 metode aksi nirkekerasan

• 52 metode protes & persuasi• 16 metode nonkooperasi sosial• 49 metode nonkooperasi ekonomi• 38 metode nonkooperasi politik• 41 metode intervensi

mengapa? (1)Ideological Nonviolence Pragmatic Nonviolence nonviolent actions are based on ethical

reasons and the belief in the unity of means and ends

nonviolent actions are conducted upon the belief that they are the most effective method available in the circumstances

the goal is to embrace the opponent as a partner in the struggle to satisfy the needs of all

the goal is to defeat the opponent

focuses on the capacity to treat the causes of violence and offer a direction to human development

focuses on utilising techniques to win the conflict

its exponents tend to wage conflict in more positive modes, aimed at achieving mutually acceptable solutions

its exponents are familiar with negative ways of waging conflict

trust, truthfulness, and openness play an important role – exponents believe that the opponents will be accessible to reason and moral appeals if fear, misunderstanding, prejudice, and mistrust are removed

moral or human qualities of the opponent play a secondary role only

nonviolence works as a moral jiu-jitsu: when faced with fearless, calm, steady, and nonviolent reactions, violence itself helps to overthrow its user

nonviolence works as political jiu-jitsu, aiming at throwing an opponent off balance politically, allowing the repression to rebound against the perpetrator’s position and weakening his or her power

Mohandas Karamchad Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr

Gene Sharp, Peter Ackerman, and Christopher Kruegler

mengapa? (2)(meskipun menghadapi lawan

yang tidak segan-segan menggunakan kekerasan)

• kekerasan hanya akan melahirkan kekerasan mentalitas korban, justifikasi

kekerasan hanya mereproduksi masalah, bukan menyelesaikannya (i.e. violent counterterrorism measures)

• ideologis sekejam apapun, lawan adl manusia, sehingga bisa diketuk

nuraninya membangun kepercayaan lawan ada lawan taktis, ada lawan strategis

• pragmatis dengan atau tanpa kekerasan, peluang menang kecil, jadi

lebih baik tanpa kekerasan, supaya tidak ada alasan legal/valid bagi lawan untuk menggunakan kekerasan (demo mahasiswa 1998)

bagaimanapun, aksi nirkekerasan jauh lebih ‘murah’

• great chain of nonviolence (Galtung)

mengapa? (3)

• strategis vs taktis

• alasan kolektif vs alasan personal

• alasan altruis vs alasan egois

• ingin perubahan – protes – tidak mau terlibat kesalahan lawan – cari aman

• percaya vs ikut-ikutan

• swakarsa vs dibayar

• tujuan baik vs tujuan buruk

• oleh si lemah vs oleh si kuat

Mayor of Bogota, PM of Thailand

nonviolent policing, nonviolent counterinsurgency

bagaimana?mechanisms of change (Lakey + Sharp)

• konversi: lawan terketuk nuraninya, berbalik mendukung tujuan kita

• persuasi: lawan tidak terketuk nuraninya untuk mendukung kita, namun berhasil diyakinkan bahwa kita bukan ‘penjahat’ yang pantas menerima tindak kekerasan

• koersi: lawan tidak terketuk nuraninya, masih mengganggap kita ‘jahat/sesat’ tetapi terpaksa menurut keinginan kita

• disintegrasi: struktur kekuasaan lawan hancur

bagaimana?metode (Sharp)

• Protest and persuasion: “includes a large number of method which are mainly symbolic acts of peaceful opposition or of attempted persuasion, extending beyond verbal expressions but stopping short of noncooperation and nonviolent intervention.”

• Noncooperation: “deliberately withdraw the usual forms and degree of cooperation with the person, activity, institution, regime with which they have become engaged in conflict.”

• Nonviolent intervention: “operate(s) both negatively and positively: they may disrupt, and even destroy, established behavior patterns, policies, relationships, or institutions which are seen as objectionable; or they may establish new behavior patterns, policies, relationships, or institutions which are prefered.”

active nonviolence?

contoh metoderaid / air raidnv invasion

nv interjectionnv obstructionnv harrasment

dumpingboycott

vegan & veggiestay at home

lysistraticsanctuary

strike

enhancing the margins of success

• tingkat represi• kultur politik

asertivitas dalam menyampaikan pendapat budaya kekerasan kesamaan kultur politik

• taktik dan persiapan rencana a – z rencana komplemen antisipasi represi

• kepemilikan dan keterikatan dengan isu simpati polarisasi – anda mau berada di kapal yang mana? alasan yang kuat

• Power is not only what you have but what the enemy thinks you have. • Never go outside the experience of your people.

When an action is outside the experience of the people, the result is confusion, fear, and retreat.

• Wherever possible go outside of the experience of the enemy. Here you want to cause confusion, fear, and retreat.

• Make the enemy live up to their own book of rules.

You can kill them with this, for they can no more obey their own rules than the Christian church can live up to Christianity.

• Ridicule is man's most potent weapon. It is almost impossible to counterattack ridicule. Also it infuriates the opposition, who then react to your advantage.

• A good tactic is one that your people enjoy. If your people are not having a ball doing it, there is something very wrong with the tactic.

• A tactic that drags on too long becomes a drag. man can sustain militant interest in any issue for only a limited time, after which it becomes a ritualistic commitment...

• Keep the pressure on, with different tactics and actions, and utilize all events of the period for your purpose.

• The threat is usually more terrifying than the thing itself. • The major premise for tactics is the development of operations that will maintain a

constant pressure upon the opposition. • If you push a negative hard and deep enough it will break through into its counterside;

this is based on the principle that every positive has its negative... • The price of a successful attack is a constructive alternative.

You cannot risk being trapped by the enemy in his sudden agreement with your demand and saying "You're right--we don't know what to do about this issue. Now you tell us."

• Pick the target, freeze it, personalize it, and polarize it.

Principles of development Formulate functional objectives Develop organizational strength Secure access to critical material resources Cultivate external assistance Expand the repertoire of sanctions

Principles of engagement Attack the opponents’ strategy for consolidating control Mute the impact of the opponents’ violent weapons Alienate opponents from expected bases of support Maintain nonviolent discipline

Principles of conception Asses events and options in light of levels of strategic decision making Adjust offensive and defensive operations according to the relative

vulnerabilities of the protagonists Sustain continuity between sanctions, mechanisms, and objectives

(Ackerman and Kruegler 1994: 22)

1 Development of a strong organizational network that is decentralized but bound together by a communication system allowing for constant consultation and the fostering of integrated action

2 Challenging the societal myth(s) that lie behind a problem 3 Building of solidarity and morale 4 Training of nonviolent activists 5 Planning of strategy and tactics: a choosing wisely between dispersion and concentration b choosing the right mechanism of change c selection of key targets to focus on d maintenance of initiative e flexibility f looking for legitimacy

6 Consistency (no waxing and waning) and persistence (over time) 7 Selection of a compelling issue 8 Obtaining clarity and unity over objectives amongst nonviolent actors 9 Exhausting of conventional alternatives before engaging in nonviolent action (as long as such

methods are clearly not futile and only serving to prolong oppression) 10 Taking steps to secure the outcome

a negotiating effectively b seeing to replace necessary functions that the defeated adversary performed c preventing third parties from replacing the defeated adversary and undermining recently

achieve gains d preparing to re-initiate struggle if the opponent reneges on negotiated settlement

(Summy 1996: 131-132)

Strengths Weakness

Nonviolent action is self-consistent: the methods and goals are compatible

Nonviolent action allows maximum participation: everyone can join regardless their age, sex, and ability

Nonviolent action is more likely to win over opponents or third parties

Nonviolent action leads to more lasting change

Nonviolent action leads to fewer casualties

Nonviolent discipline can be hard to sustain – military forces are familiar with the concept of discipline

Mobilising support for nonviolent action can be difficult – military forces can employ soldiers or use conscription

Nonviolent action has an image problem – people who are in favour of armed struggle see nonviolent action as weak; people who are in favour of official channels see nonviolent action as inappropriate or illegal

As a pragmatic method for reform, nonviolent action may not lead to lasting change – the overthrow of a dictator sometimes gives path to a new system of oppression

As a system alternative, nonviolent action has extremely radical implications

(Martin 2001)

Aspect of nonviolent action

Effect on participants Effect on others

Challenges the status quo

Empowering Makes nonviolent action more understandable, not just symbolic posturing; make people believe that they too can push forward changes.

Dramatic Exiting Awakens people who are asleep to the issues – most people are completely unaware of what is going on.

Serious Shows that what we do is important

Demonstrates that nonviolent action is not trivial and that we are dedicated and willing to suffer for our beliefs.

Clearly enunciated, shown in a picture

Understandable Teaches people the true nature of the society; shows that the status quo violates the values people hold, and encourages them to demand change.

Well-planned and researched

Empowering and safe

Demonstrates that we know what we are talking about and that we care of ourselves and others.

Widespread Sense of belonging and empowerment

Helps create a social norm that it is OK to dissent – lessens ostracism and condemnation.

Easily explained Empowers people to talk about their experiences

Makes it possible for people to easily talk (and disseminate the idea of nonviolent action) to friends, fellow workers, and neighbors.

Fun Enjoyable, encourages people to continue

Encourages others to join the action; shows that the process of social change can be as good as the ends.