AIR RAIDS &

THE BLITZ

BRITISH CIVILIANS EXPERIENCED A NEW THREAT DURING THE FIRST AND SECOND

WORLD WARS IN THE FORM OF BOMBING RAIDS

BY THE ENEMY

Source: A nurse, Ursula Somervell, kept a diary describing Zeppelin raids

We had pretty terrifying time with Zepps again last night. We were woken at 10.30 by a terrific noise of bombs, aircraft, guns etc. all apparently around us. We rushed on dressing gowns and said a prayer and got downstairs as quickly as we could. There was a tremendous glare in the sky to the west of us, which came from a big fire in Wood Street. I believe most of the damage was done on Oxford Street. A lot of people were killed in a motorbus. It would have been terrifying to be out, as I believe there is fearful panic in the streets. I am afraid there must have been many casualties.

FIRST WORLD WAR ZEPPELIN ATTACKS

• From January 2015 air raids began to threaten British cities with enemy using Zeppelins. These were airships filled with hydrogen and could fly at 15,000ft - well above British fighter planes (who had a maximum height of 13,000ft)

•There were 51 Zeppelin raids between 1915 and 1916 and their main target was London, where strict blackout regulations in place so that the German bombers could not see their targets

The British were unable to defend against the Zeppelins for quite some time, it was the 3rd September 1916 before the first Zeppelin was shot down

By 1917, British defence improved and the Zeppelin attacks stopped Improve-ments included searchlights, making them easier to be

spotted

57 Zeppelin raids on Britain killed 564 civilians and injured 1,370 people

THE BLITZ

German bombing raid became more serious during the Second World War due to improved technology. The bombers became more powerful and more destructive. Theses raid became known as the Blitz, a shortened version of the German word blitzkrieg - lightning war

Raids began on 7th September 1940, targeting British towns and cities with the aim of destroying civilian morale and undermining British armaments production (weapons manufacture)

12,500 people were killed in London in December 1940. Coventry, Glasgow, London and Manchester were all hit. The naval base at Portsmouth was the target of a massive attack in January - 930 people were killed and 3,000 were injured

Anderson shelters were provided, saving thousands of lives by protecting people from shrapnel and flying glass. But they did not protect against falling masonry and many poor people did not have access to them. In 1941, 500,000 Morrison shelters were provided, set up indoors. Many also used the London Underground.

The Royal Family impressed the people as they insisted in staying in Buckingham Palace throughout the war

From May, 1941, the attacks became less and less frequent as Hitler began to divert resources to the invasion of the Soviet Union

There were further air strikes in 1944 and 1945 from V1 and V2 missiles killing almost 30,000 people. The V1 was a flying bomb powered by a rocket engine, it flew towards its target and dropped when it ran out of fuel. The V2 was a more serious threat because it was so fast (supersonic speed) and could not be shot down or seen. V1 and V2 missiles killed almost 30,000 people.

QUESTION During the Second World War what were the key features of Blitzkrieg?

EFFECTS OF THE BLITZ

Bombing industrial areas was not effective as they were usually in isolated areas and easily missed at night. Factory production usually resumed after a couple of days after being hit

Everyday life of civilians were affected, especially during blackouts, homes, shops, businesses and train services had to stop during bombing raids and blackouts. The number of car accidents doubled during blackouts

The Blitz provided the media with the opportunity to portray Nazis as evil murderers who must be defeated. Far from destroying morale, which was the Germans aim when sending in bombing raids, it made people more determined to stand against Hitler. The shelters provided a place where people enjoyed the comradeship and were often full of people singing

GERMAN BOMBING RAIDS 1916—1917

In May 1917 the Germans started to use Gotha planes,, Gotha

raids killed 850 British civilians

Had a dramatic affect on British civilians as loss of life and injury

was high and there were few ways for them to protect themselves

In total, 850 were people killed in Gotha attacks

QUESTION List the ways that improve-ments in technology affected warfare 1939-45.

Source C: From Mrs Milburns Diaries. She describes Coventry about six weeks after the November 1940 raids.

It was not long after we reached the outskirts of Coventry that we saw the evidence of the raiders’ visit, and as we drew nearer the damage became greater. We went along Trinity Street and the devastated Rex Cinema, bombed twice over, and the other buildings near with all the windows blown out and boarded up. The old stone Grammar School had lost its windows, too, and was pitted and blackened and the Hospital seemed much more damaged than we expected. It was deliberate bombing of non-military objectives guaranteed, as the German brutes think, to terrify the ordinary citizen into fright and submission.

What impact did German bombing have on the civilians in Britain during the Second World War? Explain your answer, using Source C and your own knowledge. (10 Marks)

Basic Answer - Simple statement with no detail (example - Source C describes the damage in Coventry).

Good Answer - Statement supported by detail in Source C and/or own knowledge (example - Public facilities were damages, Source C for example says the cinema,

school and hospital were damaged in Coventry)

Excellent Answer - Give sustained explanation of the impact of bombing with relevant details from the source and your own knowledge (example - mentions damage to munitions factories, industry, public facilities, homes and casualties and morale with lots of relevant detail)

CIVILIAN

VOLUNTEERS

AIR RAID PRECAUTIONS (ARP)

In 1937 the danger of war increased and the Air Raid Precautions Act was passed, giving local authorities the responsibility to:

Build air raid shelters

Provide gas masks

Recruit and train volunteer wardens

By the end of the Second World War, 1.4 million civilians had volunteered to become ARP Wardens, to help defend the Home Front from German bombing. Some were full time and paid (£3 per week for men, £2 for women) but most were unpaid volunteers. At first, wardens had only a tiny tin helmet, a gas mask, a whistle and a rattle (for gas attacks) but as of 1940 they were given uniforms. The ARP built air raid shelters, gave out 38,000,000 gas masks and enforced blackout regulations. In 1941, the ARP was incorporated into the Civil Defence. They were regarded as heroes during the Blitz any by 1945, almost 7,000 Civil Defence staff had been killed on duty.

EMERGENCY SER-VICES

Civilians also joined in with wartime emergency services:

Auxiliary Ambulance Ser-vice

Auxiliary Fire Service, mostly unpaid volunteers

Reserve policemen and policewomen

HOMEFRONT GUARD

Source: Anthony Eden (Secretary of State for War) radio broadcast. 14 May 1940

We want large numbers of men in Great Britain, who are British subjects, between the ages of seventeen and sixty-five, to come forward now and other their services. The name of the new Force which is now to be raised will be ‘The Local Defence Volunteers’. This name describes it’s duties in three words. It must be understood that this is, so to speak, a spare-time job, so there will be no need for any volunteer to abandon his present occupation.

As there was serious danger from German invasion, Anthony Eden launched an appeal for voluntary military force to help defend the country (above). Within 24 hours 250,000 men had volunteered to join the Local Defence Volunteers (LDV) and within 6 weeks, 1.5 million had signed up

At first there were no uniforms or weapons so the public were asked to donate whatever weapons they had. This lead to over 20,000 weapons being volunteered (albeit some were old)

Volunteers had to be between the ages of 17 and 65 and unfit for regular military service and as a result the LDV became known as ‘Dad’s Army’. A reference made due to the large numbers of older volunteers

In 1940, Winston Churchill changed the name to the Home Guard. Weapons arrived from the USA and Canada and uniforms were issued. Military ranks were organised and a code of discipline was issued. In 1943, the Home Guard had their own anti aircraft batteries - that has been proven to have take down German aircrafts and bombers

QUESTION

What was the difference

between the ARP and the

Home Guard? Use details to

explain you answer.

Source: Anthony Eden, Memoirs, 1965

I had expected the response to this appeal to be prompt. In fact it was overwhelming, the first recruit arriving within four minutes of the end of the broadcast.

The Local Defence Volunteers acted as a catalyst, giving point to the nation’s will to resist. The volunteers recorded long periods of service … with only one reward, the knowledge that ‘The Home Guard’, as it was re-christened, closed a gap in our defences which must have been dangerous and could have been fatal.

PROPAGANDA &

CENSORSHIP

•Propaganda and censorship were central to both

WWI and WWII

•Propaganda aimed to increase moral, continue

recruitment and mask defeats in the army

•Hate campaigns focused on the ‘evils’ of Germany

From 1914—1918 and 1939—1945, the British public

were submitted to campaigns of propaganda and

censorship.

The government urged the public to censor themselves to prevent them from accidently giving away information which might be helpful to the enemy - troop positions or factory production.

PROPAGANDA

This is the information which is used to promote certain ideas and attitudes. It is important to known that the information that is used can be lies or can be limited and one sided

Sometimes it is used by governments to get public support for what they are doing. Sometimes it is used and spread by private individuals or organisations (newspapers) which have strong viewpoints they want to put across

During the First and Second World Wars the British government used propaganda to influence civilian attitudes to the wars to:

Encourage people to volunteer to fight or help in essential industries (boosting war efforts)

Masked the true scale of casualties and the defeats suffered to stop people being discouraged

Keep morale high during the hard times of war, caused by bombing, rationing and evacuation

Formats included newspaper, poster and new media such as ra-dio and films

HATE CAMPAIGNS

Propaganda was used to persuade people that they were fighting for a just cause and to stir up hated against the enemy

Publish information or starting rumours to spread across the people

First World War - government produced posters that showed acts of brutality supposedly carried out by the enemy (usually exaggerated truths or lies)

Example - started a rumour that the Germans sent corps-es to a factory and then used the human fat to make soaps, candles and boot polish

QUESTION

What is the purpose of the propaganda in the ‘How the Hun Hates!’ poster?

IMPACT ON CIVILIANS

WW1: Propaganda campaigns to turn the British against the Germans was so successful that Germans living in Britain were attacked and German owned shops were looted. Conscience posters shamed young men into joining up. Film companies joined together (formed The British Topical Committee for War Films) and produced war films for the War Department (For the Empire reached an audience of 9 billion Britons and Battle of the Somme was their most famous). Campaigns were very successful until 1916 when attitude began to change and become more critical. This was due to soldiers bringing news of hard-ships on the Western Front, casualties were high and the Western Front battle dragged on.

WW2: Government took emergency powers to ensure the press did not publish and BBC not broadcast information that could benefit the enemy. Some soldiers and women devised coded messages to avoid censorship so they could send secret messages about location or possibility of leave. Ministry tried to get across the truth about the horrors of war whilst avoiding giving false hope of victory to the public. Most effective when posters appealed to British humour. Pictures of Winston Churchill were used to inspire support from the public and boost morale. In February, 1940, the Forces Programme was introduced on the radio broadcasting information and reports. The cinema was popular during the war and was an important way to publicise information the government wanted to be broadcast. Short, 10 minute documentaries were used to boost morale. The radio and cinema also kept the public entertained which helped with the war efforts as it was a useful way to escape the harsh realities of wartime life.

CENSORSHIP

Censorship is the limiting the flow of information to the public :

May involve preventing the release of information about something

Limiting information or keeping some information completely secret

The government controlled information about the war which could reach the pubic in soldiers letters, newspapers, magazine, films and radio broadcasts (Second World War only)

The reasons for censorship is to prevent bad news reaching the public that may reduce and destroy morale and to prevent information reaching the enemy which could be used against them.

The government directly censored information:

Private letters were censored - British government employed approx. 10,000 people to go through information going through Royal Mail (used scissors to cut out censored information

Soldiers letter were read before they reached home and information about casualties, location or intended attacks by the British was deleted

Newspapers that printed information that the government disapproved of could be shut down

QUESTION

How effective was propaganda and

censorship on civilians in both the

First and Second World Wars?

GOVERNMENT POWERS

The powers of the Government were increased during both wars.

WW1: The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) was passed in 1914 which allowed the government to take over factories and buildings and also to censor information. Some of the things people were not allowed to do ac-cording to DORA:

Talk about or spread rumours about military affairs in public

Light bonfires, use fireworks, ring church bells, fly a kite or buy binoculars

Alcohol sales were restricted

In 1916 Conscription was introduced. At first the government were reluctant to force men into the armed forces and encouraged them to volunteer but as this process began to slow down (due to news of conditions and high number of casualties it became necessary to introduce a national registration of single men (later married men). From 1916 - 1918, 3.5 million men were conscripted. The four exception included:

Men in reserved occupations (i.e. mining, important industries)

Men in ill health

Men with family responsibilities

Conscientious objectors

WW2: The Emergency Powers Act was introduced in 1940 after the British Army was forced to retreat at Dunkirk and realisation that invasion was a real threat. The Act gave the government almost unlimited powers over people and property. Military training was made compulsory in 1939 and in September Na-tional Service Act was passed making all men aged 18-41 were liable for conscrip-tion (continued until 1948). By the end of 1940 200,000 men from reserved occu-pations were excused and over 1 million had volunteered. One group of civilians objected to conscription were called ‘conscientious objectors’ and refused to fight due to moral grounds (pacifists, religious beliefs, Quakers). In WW1 16,100 men refused to fight and appeared before a military tribunal to proved they de-served to be exempt (9,500 helped by working in non-fighting roles and the rest were sent to prison camps where they were treated with cruelty). In WW2 60,000 men and women claimed exemption and had to justify their stance (3,000 were given full exemption, 18,000 were dismissed as false and the men had to serve or be imprisoned and the remaining were given non fighting roles such as military roles or farming, mining or emergency services).

GOVERNMENT

ORGNAISATION

RATIONING

WW1 - DORA aimed to prevent food shortages. By 1917, German submarines stopped supplies getting to Britain from America and the Continent. Food was so scarce that prices rose sharply and queues grew. Coal was also in short supply. Voluntary rationing was introduced in 1917 limiting people to 2 1/2 lbs of meat, 3/4 lb of sugar and 4lbs of bread. Food shortages were continuing and rich people were able to get more food through the black market so rationing became compulso-ry in 1918. Everybody received a ration card and had to register at a local butcher and grocer allowing every person 15oz of meat, 5oz of bacon and 4oz of butter. The system seemed fair and poorer people became more healthier as they had a better share of food than before.

WW2: Government much more quicker to intro-duce compulsory rationing in 1940. Soon coupons were given to buy other essential articles. Even the Roya Fami-ly had ration books. It was a fair system helping to unite people and was not based on class. The rich, however, could still get extra rations in the black market. The government used other measures to control food supplies. ‘Dig for Victory’ campaign encouraged people to grow vegetables and keep pig and chickens. All places green were turned into vegetable patches. There were also food campaigns to stop food waste - scraps collected for pigs.

MOBILISATION OF WOMEN

WW1: Women were recruited into the armed forces for the first time. In 1916 they were used as volunteers in the Voluntary Aid Detachments (VADs) working as nurses behind battle lines. From 1917-18 they were recruited as full time members of the armed forces:

WAAC - Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps taking over office jobs freeing up men to fight

WRNS - Women’s Royal Naval Service taking over office jobs

WRAF - Women’s Royal Air Force carrying out routine office and domestic duties

As British industry began to suffer shortages of labour, women were soon employed to ‘male jobs’. At first, employers and unions resisted the use of women in manufacturing industries as they believed they didn’t have the skills and would bring down wages. But the shortages were so great that by 1916 women had to be employed, working in engi-neering industries and munition work places. Women also worked as bus conductors, post-al workers fire fighters and blacksmiths and Women’s Voluntary Police service was set up in major cities. Approx. 260,000 women worked in the Women’s Land Army where they worked as farmers.

WW2: In 1941 women, unless pregnant or had small children, were sent to work in indus-try or in the auxiliary armed services. By 1943, 90% of single women and 80% of married women were doing the work of national importance. Despite not being involved on com-bat, women did hard and dangerous jobs such as mechanics, welders, pilots and even gunners on anti-aircraft guns. A total of 335 women were killed in Auxiliary Territorial Ser-vice (ATS) and another 300 were wounded.

Factory Work - in 1943 women occupied 57% of the jobs in factories working in direct competition with men and often proving they could do a better job

Land Army - They had no choice where they worked and were often sent to remote areas in basic conditions. They did however prove themselves capable of coping with tough jobs and handling animals well

Voluntary Services - By September 1943 more than 1 million had joined the Women’s Voluntary Service (WVS) and fulfilled a variety of roles including civil defence, fire ser-vices, messengers and dispatch riders for the post office, drove ambulances and worked in medical centres

REORGANISATION

OF INDUSTRY

WW1: Government took control of industries due to DORA and made full use of the powers they gained:

The railway network, coal mines and shipyards were taken over

Munitions production was particu-larly important and by 1915 the Ministry of Munitions had taken control of steel and chemical production. By the end of the war they had produced 4 million rifles, 250,000 machine guns, 52,000 aeroplanes, 25,000 artil-lery pieces and 170 million rounds of artillery shells

1916 Ministry of Labour was set up to organise the nation’s labour force giving the government powers to direct workers into jobs the country needed the most

WW2: Even before war broke out the government built shadow factories next to motor car plants which were put into military production when war began.

The Control for Employment Act was passed in 1939 to give the government powers over key industries and to ensure that there were enough workers in essential industry.

Coal supplies were low so men were sent down into the mines and women were conscripted from Spring 1941 and had to choose between a range of jobs

EVACUATION

DEFINITION Evacuation - the process of moving people from towns and cities into the countryside for safety

REASONS FOR EVACUATION

The British government believed that the Germans would bomb British town and cities to destroy the morale of the people. Evacuation measures were put in place to protect civilians from bombing and gas attacks. Children were protected by moving them out of the likely targets of the cities to the countryside where they would be safe.

Source: Memories of Rita Wright,

written in 1989. She was evacuated

at the age of 9 from the East End of

London.

One really good thing abut being evacuated to the countryside was the fact that my health improved so much. Although my parents had fed me well, I suffered from pneumonia every winter because of the crowded living conditions at home. From the time I was evacuated I never suffered from it again. The abundance of locally produced fruit and vegetables kept me very healthy.

THE ORGANISATION OF EVACUATION

The first evacuation was announced on the 31st August 1939, the day before Hitler invaded Poland

Many parent were reluctant to send their Children away but accepted that they would be much more safer in the countryside

Parents were told what they would need to bring and where children needed to assemble

Many city schools were closed and teachers went with the children to carry on teaching in the rural areas

At their destination the evacuees gathered in village halls and schools to be chosen by foster families

Homesickness and the ‘Phoney War’ (little fighting taking place and no enemy bombing raids) meant that many children returned to the cities by Christmas 1939

When the Blitz began in 1940, a second evacuation took place and many more in 1944 with the V1 and V2 raids

EXPERIENCES OF THE EVACUEES

Source: Ted Cummings, who was evacuated from

Manchester to Sandbach in 1939, remembers his

experiences in the 1960’s. We left feeling

sad our parents and afraid that they would be killed by bombs. When we arrived in Sand-

bach we were chosen for a variety of reasons. For the extra income they received for us,

to help on the farm or with the housework. A very few were lucky because they lived with

families who really cared for them. For those, life was like a holiday.

Evacuees were not used to the rural life and there were clashes between city and country values

Evacuation saved many lives

The organisation was sometimes poor, especially the way the evacuees were chosen by their foster parents

Evacuees often found themselves in much wealthier homes and had to cope with different standards of be-haviour

Some children from poorer inner city areas saw the countryside for the first time

Many evacuees stayed with better off people and were given a better standard of living

Evacuation also showed better-off

people in the countryside the social problems of families living in inner city areas and increased the demand for change

There is evidence that some people tried to avoid taking evacuees

Some children experience unpleasant conditions and treatment from their foster families

Education continued as teachers were also sent to the countryside

TASK:

Overall, do you believe that evac-uation was a success?

Source: Beryl Hewitson describes what happened to her when she was evacuated.

We were told to sit quietly on the floor while villagers and farmers’ wives came to choose which children they wanted. Eventually only my friend Nancy and myself were left. A large, happy-looking middle aged women rushed in asking ‘Is that all you have left?’ A sad, slow nod of the head from our teacher, ‘Ill take the poor bairns’. We were led out of the hall and taken to a farm where we spent two years.

Source: An interview with the actor Michael Caine, who remember life as an evacuee.

The women said, ‘Here’s your meal’ and gave us a tin of pilchards between the two of us and some bread and water. Now we’d been in a rich woman’s house before, so we said: ‘Where’s the butter?’ And we got a sudden wallop round the head. What we later found out was that the women hated kids and was doing it for the extra money. So the meals were the cheapest you could dish up.

WAS EVACUATION A SUCCESS?

AGE OF ECONOMIC AUSTERITY

Britain’s dire economic status made the government realise

that special measures were necessary. The Chancellor of the

Exchequer, Stafford Cripps, said that Britain needed a period

of ’austerity’.

Definition: a difficult economic situation caused by a government reducing the amount of money it spends. Leading to a condition of living without unnecessary things and without comfort, with limited money or goods, or a practice, habit, or experience that is typical of this.

SECOND

WORLD WAR -

LEGACY

EXPORTS AND FULL EMPLOYMENT

As part of ‘austerity’ the government decided that there were two essential steps to recovery:

Britain had to earn money to pay back loans so it needed to start selling more goods again. Boost were in place for car manufacturers and the pound sterling would be devalued

People were encouraged to work to in full employment. Only by produc-ing things at home to keep down im-ports and make things to increase ex-ports

ECONOMIC LEGACY OF WAR

The Second World War left Britain in a sorry economic state in 1945. Britain:

Lost 500,000 homes through bombing

Infrastructures, like railway tracks, trains and roads, were worn out

Factories had been converted into weapon manufacturing sites– not consumer goods sites

Exports had decreased

Lost £1,000 overseas investments

Owed 3,000 million in debts to other countries

Things got even worse after the end of war.

US Loans and Aid.

Britain had equipped itself with ‘Lend Lease’ and under this scheme the USA provided goods such as aircrafts and ships. These goods were to be returned after the war but the USA ended the Lend Lease.

Anglo-American Loan - ending the Lend Lease caused a problem as it could not return the good or do without good already in transit. Britain negotiated a $5 billion loan to pay for the goods without running out of money. Britain would have 60 years to pay it off.

Marshall Aid - Even more aid was needed later. In 1947, the USA was worried that a bankrupt Europe may allow communist revolution so announce the Marshall Plan. This was a scheme to prop up Europe with loans, machinery, raw materials and fuel.

SOCIAL LEGACY OF WAR

‘Age of Austerity’ was also a social legacy or war. Some fea-

tures of wartime lingered until 1954 and beyond.

Rationing

Rationing continued after the war; domestic food supplies and other consumer goods were limited and Britain could not afford a rapid increase in imported goods

Rationing became worse before it got better; meat was reduced and bread and potato rationing was introduced on 1946

The public became impatient and eventually rationing was end-ed from 1948. In 1954, the removal of restrictions on the sale of meat brought rationing to and end

Age of Social Austerity

Bomb sites lingered for years, underdeveloped

Britain still had conscription

When rationing ended, people continued to queue in shops to buy popular goods before they ran out

Materials for clothes was in short supply so styles remained drab

From 1950, output and employment improved but recovery was a long process

NATIONALISED INDUSTRIES

Strategy for recovery: nationalisation

During the war the government took control of industry to benefit the war effort. By 1945, the key industries were run down so the Labour government decided to regenerate industries and keep them in public hands.

Coal, gas, electricity and steel industries were nationalised. Private owners were bought out by state and run by publicly appointed Boards

Nationalisation was also a success for Britain’s most out-of-date industries (coal and railways). Government money could be invested in modernising industries to make a profit and improve working conditions

Nationalisation was less popular in the steel and iron industries

Government intervention in society was needed to fight wars effectively and was also necessary to deal with the after -effects of the Second World War during the Age of Austerity

Source: George Orwell, 1945

We have lost most of our markets and overseas investments, twelve million tons of our shipping have gone to the bottom, much of our industry is hope-lessly out of date and our coal mines are in such a state that for years it will be impossible to get enough coal out of them. We have ahead of us the enormous job of rebuilding industry and recapturing markets in the teeth of overwhelming competition from the USA.

IMPACT ON

SOCIETY

REVISION

As part of your revision, think

about the arguments and facts you would

use to explain:

How effective the government's reforms

were.

Why the Liberal government intro-duced reforms to help the young, old and unemployed.

How far the welfare state was established

by 1914.

How far the govern-ment changed as a result of events be-tween 1906 and

1919.

WAR AND SOCIAL CHANGE: BOER WAR

British people took great pride in it’s military history and achievements and expected the government to protect Britain’s interests abroad. The public wanted strong, efficient military forces and supported an aggressive foreign policy. This is known as ‘jingoism’, taken from a popular song dated 1877 (“We don’t want to fight, Yet by jingo if we do, We’ve got the ships, We’ve got the men And got the money too”)

Jingoism is one of the reasons that the British public supported the Boer War (1899—1902) where Britain defeated Dutch settlers (known as Boers) in South Africa. The public expected a quick victory as they Boers were only made up of only 35,000 farmers but the professional British Army suffered 3 defeats at Stormberg, Magersfontein and Colenso. Eventually Britain deployed 450,000 soldiers and spent over £200 million and the war was won. 5,000 were killed and 16,000 died from disease. The Boer War highlighted the need for social change and military reform.

The British feared the army was falling behind the others countries, such as Germany. The Royal Navy began to develop new battleships (like Dreadnought) to reassert control over the seas and Lord Haldane introduced 2 reforms (creation of rapid response forces called British Expeditionary Force who could response to crisis abroad and Territorial Force who trained part time to support regular troops). Both reforms put Britain in a stronger position at the start of WW1.

Blame also fell on the quality of army recruits and Social Reformers work showed widespread poverty amongst the working class where most of the soldiers were recruited from. Reports also showed that 40% of recruits in the Boer War were unfit for service. Fearing that Britain’s military and economic efficiency was being undermined, the government set up the Committee on Physical Deterioration which suggested:

Nurseries for working mothers

Free school meals for the very poor

Medical inspections in school

Training in coking and mothering skills

End of tobacco sales to children

An end to overcrowded slums and smoke pollution in towns

LIBERAL PARTY (1906-1911)

The Liberal Party made a number of social changes from 1906 due to politicians, such as David Lloyd George, who were determined to tackle Britain’s problems. The reasons for reforms include:

The Boer War suggested Britain was losing its military lead in the world

People realised they couldn’t wait around for the poor to solve their own problems of poverty, they needed help

Realisation that if the urban poor were unfit for the army they would be unfit for work also, leading to Britain losing its place in the lead of world economic progress

If the Liberals did not help the poor, they could turn to the Labour Party or trade union action

1906– Free school meals provid-ed for all poor children during the school day

This act made sure that poor children had at least one proper meal each day. This would make them healthier and grow fitter and stronger.

1906– The Workers Compensa-tion Act Introduced

Offered compensation for workers injured at work, making it less likely that injury would condemn them and their families to poverty and ill health.

1907- Schools started provided free medical checks on all their pupils by visiting school nurses and doctors

Poor children never saw a doctor until they were ill as their parents could not afford it. This act made sure illness could be picked up early.

1908– Children and Young Per-sons Act Introduced and regu-lations were put in place (also known as Children's Charter)

This act made it a crime to neglect children and sell them alcohol, cigarettes or fireworks. Juve-nile courts were also set up to prevent harsh adult treatment and provide training for young people.

1908-Old Age Pensions Act pro-vided free pension to people above the age of 70

Old people had to go on working until they died, or move in with their already poverty stricken children. This act gave them a small income in old age so they could retire.

1909-The Town Planning Act banned any more old style “back to back” housing from being built. It also required local councils to enforce all existing regulations

Poor housing had not disappeared after the 1875 Artisans’ Dwelling Act. This act forced all house builders to build decent quality houses that would protect the health of the poor.

1911-National Health Insurance Act. Working men to pay a weekly “stamp” into the scheme and then draw money if out of work through sickness.

Workers got nothing if they were ill; therefore men had to carry on working even if it would eventually kill them. This act made it possible for men to take time off sick and so protected their health.

1918-Local councils required to provide health visitors, clinics for pregnant women and infants. Councils were also to set up day nurseries for children.

Until the day of birth women did not get any health care. This act sent health visitors round to houses during pregnancy and gave mothers access to health care before and after the birth.

1919-Subsidised Housing Acts set up the rules for councils to build houses and provide them on reduced rents for the poor.

The government said it would sort out housing problems so that returning soldiers after WWI would have ‘homes fit for heroes’. This act provided good homes for all working-class people.

Protect people from the ‘5 Giant Evils’: Want, Ignorance,

Disease, Squalor and Idleness. Throughout

their lives, from ‘cradle to gave’ and to whoever regardless

of their income

SECOND WORLD WAR

MEDICAL TREATMENT

Treatment of millions of casualties during the Second World War prompted improvements in medical treatments which benefited civilian. For example mass immunisations and the treatment of burns were greatly improved. Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Flemming in 1928 and was used to fight infection during the war. It was, however, difficult to manufacture for use as a drug (the US government financed the development of penicillin and after $75 million was spent it was issued to British and US troops by 1943 and eventually made available for all)

The Second World War brought the introduction of a national system of healthcare. Until this time there was no Nation Health Service and only peo-ple who had enough money could afford a doctor or treatment. With the realisation that the Germans would bomb British cities the government not-ed that the existing medical services would not be able to cope with the number of civilian casualties and were inadequate. The government took responsibility of overseeing a national system of emergency and medical care for everyone. This provision included:

National network of air raid wardens trained in first aid and ambulance assigned to medical posts

Free or cheap medical treatment for everyone who needed it

National blood transfusion service

The next steps included:

Assistance Board to help out bombed out families, the sick and the aged

Free meals for more school children

National Milk Scheme for all children and expectant mothers

Once they had done this during the war there was no going back after the war. This was the precursor to the NHS.

WELFARE

AND HEALTH

FIRST WORLD WAR

MEDICAL ADVANCES:

Between 1914 and 1918 there was little change or direct improvements in

medical services for civilians in Britain. There were few civilian casualties

during the war so there was no need for new improvements at home. The

cost of war meant that there was little money left over for improving medical

car at home. However, long term, the government and medical firms co-

operated to help medical knowledge in wartime and the treatment of soldiers

did help the average person.

Progress was made in areas of medical need which were common in wartime:

The use of tetanus injections and sodium hypochlorite to avoid infection in wounds

Plastic surgery and the manufacturing of prosthetic limbs when dealing with disfiguring injuries

Treatment for mental disorders, such as ‘shell shock’

After the war these innovations were used in civilian services and improving medical provision for all.

Blood Transfusions: Transfusions became more common after the war as doctors who treated on the battlefield were desperate for ways to re-place lost blood. Blood transfusions were very dangerous before 1914. A medical breakthrough came with the discovery of anti-coagulants in 1914 and heparin in 1916. Adding these to blood prevented blood from clotting in tubes and bottles and surgeons could store blood ready to use when needed. From 1921, voluntary blood transfusions were used in some hospitals and Britain’s first blood bank opened in 1938.

Source: From a book on warfare, edited by Sir Zacharay Cope, 1953.

Surgery and war have always been linked … the chief school of surgery was the battlefield. In war, the surgeons of many nations are united in a common effort … Manufacturing firms will devote their whole resources (to medical improvements) … Supplies, transport, equipment are all (made) available.

WELFARE PROVISION

War helped with longer term im-provements in welfare provisions. David Lloyd George promised “to make Britain a fit country for heroes to live in”.

Education Act (1918) required coun-cils to provide education up to the age of 14

Housing and Town Planning Act (1919) giving councils subsides to help provide new council houses

Unemployment Insurance Act (1920) raised benefits paid and in-suring more workers against unem-ployment - 75% of workers were now covered

In 1941 there was a desire for a fairer society which led to a Royal Commission to be set up to consider how Britain could rebuild after the war

Source: C Spry, Medicine at War, 1970.

X-rays of bones became commonplace. Despite steel helmet, 10% of all injuries were to the head. Surgery of the eye, face, ear, nose and throat and the brain and plastic surgery developed rapidly under the stimulus of war. Many surgeons gained new knowledge and experience and later set up as ‘specialist’.

Sir William Beveridge’s report in 1942 recommend-ed the government to set up a system to protect

people

The report became a best-seller and from 1944, a series of reforms were

introduced to implement the report (mostly by the La-bour government) - these

reforms’ became known as the ‘Welfare State’

THE BEVERIDGE REPORT

DEVELOPMENTS: Some progress had been made in education, work, medicine and politics. Some women began to make their mark:

Hertha Ayrton became the first women to present a paper to the Royal Society, Britain’s most prestigious acade-my of Science, in 1904

Rosa Lewis started work in domestic service and worked her way up into business, buying her own hotel in Lon-don in 1902 called The Cavendish (which is still a top class hotel today)

Beatrix Potter published her first book in 1902 and became a renowned author

Elizabeth Garrett Anderson overcame immense difficulties to qualify as a nurse in 1865 (there were 477 by 1911) and was the first women to be elected mayor, at Aldeburgh in 1908

American Harriet Quimby became the first women to fly an aeroplane across the English Channel in 1912

WOMEN IN EARLY

20TH CENTURY

At the start of the twentieth century, the rights and role of women in society were slowly improving - but pro-gress was still too slow. This is became the views which held women back in the Victorian times still held women back in the 1900s. Some people thought women were less capable than men:

Many believed women were not intelligent enough and were

too emotional to be included in important matters.

Only women in poor families were allowed to work - usually to help

make ends meet as maids or cooks. Some working class married

women were in paid employment, working in the textile industry

and women who did the same job men were always paid less.

Women in middle class homes were restricted to the house and

prepared for domestic duties and bringing up the children. It was a

common view that a women’s place was at home

Paid professions, such as the law, medicine and accountancy were

generally closed to women as they lacked the qualification to enter

these professions. There were only three women doctors in 1901

Most girls were held back by their schooling and their education

prepared them for future domestic roles. They were generally con-

fined to reading, writing, arithmetic, needlework and cookery

These views limited women socially also. Single women were

expected not to go out without an escort and were not to smoke or

drink. Their dress had to be conservative and make up was frowned

upon

Progress began to improve and the First World War brought

changes in the position of women in British society.

Before this though - what position were women

in?

Source: Leading scientist, Thomas Huxley, 1851.

In every characteristic, whether mental or physical, the aver-age woman is inferior to the average man

SUFFRAGETTS

Believed in using militant and extreme methods

They were prepared to break the law in order to get the vote - gained publicity and force the government to give way

Led by Emmeline Pankhurst, who set up the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903

Between 1906—1914, their methods became more mili-tant

They began by interrupting meetings of leading Liberals and moved on to going on hunger strike after being arrest-ed, smashing windows, cutting telephone wires, setting fire to derelict building and assaulting Liberals

1886 - Oxford University raised status of higher education for women by the foundation of St Hugh's and St Hilda’s Colleges there

1907 - First Aid Nursing Yeomanry was set up to nurse soldiers at field hospitals in wartime

1907 - Qualification of Women Act allowed women to be elected to county and town councils and as town mayors

CAMPAIGN FOR THE VOTE: Women were not allowed to vote. Men claimed that women were emotional-ly unsound and unable to vote sensibly. Others stated that as women couldn’t fight for their country they should not be allowed to vote. Some women also believed it would be wring. Queen Victoria called giving women the vote a ‘mad, wicked folly’. Nevertheless the campaign was stepped up in the years before 1914.

Despite all this activity, women did not have the vote by 1914. This was partly due to the militancy of

the Suffragettes which convinced many people that women were not responsible enough. The Liberals

and Conservatives were also unable to decide on which groups of women to give the vote to.

SUFFRAGISTS

Believed that women should campaign peacefully

They should keep on the right side of the law

Do all they could to persuade the general public and parliament that women ought to be given the vote

One group, the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) was led by Millicent Fawcett

They organised matches, put up posters and devel-oped petitions

They tried to demonstrate that women were sensi-ble enough for the vote

ARMED FORCES

From 1917, women could work in the armed forces is support roles—typically in roles that involved working as nurses, cooks, clerks, telephone operators and typists. These were non-combat roles but were often per-formed in war zones. 100,000 woman had joined:

Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC)

Women’s Royal Air Force (WRAF)

Women’s Royal Navy Servces (WRNS)

WOMEN IN

THE FIRST

WORLD WAR

The First World War accelerated the changes in attitude to women in society and the lives of women in general. Women played a vital role on the home front—especially in employment and the women’s armed forces

WOMEN AT WORK

Once the men had begun to volunteer for the armed services in 1914 and then conscription took even more from their jobs, Britain still needed women to do the jobs vacated by the men.

At first employers were happy for women to do light work, such as office jobs,. But the government realised the need to employ women in a much wider range of jobs, such as munitions manufacture. Since the government had introduced DORA, employers had to oblige. Woolwich Arsenal in London employed 125 women in 1914 but by 1917 the government had employed 27,000 women there. By the end of war 60% of all workers in munitions industry were women. A further 800,000 women worked in engineering. The work was hard:

They worked 12– hour shifts, seven days a week, packing explosives and cordite charges into bullets and shells

Sometimes they developed lead poisoning or illnesses from the chemicals they came into contact with—caused hair to fall out and their skin to turn yellow

Some workers were killed when munitions factories blew up—1917 a fire a Silvertown munitions works in London caused an explosion killing 69 and injuring 400

Between 1914 and 1918, 2 million women replaced men in employment

LAND ARMY

From 1915, women joined the Land Army, filling in jobs in farming. By the end of the war there were 23,000 women serving in the Women’s Land Army

Source: An article called ‘The New Woman’ from the Sphere, May

1918.

She has entered practically all the professions. A postwoman brings you the letters and a girl brings you the milk for your morn-ing tea. There are girls, uniformed or not, at the wheels of half the cars that pass. If you go by train, women will handle your lug-gage. If you choose a bus or tram, the conductress in her smart uniform has long become a familiar figure. You can even be shaved by a woman.

INDEPENDENCE AND ATTITUDES

The developments brought other changes to the lives of Britain’s women. Some speared in uni-form, in roles ranging from railway porters to ambulance drivers. Other had their hair cut short and began to wear trousers as it was more practical. Women began to gain more freedom and chaperones for wealthy women became less common. As the women received a pay packet they were now in position to spend it, buying cigarettes and smoking, drinking in pubs, going to the cinema and shopping trips unsupervised.

The opinions on these changes were varied across Britain. Some people were scandalised, some troops returning home were amazed with the new type of women back home. Everybody no-ticed this change.

Source: An article from the Daily Mail, Sept. 1916.

The wartime business girl is to be seen at night din-

ing out in restaurants in London. Before, she would

never have had her evening meal in town unless in

the company of a man friend. But now, with money

and without men, she is dining out more and more.

The meal of course, is accompanied by a cigarette.

SOCIAL CHANGES

Social positions continued to improve during this time. The new labour-saving devices, such as a washing machine, allowed women to have more leisure time on their hands. Better contraception gave more women control on when to have children and how many. The war also gave women the confidence to change their appearance and social habits.

Young women no longer had chaperones and went out with boyfriends without having to take another female with them

Clothing was less restrictive and make-up became acceptable

‘Flappers’ were an extreme example of the social changes, They challenged old ideas about fashion to express their independence—wearing more revealing clothing, plenty make-up and shorter hair. They drank and smoked in public places adopting American dances (Charleston)

Women gained legal rights too. In 1923 they were to be given same rights as men to seek divorce on the grounds of adultery. In 1925 the Property Act allowed married women to own property on same terms as men

WOMEN 1918—

1939

How far did the changes in attitudes about women last after the war?

POLITICAL CHANGES

In 1918, the Representation of the People Act was passed giving the vote to all women property owners aged 30 and over together with all men over the age of 21. This was a recognition of the role women had played during the war, although it’s not clear everybody agreed with it.

In 1919 Nancy Astor became the first women MP to take her seat in parliament. However, younger women were disappointed with the age limit. Many of these women were the ones who had done the work in the munitions factories and on the farms. People considered them too young and immature to vote and others feared a female majority in voters would elect a greater number of women MPs (due to the death of so many men during the war)

EMPLOYMENT CHANGES

When war ended in 1918 most women wanted to

keep their jobs. One survey asked ‘Do you wish

to return to your former work or stay in the job

you are doing now?’. Out of 3,000 women -

2,500 wanted to stay. But women were expected

to give their jobs up for the returning men and

those who tried to hold onto their jobs were criti-

cised for depriving men of jobs. Therefore, wom-

en returned to their more traditional, lower paid,

roles or household duties.

However, there was some development. Sex Disqualification Removal Act was passed in 1919 meaning single women could no longer be barred from any jobs because of their sex. Also, in 1925 the Civil Service admitted women to government service for the first time.

QUESTION

What improvements in the position of women took place between 1918 and 1939?

QUESTION

Overall, do you think that improvements during the

First World War continued or stalled when the war

ended?

Source: From a speech made in 1917 by Herbert Asquith, Prime Minister from 1908—1916

My opposition to women’s rights is well known. However, for three years now the Suffragettes have not restarted that horrible campaign of violence. Not only that, they have contributed to every service during this war except fighting. I therefore believe that some measures of women's suffrage should be given.

Source: Written by an MP in 1922

The vote was won, not by burning churches, slashing pictures or damaging pillar boxes but by women’s work during the war. It was not giving way to violence but a reward for patriotic service

Source: From M. Pugh , Women’s Suffrage, 1867—1928, 1992

A very simplified view would see the vote as a reward for wartime service. However, careful study shows little change resulted from the war, not how much. In the newspaper reports of this time women received a warm welcome; but in farms, hospitals and factories they were greatly resented.

Source: From the Southampton Times,

1919.

Women have still not brought themselves to realise that factory work, with the money aid for it, will not be possible again. Women who left domestic service to enter the factory are now required to return to their pots and pans.

Source: From a report by the Chief Inspec-

tor of Factories, 1919.

The first year after the end of the War has been a very important one for industry. It is remarkable how complete has been the changeover from war to peacetime production. The first step was the gradual and now almost complete withdrawal of women from the men’s industries.

MEN’S ATTITUDES

The attitude of many men began to change too. Men in influential positions (like business or trade unions) were impressed with the contribution to the war effort. Trade Unions began to accept women workers more than they did in the First World War. Trade Union Congress (TUC) campaigned to make sure that women were treated the same as men. They successfully complained that women were paid 25% less and received lower accident compensation than men in certain jobs.

The government also showed support for women workers and started to help women with their childcare commitments.

WOMEN IN

THE SECOND

WORLD WAR

WOMEN’S ROLE IN THE WAR

The return of war in 1939 again put Britain in a national emer-gency. Once more the role of women changed to meet the country’s needs:

Women again needed in jobs traditionally done by men—by 1945 there were over 6.5 million women in paid work

Women joined voluntary groups. By the end of 1943, there were over a million women in the Women’s Voluntary Service (WVS)

Women volunteered for, or were conscripted into, the armed forc-es. By May 1945, there were 460,000 women in non-combat sup-port roles in the women’s army, navy and air force and 190,000 more in the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS)

By 1943 almost 90% of single women and 80% of married women were doing some kind of work of national importance.

WOMEN’S ATTITUDES

War changed the attitudes of some women about their role in society. War jobs gave them more freedom again and they enjoyed the independence this gave them. They also felt more confident about themselves and their abilities.

Source: Clement Attlee, the

Deputy Prime Minister, writ-

ing in 1943.

This work the women are per-forming in munitions factories has to been seen to be be-lieved. Precision engineering jobs which a few years ago would have made a skilled turner’s hair stand on end are performed with deadly accu-racy by girls who had no in-dustrial experience.

Source: An interview with Mona Marshall in the 1960s. She worked in the steel industry during the war.

To be quite honest, the war was the best thing that ever happened to us. I was green as grass and terrified if anyone spoke to me. I had been brought up not to argue. My generation of women had been taught to do as we were told. At work you did exactly as your boss told you and you went home to do exactly what your husband told you. The war changed all that. The war made me stand on my own two feet.

WOMEN’S PAY

Women’s pay, however, continued to be less than a man’s wage—for the same job. In the factories, women’s pay was 75% of a man’s wage. Average weekly wages of men and women in 1943

In 1943, the government set up the Equal Pay Commission, to persuade employers to pay women better—but they did not have the power to force the changes. By the end of the war, women were still no closer to pay equality than they had been in 1939, although they were earning more than before the war. It was still the belief that men should be paid more then women.

Source: An interview with Pat Parker, in the 1980s about her 3 years in the Women’s Land Army.

Those years were absolutely fantastic. They were complete freedom, where I’d never known it before … I could do as I liked. All of a sudden my life was my own.

Adult male approx. £6

Adult female approx. £3.30

Teenage male approx. £2.40

Teenage female approx. £1.70

Source: A 1942 interview with a woman by the research group Mass Observation.

I do feel that equal pay would upset the relations be-tween the sexes. Personally, I like a man to have more money than me. It gives me twice as much pleasure to have a dress bought for me by a kindly man than to buy it myself, and this is because I am feminine.

ACTIVITY

Give a detailed example of something

that did not change.

QUESTION

How did women’s roles in war change in each of the following areas:

a. Women’s attitude about themselves

b. Men’s attitudes towards women

c. Women’s conditions of work

Source: A woman shop steward interviews in 1941. We have no objections to working in the factories but we do object to the conditions we have to work in. Women in industry are called upon to bear burdens that are beyond imagination. Many are soldier’s wives who are obliged to go to work to keep their homes together as their allowances are so inadequate. We have to work up to ten hours a day but we still often only earn half the man’s wage.

Source: Professor Ruth Watts, 2008.

… despite the increased educational opportunities from 1944 and full time employment in the 1950’s, female career choices were restricted by the seemingly universal opinion that the women’s place would be in the home, an expectation much confirmed by a younger age of marriage and motherhood. The vast majority of girls left school at 15 and, after a brief training period, entered employment only to leave once married.

WOMEN AFTER WW2

During the Second World War, the lives of women changed and so did the attitudes of many people towards women. But, did it last, after the war ended? What was the situation by the mid 1950’s.

BACK TO THE OLD DAYS?

In some ways, the role of women and the attitudes

about women seemed to go back to the ways they

were before.

Most women willingly left their wartime roles because they wanted to return home. A government survey conducted in 1947 revealed that 58% of women believed that married women should not go out to work. Many delayed having children during the war and decided they wanted to now start a family

Career opportunities did not improve much after the war

Nurseries that were provided for childcare during the war had been shut down after so women with children could not work

Women made slow progress in professions such as medicine and law

The male was still seen as the main breadwinner in the family

The media continued to portray women in their domestic roles

Source: A woman recalls life

after the war

After a while we settled to some sort of married life but there were times when I thought it was hell on earth, I was living in. Many of us felt as though we were going back to prison.

CONTINUED PROGRESS

Although most women did leave their wartime jobs and return to a more familiar lifestyle, things did not return to exactly how they were before.

War gave women much more confidence and self respect. They had shown that not only could they do the same jobs as men but also they could do it better in some cases

The number of married women in paid work stayed above the levels before war showing that there were some changes in the attitudes towards married women working

There was some progress in equal pay. In 1953, equal pay for teachers was agreed and in 1955 equal pay for civil servants was introduced. In both cases this took place over time

Some women continued to pioneer new ground. In the 1950’s there were women making firsts in history: first female bank manager, first female television news reader, first female managing director of an advertising agency and the first female senior permanent secretary in the civil service

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the role of women and the attitude towards women in society had been gradually changing. The First and Second World Wars accelerated these changes due to the

hard work women contributed in support for the war efforts. After the Second World War, things were

never quite the same.

ACTIVITY

Give three detailed examples of ways in which the role of women in society had improved since before the Second World War.

ACTIVITY

Give three detailed examples of ways in which the role of women in society in the 1950’s went back to the way it had been before the Second World War.

DAME CAROLINE HASLETT

Caroline Haslett was the kind of women who benefitted from the social changes brought by war in the twentieth century. She was born in 1895, the daughter of a railway fitter and her first job was working as a secretary for a boiler company. During the First World War, she worked in their factory and trained as an engineer. Between the wars, Caroline used these skills to pioneer electrical products for the home. She also founded the Wom-en’s Engineering Society, was a magistrate and was made a Dame of the British Empire in 1947.

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Definition: the ability of individuals or groups to move within a social

hierarchy with changes in income, education, occupation, etc.

By the 1950’s, men born into working class surroundings were much more able to improve themselves—this social mobility was

even more greater for women that for men:

This meant that social divisions in Brit-ain were less rigid. The key reason for this is that education improved and raised

the ambitions of bright working class children and enabled them to get better qualifications and improving their chances of getting better paid jobs.

BORN Before

1900

In

1920s

In

1940s

MALE 76% 67% 53%

FEMALE 68% 57% 41%

WAR AND

SOCIAL

DIVISIONS

You have looked at the effect of several wars:

The Boer War of 1899-1902

First World War of 1914-1918

Second World War of 1939-1945

Each resulted in improve-ments for the poor in the provision of health, finan-cial security and educa-tional opportunities. War also brought changes to the lives of and attitudes towards women.

This led to the breaking down of social divisions.

A DIVIDED SOCIETY

At the beginning of the twentieth century British society was clearly divided in three class divisions:

The upper class owned most of the land in Britain, much of which were farmed

The middle classes were mainly business and professional people, many of whom lived in the cities

The working class were the poorest in society

The quality of life varied hugely between these classes and there were very little movement between them.

There was also a clear gender division:

Women were regarded as inferior to men and their role in society was narrow

Opportunities available to men and women varied greatly

DID WAR MAKE THE DIFFERENCE?

Yes. It is possible that social divisions would have been broken down even if there had been no wars in the twentieth century but war certain-ly united the social classes in a common effort to defeat the common enemy. Social classes felt less decided.

Most historians agree that war was a key factor in improving the lives of women, the poor and re-ducing the divisions in society.

Source: Paul Addison, a modern historian.

Most historians detect in the war years a modest levelling process which redistributed income and influence in favour of the working classes.

We only need to glance at the period to see looming up before us those two giant landmarks, the Beveridge Re-port of 1942 and the Labour Party victory at the 1945 general election.

There may be ingenious arguments which appear to di-vorce these events entirely from the war effort, or the pattern of welfare; but there are also ingenious conjurors who appear to saw the lady in half

Inference

Historical sources can provide information about the past and sometimes they tell us something directly. For example, a source says ‘the Beveridge Report was dated 1942 and the Labour Party won the general election in 1945’. This useful information but this is not inference.

Inference is something the source does not tell you directly and what you can work out from the source. A source says ‘a modest levelling which redis-tributed income and influence in favour of the working classes’. The working classes became better off and more influential. This is not inference because the source directly tells us this:

However, based on the information, we can infer that at least one of the other classes, the upper and middle classes must have become worse off or less influential in comparison with the working class. The source does not tell us this but we can work this out. You can support this inference from the information in the source, because it tells us that the Labour Party—the par-ty of the working class– won the election in 1945, supporting the idea that the working class was now more powerful than the other classes. As well as saying what the source tells you, you should also try to say what you can infer from the source and find support for this.

Source: A.H. Halsey, Reith Lectures, 1977.

We do well to remind ourselves of the integrating aspects of war. It is a para-dox of conflict that it promotes equality and fraternity within the nations. This is true especially of modern ‘total’ war. If all must be called upon to fight for their country, all must be brought to believe that they have a stake in it

Delivering the goods

Source: A 1915 Punch Magazine cartoon featuring Lloyd George

ROLE OF THE

GOVERNMENT

You have seen how Britain’s problems in the Boer War prompted the Liberal Reforms of 1906-1911. Now we will look at how the government next intervened in soci-ety to make things fairer and improve war efforts.

LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION

Both wars involved ‘total warfare’ which meant harnessing all the assets of the nation to the war effort. In both wars, the government took the role of leading and organising the war effort. This expansion in the role of government would have a huge impact on the lives of the citizens.

To strengthen the armed forces, the government changed its recruitment process. Conscription was adopted

To harness industry to the war effort, the government took a strategic oversight of some industries and the direct control of others

To protect food supplies, the government prevented free sale and purchase of food by introducing rationing. This was to ensure that the country was not starved into submission

To maintain morale and increase support, the government used propaganda and censorship. Propaganda shaped the information whilst censorship controlled the flow of information

WWI—DAVID LLOYD GEORGE

Became Minister of Munitions in 1915. His department had ‘no staff, no tables and too many mirrors’. By 1918, as a result of his efforts, the ministry has a staff of 65,000 and directed the efforts of over 3 million workers

He championed the policy of employing women in munitions factories

As Prime Minister, 1916-1918, he led the re-organisation of society for ‘total war’

WWII- WINSTON CHURCHILL

Churchill’s role as Prime Minister during the Second World War, was slightly different than that of David Lloyd George. Like Lloyd George, his government did increase its role in the organisation of society. However, Churchill also emphasised the importance of leadership by the government

He used his skills as a speaker to maintain the morale of the British people during times of hardship, such as the Blitz

He united the nation during times of greater danger, for example, after the evac-uation British troops from Dunkirk, when the threat of invasion was greater

Source: The 1939 Emergency Powers Act.

Such persons may be detained whose detention appears to the Secretary of State to be expedient in the interests of pub-lic safety or the defence of the realm. The Secretary of State has the authority to oblige any person in the United Kingdom to perform any service required in any place.

BIG GOVERNMENT

Because of the wars, important social changes were introduced by the Liberal governments after 1906 and the governments during and after the First and Second World Wars.

These changes showed that, when government played a bigger role in society, it made a real difference in people’s lives.

This had a lasting affect on Britain. A government which took re-sponsibility for the welfare of the people and exerted a degree of control over all the assets of the nation became a lasting feature of Britain. However, there are dangers in big government.

Source: Walter L. Arnstein, a modern historian.

At the same time, the government had transformed Britain into one of the most regulation-ridden and bureaucratic of lands; by 1951, more than 26% of its people worked for the government at a time when 17% of Americans and 11% of West Germans did so.

Source. Churchill speaking to the House of Commons in June 1940, after the evacuation of

Dunkirk

We shall defend our island. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.

QUESTIONS

1) What impact did Lloyd George and Churchill have on the role of the government?

2) How did the government expand it’s role between 1903-1954?

3) What were the benefits of this?

4) What do the sources opposite suggest are the dangers of a ‘big’ government?

IMPACT OF THE MEDIA

One factor which shaped the impact of war on Britain between 1903 and 1954 was the media.

THE BOER WAR

Newspapers had a massive impact. This was Britain’s first major was in the age of mass literacy

Improvements to the telegraph service helped war reporters send and receive messages

Newspapers sent over 300 reporters to South Africa to cover the war. The public were kept fully aware of Britain’s poor performance and afterwards, newspapers campaigned for reform of the army to improve Britain’s fighting forces

Newspapers publicised reports blaming the poor fitness of recruits

They joined the campaign to help the poor so that British people would be stronger in the future

FIRST AND SECOND WORLD WARS

Range of media was involved in both wars, including letters and the press. New media, like the radio and film, were particularly powerful

Propaganda was used spreading information via posters, newspapers and film

Censorship protected information. At the start of the First World War, the only person only around to report in was an army officer, Colonel Swinton, under the code name Eyewitness

In January, 1915, five selected journalists from a variety of newspapers were allowed to report

It was November, 1916, before any reporters were allowed on the front line

ENTERTAINMENT

Used to keep morale high and strengthen war efforts

Vera Lynn was given her own radio show and sand patriotic songs (We’ll Meet again and White Cliffs of Dover). She toured military bases to entertain the troops and became known as the ‘Forces’ Sweetheart’

USE OF

THE MEDIA

Source: A British soldier writing in

1914.

I adore war, It is like a big picnic. I have never been so well or so happy. Nobody grumbles at you for being dirty. I have only had my boots off once in the last ten days and only washed twice.

HOW EFFECTIVE WAS THE USE OF THE MEDIA?

The government control of the media was effective

Studying people’s reactions to war shows us that although censorship was a severe curtailment of normal liberties of the British people, there were few complaints during either conflict

Great majority of people accepted it was a necessity of wartime that would end once the enemy was defeated

Source: From ‘World War II to-day’, a modern web site.

In a week when over 300 civilians were killed and over 600 seriously injured in bombing raid, the Ministry of Information was able to report to the Cabinet that morale on the Home Front was excellent. The daily reports were compiled from a variety of sources, including formal one-to-one surveys, as well as reports of conversations ‘overheard’ in public places.

Worker’s freedom was also severely restrict-ed.

Wages and hours were strictly controlled. Working conditions also changed - workers were expected to work long hours, night shifts and right through the holidays.

In weapons factories the demand for war munitions meant that factories worked almost round the clock. Long hours often led to accidents as safety was sometimes secondary to producing more munitions.

The worse factory accident was at Silvertown in East End of London, in January 1917. The munitions factory exploded and 69 people were killed and well over 400 injured. There was also extensive damage to the local area that surrounded the factory.

IMPACT OF

CHANGES IN

INDUSTRY

The changes in industry during the First and Second World Wars had a major impact on the lives of civilians.

More women working in industry was one change. It is presumed that women were responsible for 80% of all munitions manufactured by 1917. Change was marked even more in the Second World War when eight times as many women took on war work as in the First World War.

Some historians think that the status if women in society changed dramatically as a result of wartime work and furthered the cause of female suffrage. However, others maintain that it was only a short term cause. Despite the changes in working practices during the war, the majority of women left their jobs once the war ended.

Another important change was that workers lost control over where they would work.

During the Second World War, for example, the government could force them to take a job where the war effort needed them. Some workers enjoyed the change.

In the coal shortage of 1940, some 30,000 miners were told they had to leave the army and return to their old jobs. Additional men were knowns as the ‘Bevin Boys’

Men from wealthier backgrounds experienced, for the first time, the harsh and often unpleasant working conditions down in the mines. Many were very unhappy about this.

Source: East Grinstead Observer, No-vember 1944.

Thomas Lower, 18, of Gratham Cottages, Copthorne, pleaded guilty at East Grin-stead Magistrates Court on Monday for not reporting for training in the coal mines. … When interviewed, Lower said ‘I will go into any of the Forces but not the mines. I would rather go to gaol. … Mr A. J. Burt told Lower that coal mining was as valua-ble a service as entering the Forces and it was in the nation’s interest that the de-fendant should obey the directives of the government

Source: The memories of George Grainger, a Bevan

Boy, written in 1985.

I worked on one of the worst shifts one could imag-ine, 6.30pm till 2.30pm. We would be going to work when most people have finished, or going out for the evening. But someone had to do it and we were the unlucky ones. I had one nasty accident during my time at Chester-Moor. We were working at one of the gates. Unknown to us some miners had pushed a tub into our gate, forgetting to tell us it was there … when me and my mate backed our full tub out … I’m afraid I wasn’t quick enough to get my full body in between the pit props, and one of my hands got caught in two of the tub han-dles

Source: A land girl, inter-

viewed in 1941.

When you were on pigs, which had to be cleaned out and fed before breakfast, no one would sit near you because of the smell. Before they let us loose on the dairy cows we had to train on a rubber udder, which was a laugh. We didn’t get a lot of free time.

ACTIVITY

Make a copy of, and complete, the following table comparing the impact of the two wars. Use all your knowledge. Write an explanation of the similari-ties and differences between the impact of the First and Second World War

IMPACT OF WAR

ON BRITAIN

1903-1954

CHECKLIST

1) The Civilian Experience of Total War

The experience of air raids, bombing

and the Blitz, and it’s impact on morale

Civilian attitudes and responses to the

First and Second World Wars and the

role of the volunteers

The use and experience of propaganda

and censorship

2) The Impact of Government War Or-

ganisation

DORA, recruitment for the armed forc-

es, reorganisation of industry, rationing

and evacuation

The role of women

The economic and social legacy of the

Second World War after 1945

The effects on society and industry of

government actions in war

CHECKLIST

3) Impact of War on Society

The Boer War and the Liberal Party Reforms

First World War and it’s impact on society; welfare, medical and health provision

Second World War and it’s impact on society; Beveridge Report and Labour Party reforms after 1945

Changes in attitude; social mobility and changing role of women

The role of war in reducing social divi-sions

4) Factors Influencing Change

Role of the government

Role of the media, propaganda, censorship and entertainment

Impact on civilians of changes in industry

ACTIVITY

Make a copy of, and complete, the Britain in the years 1900-1960

graph to show how the role of women in society (in red) and the

role of the government (in blue) became greater and lesser at

different times over this period. Make sure you make entries at

regular intervals; include 1900, 1910, 1915, 1920, 1939, 1945,

1950, 1954.

Role of Women

Role of Government

Greater

Lesser

SIMILIARITIES DIFFERENCES

PROPAGANDA

CENSORSHIP

RECRUITMENT

IMPACT ON WOMEN

ROLE OF

GOVERNEMENT

RATIONING

IMPACT OF

BOMBING

1960

1950

1945

1940

1935

1930

1925

1920

1915

1910

1900

What conclusions can

you make from your

graph about the

changes in:

Role of women

Role of government

Source: Extract from a letter by Humphrey Jennings to his wife, dur-

ing the Blitz of 1940-41

What a warmth—what courage! What determination! People singing in public shelters. WVS (Women’s Voluntary Service) girls serving hot drinks to fire-fighters during raids. Everyone secretly delighted with the privilege of holding up Hitler. Certainly of beating him.

What can we learn from this Source about the effects of the Blitz?

PLANNING ZONE

Key to success in exams is usually down to good planning as well as knowledge. Knowing what you need to do and when you need to do it is the best path to a stress-free experience.

Know what your strengths and weaknesses are. Make a checklist of how well you think you know the topic. Use Mock exam results and feedback to check your self assessment. This will help you to plan your personal revision effectively - putting extra time into areas you are weaker at

Create your plan. Make time to consider how topics interrelate and factor that into your revision plans and work on showing your ability to link topics and events. You need to now not just the date, but why events happened, how important it was and how one event can relate to another.

Finally, follow the plan!

REVISION TIPS

ZONE IN ! !

Athletes and performers work hard to perform well in competitions. They practice in order to do their best. To do this they often get ‘in the zone’ - prepa-ration for performance. You can also do this and by doing so, you will perform brilliantly in your exam. Just follow some simple steps before the exam.

Understand it - Make sure you understand the exam process and what revision you need to do - this will give you the confidence and also help to get things into proportion

Deal with Distractions - Think about what issues in your life may interfere with revision, write them down. Think about how you can deal with each issue so they don’t affect your revision

Diet and Exercise - Eat sensible and exercise well. If your body is not in a fit state, how can your mind be? Substantial breakfast will set you up for the day and a light evening meal will keep your energy levels high. Drink plenty of water whilst revising and during exam (even when you are resting, your brain uses up about 30% of your energy and fluid intake to be able to work effectively!)

Build Confidence - Use revision time not only to revise content but also to build up your confidence in readiness for tackling the exam. Do practise questions whilst timing your-self to help improve time keeping during the exam

Friends and Family - let them know when you are revising, share your revision plans and reduce distractions. This means you can have better quality time with them when your not revising as you wont be worrying about revision

Compartmentalise - put any worries about other things to one side and keep focused. Sort out other things after your revision session or exam.

DON’T PANIC ZONE

As you get closer to completing your revision, the Big Day will be getting nearer and nearer. Many students find this the most stressful time and can enter panic mode. They start working longer hours without giving their brains a chance to absorb information.

However, panicking simple makes your brain seize up and information ad thoughts simply cannot flow naturally. Most students build the exams up into more than they are.

Remember—exams are not trying to catch you out! If you have studied the course, there will be no surprises on the exam paper!

Take deep breaths and relax. Don’t let it take the stress take over your life.

Be realistic about how much time you can devote to your revision but make sure you still put enough time in

Chunk revision in each subject down to smaller sections making it more manageable

Assess your progress/

improvements are little victories will help to build your confidence

Regular rest breaks or different activities to give your life some variance

EXAM ZONE

Make sure you know which order you are sitting your exam and prepare for each accordingly. Check with your teacher if your not sure

Know how long each exam is and how long you should spend on each question for be fully prepared to use your time effectively and answer questions more successfully

Understand the language of the exam paper:

Describe Examiner is looking for concise and organised account

Explain how/why

Examiner is trying to discover whether you understand the key ideas about how and why developments happened. The more details you can give, the more marks you will receive

How useful …?

How reliable …?

Source evaluation skills—look for clues that tell you about origins, intention, nature, selection …

How far Looking for you to consider different sides and come up with a balanced judgement

GLOSSARY

Civil Defence - organisation of

civilians to deal with enemy

attacks

Conscientious Objector -

someone who refuses for fight

because of moral or religious

beliefs

Conscription - requirement

that all men (and sometimes

women) of a certain age must

join the armed forces

Evacuation - process of mov-

ing people from towns and

cities to the countryside for

safety and protection

Flappers - young women who

challenged traditional ideas

about women’s fashion and

social habits

Home Front - support given

and work performed by

civilian population during

wartime

Anderson Shelter - small shelter made from corrugated iron

sheets that was half buried in the ground and covered with

earth for protection from bomb blasts

Artillery - large guns used in warfare on land, light artillery

could be pulled around quickly by horses, while heavy artillery

were much larger

Attrition - process of steadily wearing down an enemy bit by

bit over a period of time

Bayonet - long knife that could be attached to the end of the

barrel of a musket or rifle, enabling soldiers to stab at the

enemy in close combat

Blackout - period of darkness imposed on civilians as protec-

tion against air raids, windows were blackout out with curtains

or paint and all lights turned off

Blitzkrieg - ‘lightning war’ in German, rapid attacks

Bureaucratic - dominated by rules, restrictions and paperwork

Camaraderie - spirit of trust and friendship among a group of

people

Censorship - control by the government of the spread of

information that might be useful to the enemy or might upset

the morale of the public

Chaperone - an older woman who accompanied a younger

woman on social occasions to keep her safe and make sure she

behaves properly

Jingoism - extreme patriotism

Mobilisation - preparing and organising people or re-

sources for a particular task

Morale - confidence, enthusiasm and sense of purpose

of a group of people at a particular time

Munitions - weapons, shells and ammunition

Recruitment - way in which armies are raised

Propaganda - one-sided information used to persuade

people to support certain ideas or beliefs

Rationing - setting a fixed allowance of food and provi-

sions to prevent shortages

Reserved Occupations - jobs considered so important

to war effort that people doing them were excluded

from conscription into military services

Suffrage - right to vote in political elections

Total Warfare - unlimited warfare, fought with all pos-

sible or available resources, intended to destroy entirely

all enemy resistance and affecting civilians as well as

soldiers

Trade Union - an association of employees set up to

improve their working conditions

Tribunal - type of court set up to judge certain types of

cases, especially in the military