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key concepts in elt

Age and the critical period hypothesis

Christian Abello-Contesse

In the field of second language acquisition (SLA), how specific aspects oflearning a non-native language (L2) may be affected by when the processbegins is referred to as the age factor. Because of the way age intersectswith a range of social, affective, educational, and experiential variables,clarifying its relationship with learning rate and/or success is a major

challenge.There is a popular belief that children as L2 learners are superior toadults (Scovel 2000), that is, the younger the learner, the quicker thelearning process and the better the outcomes. Nevertheless, a closerexamination of the ways in which age combines with other variables revealsa more complex picture, with both favourable and unfavourable age-relateddifferences being associated with early- and late-starting L2 learners(Johnstone 2002).

The critical period hypothesis (C PH) is a particularly relevant case in point.This is the claim that there is, indeed, an optimal period for languageacquisition, ending at puberty. However, in its original formulation(Lenneberg 1967), evidence for its existence was based on the relearning ofimpaired L1 skills, rather than the learning of a second language undernormal circumstances.

Furthermore, although the age factor is an uncontroversial researchvariable extending from birth to death (Cook 1995), and the C PHisa narrowly focused proposal subject to recurrent debate, ironically, it is thelatter that tends to dominateS LAdiscussions (Garca Lecumberri andGallardo 2003), resulting in a number of competing conceptualizations.

Thus, in the current literature on the subject (Bialystok 1997; Richards andSchmidt 2002; Abello-Contesseet al.2006), references can be found to(i) multiple critical periods (each based on a specific language component,such as age six for L2 phonology), (ii) the non-existence of one or morecritical periods for L2 versus L1 acquisition, (iii) a sensitive yet not criticalperiod, and (iv) a gradual and continual decline from childhood toadulthood.

It therefore needs to be recognized that there is a marked contrast betweenthe CPH as an issue of continuing dispute in SLA, on the one hand, and, onthe other, the popular view that it is an invariable law, equally applicable to

any L2 acquisition context or situation. In fact, research indicates that ageeffects of all kinds depend largely on the actual opportunities for learningwhich are available within overall contexts of L2 acquisition and particular

170 ELTJournal Volume 63/2 April 2009; doi:10.1093/elt/ccn072 The Author 2008. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.Advance Access publication December 18, 2008

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learning situations, notably the extent to which initial exposure issubstantial and sustained (Lightbown 2000).

Thus, most classroom-based studies have shown not only a lack of directcorrelation between an earlier start and more successful/rapid L2development but also a strong tendency for older children and teenagers tobe more efficient learners. For example, in research conducted in thecontext of conventional school programmes, Cenoz (2003) and Munoz(2006) have shown that learners whose exposure to the L2 began at age11 consistently displayed higher levels of proficiency than those for whom itbeganat 4 or 8. Furthermore,comparablelimitations have been reportedforyoung learners in school settings involving innovative, immersion-typeprogrammes, where exposure to the target language is significantlyincreased through subject-matter teaching in the L2 (Genesee 1992; Abello-Contesse 2006). In sum, as Harley and Wang (1997) have argued, moremature learners are usually capable of making faster initial progress inacquiring the grammatical and lexical components of an L2 due to theirhigher level of cognitive development and greater analytical abilities.

In terms of language pedagogy, it can therefore be concluded that (i) there isno singlemagic age forL2 learning, (ii) both older and younger learnersareable to achieve advanced levels of proficiency in an L2, and (iii) the generaland specific characteristics of the learning environment are also likely to bevariables of equal or greater importance.

References

Abello-Contesse, C.2006. Does interaction help orhinder oral L2 development in early Englishimmersion? in C. Abello-Contesseet al.(eds.).Abello-Contesse, C., R. Chacon Beltran, M. D. Lopez-Jimenez,andM. M. Torreblanca-Lopez(eds.). 2006.Age in L2 Acquisition andTeaching. Bern, Switzerland:Peter Lang.Bialystok, E. 1997. The structure of age: in search ofbarriers to second language acquisition.SecondLanguage Research13/2: 11637.Cenoz, J.2003. The influence of age on theacquisition of English: general proficiency, attitudesand code-mixing in M. P. Garca Mayo and

M. L. Garca Lecumberri (eds.).Cook, V.1995. Multicompetence and effects of agein D. Singleton and Z. Lengyel (eds.).The Age Factorin Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon, UK:Multilingual Matters Ltd.Garca Lecumberri, M. L.andF. Gallardo.2003.English FL sounds in school learners of differentages in M. P. Garca Mayo and M. L. GarcaLecumberri (eds.).GarcaMayo, M. P.and M.L.Garca Lecumberri(eds.).2003.Age and Acquisition of English as a Foreign

Language. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd.Genesee, F.1992. Pedagogical implications ofsecond language immersion in F. Etxeberria and

J. Arzamendi (eds.).Bilinguismo y Adquisicion deSegundas Lenguas. Bilbao,Spain: Servicio Editorial dela Universidad del Pas Vasco.Harley, B.andW. Wang.1997. The critical periodhypothesis: where are we now? in A. M. B. de Grootand J. F. Kroll (eds.).Tutorials in Bilingualism.Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.Johnstone, R.2002. Addressing the age factor:some implications for language policy. Council ofEurope, Strasbourg: Available at:http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/JohnstoneEN.pdfLenneberg, E. H.1967.Biological Foundations ofLanguage. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Lightbown, P.2000. ClassroomS LAresearch andsecond language teaching.Applied Linguistics21/4:43162.Munoz, C.2006. TheB AF project: research on theeffects of age on foreign language acquisition inC. Abello-Contesseet al.(eds.).Richards, J. C.andR. Schmidt.2002.LongmanDictionary of Language Teaching and AppliedLinguistics. London: Longman.Scovel, T. 2000. The younger, thebetter mythandbilingual education in R. D. Gonzalez and I. Melis

(eds.).Language Ideologies. Critical Perspectives on theOfficial English Movement. Mahwah, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.

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