Aesthetics of Musical Art - The Beautiful in Music (Ferdinand Hand)

8/7/2019 Aesthetics of Musical Art - The Beautiful in Music (Ferdinand Hand)

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.ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.


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REEVES' MUSICAL PUBLICATIONS.Beethoven, by Richard Wagner, translated with AdditionalMatter. P.y E. Dannrelthek. 7s. 6d., or cheap edition 6s.Frederick Chopin, his Life, Letters, and Works. By IMoritz

K.\RASo\v,sK[. 2 vols. I2S. 6d.IVIusical Sketches Abroad and at Home. By Professor Ella.Third edicion, S


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.ESTHETICSOF

MUSICAL ARTOR,

Tff BEAUTIFUL IN MUSIC.

BYDR. FERDINAND HAND,

TRANSLATED FROM THE (;ERMAXWALTER E. LAW SON.

MUS. LAI.. LA.NTAb., HTL.

BOOK THE FIRST.

LONDONWILLIAiM REEVES, 185, FLEET STREET.(O^ct of" Ravif' Mi'


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LONDON- : BOWDEN, HUDSON AN'D (,0., PRINTERS,23, RED LION STREET, HOLBORS.


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LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.

J. W. Acomb, 6, Clarendon Road, LeedsJ. Ainsworth, BrinscallAlfred Alexander, WiganDr. Horton Allison, 120, Cecil Street, Moss Side, ManchesterR. A. Atkins, Cathedral Organist, St. AsaphW. H. Barrow, A.CO., 19, Morledge Street, LeicesterDr. J. M. Bentley, iS, St. Ann's Street, ManchesterH. N. Biggin, 3, Abercrombie Street, ChestertieldC. Bradley, 58, Grange Road, MiddlesboroughDr. Bridge, The Cloisters, Westminster AbbeyJohn Broadhouse, West View, Hadley, MiddlesexDr. Bunnett, The Upper Close, NorwichJas. Burchell, 2, Kingsland Road, EJ. G. Buttifant, Si, Brown Street, SalisburyFred. Cambridge, Rydal House, Heathfield Road, CroydonF. J. Campbell, Royal Normal College, Weston Street, LTpper

Norwood, S.E.


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vi LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.F. W. Cooke, 63, Belgrave Road, BirminghamC. Cornwall, 3, Ashfield Place, Hill Head, GlasgowW. Creser, Mus. Bac, Elleray Villa, ScarboroughGeo. Crompton, 54, Barton Arcade, ManchesterJohn Curwen, Forest Gate, E.F. Davenport, Hamilton Terrace, N.W.T. W. Dodds, 1, Queen's Terrace, Iffley Road, OxfordC. J. Duchemin, 254, Hagley Road, BirminghamW. H. Eayres, 18, Countess Road, Lady Margaret Road, N.W,Prof. Ella, 9, Victoria Square, S.W.E. Edwards, F.C.O., 6, Mathew Street, RugbyMiss Fenn, High Street, ClaphamDr. Henry Fisher, 18, Abingdon Street, BlackpoolH. E. Ford, 13, Fisher Court, CarlisleF. R. Trye, Chelmsford, EssexDr. Garrett, St. John's College, CambridgeA. R. Gaul, Mus. B., Norfolk House, Edgbaston, BirminghamJ. H. Gower, B. Mus., Trent College, NottinghamA. F. Grainger, 292, Camberwell New RoadF. R. Greenish, Haverfordwest, South WalesG. H. Gregory, Mus. B., The Churchyard, Boston, LincolnshireA. Hemstock, Organist, DissF. W. Hird, 2, Woodhouse Square, LeedsE. J. Hopkins, Temple ChurchW. H. Hopkinson, Church Street, DevvsburyH. Howard, DulwichRev. H. G. B. Hunt, Mus. B.. Trinity College, LondonC. B. Ingham, Moira House, Addiscombe, Croydon


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LIST QF SUBSCRIBERS.D. B. Johnston, GlasgowMiss M. A. Jones, i66, Blackstock Road, Highbury, N.T. H. Knott, Royal Courts of Justice. Strand, W.C.A. G. Leigh, ChorleyW. Lemare, Gresham Road, BrixtonJ. Loaring, F.C.O., 66, Southfield Square, Bradford, Yorks.F. N. Lohr, 36, Portland Square, PlymouthDr. Longhurst, Cathedral Precincts, CanterburyDr. G. A. Macfarren, 7, Hamilton Terrace, N.W,Methven, Simpson &; Co., 122, Nethergate, DundeeDaniel jNIcGhie, 56, Gibson Street, Hill Head, GlasgowDr. Monk, King's College, LondonT. H. Montague, Loughborough Park, BrixtonC. D. Mortimer, Bridgewater Street, HindleySurgeon- Major H. Skey Muir, KandaharMiss E. Mundella, St. Elphins, Warrington, LancashireDr. Naylor, 5, West Park Terrace, ScarboroughSir Herbert Oakeley, Mus. D., University, EdinburghSir F. A. Gore Ouseley, Mus. D., St. Michael College, TcnburyA. Page, F.C.O., 26, Park Row, NottinghamPaterson & Sons, EdinburghJohn Pooley, 3, The Terrace, Clapham Park Road, S.W.G. H. Porter, 90, Upgate, LouthDr. Roberts, HalifaxR. Robinson, 9, Osborne Terrace, Clapham Road, S.W.Dr. W. H. Sangster, Choir School, St. Saviours, EastbourneDr. Gordon Saunders, HackneyJ. Smith, Longfleet, Poole


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viii LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.Dr. Stainer, St. Paul's CathedralA. O. Steed, Queen Adelaide Road, PengeC. E. Stephens, 37, Howley Place, Maida Hill, W.Alf. Stone, Hampton Park, BristolHenry Stonex, Great YarmouthF. K. Stroh, 40, Albert Street, RugbyDr. Arthur Sullivan, 9, Albert Mansions, S.W.Thomas Swannell, Organist St. Paul's, HonitonJas. Taylor, Mus. B., New College, OxfordJ. C. B. Tirbutt, Organist All Saints Church, ReadingR. A. Turton, Organist Parish Church, RotherhamF. Walker, St. Paul's CathedralA. W. Whitehead, 26, Walton Crescent, OxfordDr. Westbrook, 2, Redberry Grove, SydenhamA. E. Williams, 14, Grafton Street, BrightonW. Wright, 3, College Villas, NottinghamJ. G. Wrigley, Mus. B., Parish Church, High Wycombe


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CONTENTS.

Translator's PrefacePrefaceIntroductionBook the First.Of the Nature of Music .Chap. I.Of the music of Nature in general

Of ToneRhythmThe relation of tones in acuteness and gravityThe music of Nature beyond the human

sphere

Chap. II.Of the music of mankind . . . .Music the product of free self-activity of the

mind .......Music the immediate representation of the

activity of the feelings . . . .

PAGExi

XVI

17

19253345

48

61

96


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CONTENTS.Chapter II.contmued.

Music the product of the spirituality and ofthe totality of the powers of the mind

MelodyHarmonyFree play in tone-picturesModification of expressionSubordination to the idea of Beauty

127132149177182187


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TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

yEsTiiETics is the name originally given *to thephilosophical theory of the Beautiful by theGerman philosopher Baumgarten, who derivedit from the Greek word aisthetikos, signify-ing, I begin to perceive, or I am sensible.That this term is quite inadequate to expressthe nature, or object of the science, is obvious,although, from an entirely different point ofview, it may not seem ill-chosen, seeing thateven at the present day, we are but becomingsensible of beauty as a given property of objects.

^E^sthetics has not long ranked as a separatescience, but since Baumgarten's attempt at anexposition {/Esthetik, Frankfort, 1750), nume-rous works of the kind have appeared in


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xii TRANSLATOR S PREFACE.Germany. It must be admitted that the subjectis peculiarly congenial to the German intellect,and that the German language is vastly rich inwords suited to the expression of this andkindred subjects. The paucity (absence ?) ofworks of this nature in our own tongue isremarkable, and is perhaps only to be accountedfor on the supposition that the English, as anation, are more practical, and less speculative,than their Teutonic brethren.The present work is, I believe, generally

regarded as being the best amongst those whichtreat of /Esthetics with exclusive reference tomusical art, and we may naturally feel surprisedthat, as such, it should be the production of anamateur. Yet it is so. Dr. Ferdinand GotthelfHand, privy councillor, and professor of Greekliterature, was born at Plauen, in Saxon Voigt-land, on the 15th February, 1780. He studiedphilology at the University of Leipzig, and pro-ceeded to his degree in 1809. In 1817 he wasnominated professor at the University of Jena,and not only attained to repute in the pursuit ofhis avocation, but also as the director of theAcademy Concerts held in that town. He diedin Jena on the 14th March, 1851.


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TRANSLATORS PREFACE. XIUSince the publication of Dr. Hand's treatise,

but few works on the /Esthetics of Music havebeen eiven to the world, notwithstandinor thefact that the, now, well-sifted critical disquisi-tions into the peculiarities and artistic value ofthe poetic compositions of Schumann, Chopin,Sterndale Bennett, &c., have rendered a furtherdevelopment of the science possible and evennecessary, at the same time securing to us, byvirtue of the reaction, a deeper insight into theworks of the classical period of Beethoven andMozart, There is ample scope for a furthertreatment of the subject from a more modernpoint of view, which would, doubtless, necessitatea reconstruction of the old system.

This work now passes out of my hands intothe hands of those who are more competentthan I to judge of its merits and demerits. Suchbeing the case, I would merely ask that thosepersons who are indebted to me for its reproduc-tion under the altered circumstances of language,will not be too severe in their criticisms of mymodest effort, seeing that I was thrown entirelyupon my own resources for an intelligible Eng-lish terminology, having no native work to guideme ; I would further remind them that a trans-


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xiv translator's preface.

lation, even when more conscientiously per-formed than that now before the reader, mustever fall short of the original ; and lastly, Itrust that no one will charge me with assumingtoo much when I say that, with the exception ofcertain lectures delivered at South Kensingtonby Mr. Ernst Pauer, the present attempt is thefirst that has been made to popularize thescience of Esthetics in this country. Weak asI now feel my endeavours at a translation tohave been, and vividly conscious of the pithyremark of a certain poet, I would still beg theindulgent reader to place my good intentions inthe balance with all crudities of composition.

Walter E. Lawson.Brixton.


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PREFACE.

Had a general concurrence enforced the opinionadvanced by Nageli to the effect that it ishardly permissible to the Dilettante to speak onmatters appertaining to musical art, I shouldhave laid this attempt before my readers witha orreater show of diffidence than I do underthe existing circumstances. As it is. I canmeet the reproof with the conviction that,should the undertaking fail in my unskilfulhands, the blame will attach to the artists byprofession, who, being more directly concerned,should have taken up the subject, and not havetacitly committed it to the hands of an Amateur.Our literature does not as yet include a work


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XVI PREFACE.

upon Musical Esthetics, and the informationupon the subject which is to be gleaned fromtreatises on General y^sthetics is not sufficient.The necessity for such a work became dailymore manifest, for in the periodicals, works werejudged from an sesthetical point of view, andwere referred to principles which, if existing,were, at all events, nowhere clearly explained.The readers of these periodicals will agree withme, that a thorough confusion of language pre-vails in them, consequent upon the manydifferent views taken of the matter ; while, notseldom, a vague manner of expression, in whicha leading principle was wanting, was the causeof a failure in the result.

This state of things called loudly for redress,and promises of an -Esthetics of Music camefrom many quarters, but none of them were ful-filled. After a few attempts at a representa-tion on a scientific basis, a fundamental ideawould at length prevail, and the gain to artisticproductiveness would not be wanting. Anearnest commencement must now be made.No one can tell me so emphatically as I

myself, of the weaknesses under which this worklabours its foundation does not appear suffi-


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PREFACE. XVll

ciently comprehensive, the references to exam-ples should be more abundant, as a compositionit lacks fluency and elegance ; but should any-one say that this book contains much that isalready known or recognised as uncontrovertibletruth, it can hardly be construed into a reproach,seeing that it was simply intended to collectthat which is already generally received, andreconstruct it upon a more solid foundation.Every particular shall be systematically arranged.

There is yet one thing that I am candidenough to admit, it is, that that which is herelaid before the reader, without arrogance anddestitute of polemical tendencies, is a product ofthe warmest and purest love for the art. Assuch, may it meet with a friendly reception, andbe the means of inducing others, more intelligent,soon to supply a better.The order which I have adhered to through -

out the investigation is explained in the Intro-duction. The book itself I wish to be reo-ardedas an educational work, that no one may expectto find in it a means of delightfully amusingliimself, but, rather, be induced thereby to thinkmore deeply, and to aim at the further develop-ment of the hints which it contains.

d


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xviii PREFACE.

The second part, which will contain the^sthetical Rules of Composition, will follow thepresent volume as quickly as the leisure time atmy disposal will admit.

F. HAND.Jena, izth August, 1837.


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INTRODUCTION.

!

'O speak of music, and to judge musicalworks according to a certain fixed standard

W^ of legalitv, is in many respects difficult, andwhere the understanding is not quite clear,far more hazardous than the majority ofthose who allow themselves freedom in this

respect are wont to imagine. The subject regarded initself, does not fall within the province of the under-standing and the ideas, and is sometimes difficult toconvey by means of words ; rather must it be drawnwithin the province of the imagination, and gainedtherefrom by abstraction.

Vain would be the attempt to demonstrate to a manol" understanding only, a property which requires anear and a heart for its thorough comprehension.The supposition that ^-Esthetics consists of formal

u


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2 INTRODUCTION.ideas, sometimes leads to an unsuccessful attempt toteach that which can alone be grasped by the wholeSoul.On the other hand, every person draws a standard

of judgment from the sphere of his individual feelings,and thus forms an opinion in accordance with theprinciple, that within the province of the feelings, nocall is made for general arbitration. In the endeavourto arrive at some rule the majority of writers are aptto lose themselves in unclear thoughts, buried beneaththe empty forms and inaccurate definitions of a fan-tastic language, and, for all the number of words usedand their florid character, nothing is propounded, orat least nothing is proved.

Indeed, the way in which a judgment of a musicalwork is formed, itself increases the difficulty. Thepainting and the statue are visible to the e}-c, and canbe observed with quietude and with a fixed regard ;but a work of musical art passes over, and scared}-leaves us a moment for thought. A simple reading ofthe notes, although often considered sui^cient by theart critic, can never answer the purpose of an imme-diate perception of living tone.

Nevertheless, these difficulties and the danger ofmisconception, must not render us fearful of makingan attempt. We should also have to preserve asilence on such themes as Religion and Love, and tb/^.Beautiful in general, were it denied us to searchthoughtfully into the innermost and most secret re-cesses of the Soul for the law by which the creative


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IXTRODUCTIOX. 3power of genius orig-inates works of art. And bywhom, in the ordinary paths of Hfe, has not the wantof an explanation of the nature and vakic of art-^\'orks been felt, more particularly from a desire tobecome clear as to what musical Beauty is, and howIt operates, what may constitute the boundaries of thisart province, and in what forms the musical art createsand asserts itself.The purpose of the elucidation is only to be at-

1;ained under a twofold condition.In the first place let it be taken for granted that in

the vast region of the Soul's activity, not everythingcomes home to the ideas, and not everything receivesconfirmation from the deductions of the understand-ing, but requires, from a vivif}'ing belief, a somethingfinal and undemonstrablc, which may be recognisedand grasped as an actuality.One such thing is the recognition of Truth, another

the immediate perception of the Beautiful, inasmuch asthese phenomena of existence contain a finalit}', risingbeyond the region of the ideas, which is given to thebelief in an Infinity, and of which we, in our feelings,become sensible. Here the hint must suffice.The second condition which helps to render an

understanding possible, lies in the participation in theestablishment of a fundamental principle. Until allare agreed as to the general nature of music, conflict-ing opinions will preclude the possibility of a true andsufficiently comprehensive assessment of the Beautifulin music, nor will any person who has not made clear

B 2


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4 INTRODUCTION.to himself such fundamental principle, be in a positionto form a correct estimate of, or even to fully compre-hend, a single work of art.Nowhere do we find, so daily experience teaches ua,

such undigested observations, and empty utterances,often hidden beneath a fantastic and brilliant lan-guage, as in matters belonging to musical art. Themajority pretend to feel that which cannot possiblybe felt, and from poverty of clear ideas, make useof representations and comparisons to explain thatwhich they assume to be unutterable, without inthe slightest degree clearing up the subject.No doubt we must allow that everyone has a right,

to speak on human affairs, if it be done without arro-gance ; and if the cesthetical criticism of musicalworks falls principally within that circle distinguishedby the name of Dilettante, and musicians by professionare not seldom disdainfully overlooked, on the otherhand it may be observed that but few artists arecompetent with respect to art-philosophy, or able toenlighten us on matters of canon.These considerations may serve to enlarge oursphere of observation.

11.

In this investigation we must not neglect to take intoconsideration the music prior to and Sistinct from theart-work. The Primitive and the Universal we mustregard as a basis resolve it into its elements, and seek


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INTRODUCTION. 5to discover the one nature which it exhibits under allforms. Intellectual life in its relation to the sensuousphenomenon of tone must be clearly explained, andthe secret of the soul's innermost existence receive aninterpretation; the province of art, to which Beautyfirst attaches itself, must be brought within more defi-tiite boundaries, and its laws explained with sufficientvalidity.

In the accomplishment of this task the questionnaturally arises whether our enquiries shall be directedto the music which sounds and is sung, or to thatwhich is appreciable and is heard ; whether the objectof music consists in its being expressed or sung, or\vhether it exists simply to delight when listened to,^s the performance of a musical work only a copy ofthe art-work or the art-work itself .* Or are musicalworks, without performance, like badly hung paint-ings? Is, to one who plays or sings in the absenceof other listeners than himself, his own perception byhearing, or the expression of his individual feelings,the principal matter ? If these questions remain un-answered misunderstandings can but result.

In former times Athanasius Kircher, and at amore recent period Nageli, wrote concerning musicwhich is heard, which produces effect. Others, onthe contrary, have addressed themselves solely tothat which is composed, to the product of the mind.If an art-work exists that it may be grasped b)- their'eas, and may please, or that it may convey to themind an ideal satisfaction, then music ma)- be said to


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6 INTRODUCTION.Strive, in the first degree, after utterance, and to desireto express in song and play that which moves theheart.

In it we observe the Subjective and Objectiveunited, inasmuch as the performance of an unknowncomposition is but a reproduction of the original, andthe person who performs regards as his own thefeelings which he has but adopted, while he wholistens feels the same excited within him.

111.The aesthetical treatment of music is, in all caseswhere a systematic foundation, and the derivation ofart rules are concerned, rendered difficult by theabsence of previous efforts. From a remote period,the system of general aesthetics has been cautiouslyadded to, and securely based, so that for every suc-cessive investigation a rich store of information wasavailable ; the special Poetik found its elaboratorsmusic, alone, shared with painting the lot to be keptback, to the great detriment of the subject in general.If aestheticians had carried their arguments into theprovince of musical art, they would have becomeaware of the unsatisfactory nature of many of theirtheorems.Long since had music developed into an art, andhad contained the Beautiful, but for all that it re-mained but an object of enjoyment or vcneratior,.


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INTRODUCTION. 7without being drawn within the sphere of ?estheticalobservation. The philosophers despised it, or at least(lid not trouble to ask themselves \\hether a scienceof musical art A\'cre also possible. Scientists busiedthemseh'cs onl\' with the technical and mathematicalcontents. Until the dc\'elopment of a science of theBeautiful, and of the Fine-arts, by Germans, a founda-tion was wanting. In the musical works which havebeen handed down to us from ancient times, the ?es-thetical always forms the weakest part.To what extent P}-thagoras was acquainted, in

music, with the law of well ordered ratios, and themathematical basis, pointed out its parallel in thelaws of moral life, and practically studied the educa-tional influence of the art, is onh' known to us in ageneral wa}-. Plato, from a more elevated point ofview, recognised in music the expression of the innerlife, as a representation of the various conditions ofthe mind, and regarded the idea of the Beautiful as itsfoundation, whichas moral beaut\- combined withthat which is goodemanates from God, and there-fore leads to unison with God.He raised the purpose of music bc}-ond that of

mere sensuous enjo}'ment, and censured those whovalued it only in proportion to the amount of amuse-ment which it provided for them. Inasmuch as hecondemned, as being too artificial, the use of instru-ments independently of poetry, he doubtless wishedto withdraw music from the part which it took in themere gratification of the senses, to a higher world of


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8 INTRODUCTION.thought, for he also saw in it a fountain of the purestharmony of Hfe, and a revelation of the Divine idea.Herewith a notion of the intellectual character ofmusic was gained, and of the great scope which wasoffered for developing the unity of the idea of theBeautiful and Good.

Aristotle did not differ from these views to anymaterial extent. He, also, ascribed to music an intel-lectual and divine character ; beheld in it a free art,which neither served a useful purpose nor as a pas-time ; and recognised its influence in the noble occupa-tion of the mind, and as a means of moral education.Poetics alone developed his aesthetical views morethoroughly.To the Pythagoreans, who were called Canonici,and their mathematical theory, Aristoxenus opposed

himself with the assertion, that in musical matters notonly the understanding but also the ear judges, andthus led up to the question. What part do under-standing, perception, and feeling simultaneously takein music? But he failed to arrive at any definiteresults.Among the remaining writers on musical subjects,

who for the most part treated only of the tonal sys-tem, Claudius Ptolomseus can alone be mentioned ashaving, at a later date, without reference to any otherauthority secured the science of Harmony on a firmerbasis, and while tracing the origin of music to thefeelings, expounded clearer views with regard to keycharacteristic.


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IXTRODUCTIOX. 9However valuable may be the acute views and re-

tlections of the ancient writers upon the significanceor music, and its influence upon life, still a generalfundamental view, and a theory, were not to bethought of while music was but regarded as a hand-maid of Poes\'. Art here also was in advance oftheory. This we learn from the History of Music inthe Christian era, which also makes known to us thefact that the theoretical matter treated of up to thattime, was confined to the grammar, or the mathema-tical-technical part of the art,to Thorough-bass andthe Art of Composition. Concerning what pleases usin tones, and how it pleases, but few troubled them-selves. Still music was not regarded as a fine art, inwhich a deeper penetration into the nature of theBeautiful was taken for granted ; this onh^ becamepossible as the whole province of the psychologicalwas defined and arranged.To the school of the philosophers Wolf and l^aum-

garten belongs the credit of having again drawn theBeautiful into the province of philosophical discussion,and of having set up, side by side with Logic, andEthics, an /Esthetic, as science of the Beautiful and ofthe Fine Arts. The Beautiful, however, was regardedas equivalent to the Perfect, and the conditions underwhich an}-thing pleases, were derived from the idea ofPerfection; on the other hand, the recognition of theBeautiful as sensuous, was held to be a confused andinldistinct view of the matter. The other arts, how-eyer, soon found their ffisthetical claborators : Painting


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lO INTRODUCTION.in Hagedorn and Mengs, Sculpture in Winkelmann,and Poetry in Lessing. Music alone remained dis-regarded, and no one saw in it more than " the repre-sentation of passionate emotions." The Beautiful waseither left wholly unnoticed, or but casually men-tioned. And thus it remained, until Kant, by tracingthe limits of the spheres of the soul's activity, becamethe founder of an art-philosophy. Music he regardedindeed as but a pleasing play of the emotions excitedfrom without, but he failed to make clear to himselfwhether a mere sensuous impression, or the effect of adiscernment, of form prevailed in that play.No contents make a claim upon our consideration,

where the tones contain in themselves both Meansand End, and only aim at exciting the sensuous per-ceptions. As Kant did not allow music to be thelanguage of the emotions, and a means of awakeningassthetical ideas, all that was left to him, to associatewith a fertility of thought, was the mathematical fonnmade use of in amalgamating the sensations; and in-asmuch as with regard to charm and the power ofanimating the feelings, he ranked music below poetry,so he assigned to it, from an intellectual point of view,the lowest position amongst the arts, seeing that itmerely affects the sensations.The later investigations of the Idealists and Natural

Philosophers led to an important change, inasmuch asthrough them an art-science resulted, in which the artswere arranged as members of a great Whole. Som\einsisted upon the recognition of a higher significance


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INTRODUCTION. " r Iiv music, and claimed for it a participation in an idealBeauty ; others associated Nature, and the Mind, andpointed out the unity which exists between them, andexplained the relation which Art bears to Nature, allof which had a considerable influence upon thespecial ^Esthetics. Still no one attempted a workupon the ^-Esthetics of musical art. That which hasbeen given out under this title in Schubert's paperscontains much valuable matter ; that which WilhelmjMliller (Leipzig, 1830) has termed musical aesthetics,is far removed from scientific investigation. Greatlyto be esteemed are Seidel's contributions to Chari-jiomos, and those of certain writers to the MusikalischeZeitnng and Clicilia. Much that is acute and ex-cellent is to be found scattered through other aesthe-tical papers.

IV.The scientific endeavours to secure a foundation forthe views regarding the Beautiful and .\rt, neverfailed to exert an influence upon art-culture, thoughit would be difficult to show how the theories of theschools thus became effective. Art strikes its ownpath, preceding theor}- ; but in cases where the doc-trines of philosophy pass into, and become funda-mental ideas of life, their influence upon art productsqan be shown. This is confirmed by the History ofJl/nsu; and proves the value of assthetical observation


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12 mTRODUCTION.in relation to the progressive development of art.Leibnitz guided by his own philosophical views ofthings, could but complain of the too artificialcharacter of the music of his time. Richardson'sRomances were expressive of the principles ofEnglish moralising aesthetics, Schiller's Tragediesare the fruit of an idealistic soil ; and the principlesmaintained by Rousseau, by which music has only toplease the ear, have asserted themselves throughouta lengthened period. On the other hand, the greatcompositions in the strict and earnest style of Handeland Bach, could only have been the produce of a timewhen there was neither necessity for a soft sentimentality, excited by fictitious affections, nor for arc,originating in a fantastic philosophy of life, butrather, when the feelings bore in themselves a strongbelief in religion, and the understanding maintainedthe balance of healthy reflection. Mozart, seizingdirectly upon the Beautiful, strove after contentsand perspicuity. Beethoven was an Idealist, andhaving the power to lend an ideal beauty to themost minute and seemingly unimportant matter,strove after universal harmonies.Even with regard to the value of music, and of

its kinds, opinions have, from a remote period, beenat variance. Some will only recognise music whenit is associated with poetry, and declare, with Ilcgel,that instrumental music is empty and incompre-hensible ; others approve onl)- of the ancient anc\strict church style ; and close the list of original


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INTRODUCTION. 13writers with Handel and Bach. Not even wherethe Nature of music is called into question, havethey been able to avoid the dangers of extremes ;and one altogether denies to it intellectual import,another sees in it the language of an earthly felicity.In more recent times, the disputants have dividedth(3mselves into two parties, of which the one seesin music only a play of well sounding tones, andeven goes so far as to assert that the more empty itis, the better it fulfils its purpose ; the other basesall upon a predominating significance. The formerdo not consider that a work of fine-art in which anidea is invariably present, is quite out of the questionwhere tones are simply sported with ; the latter over-look the fact, that Beauty can of itself satisfy, withoutborrowing a prop from the province of the under-btanding and reflection. Where such differencesexist, nought but an enlightened rudimentary ideaof the nature of music, and of the Beautiful inmusical art, can be the means of securing a firmjudgment, and of making its theoretical influencefelt. On many points all are agreed, and a mutualexplanation alone is necessary, while even whereOfiinions are divided, the truth is usuall}' present,although it may be somewhat obscured. This mayserve us for consolation and comfort.


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14 INTRODUCTION.

^Esthetics is the name given to the Science of theBeautiful, or to the contemplative existence governedby the idea of the Beautiful, in contradistinction tothe Sciences of the True and Good, or Logic, Meta-physics and Ethics. Its general foundation and posi-tion in the province of philosophical discipline, wemay assume to be explained elsewhere, and we needbe under no concern because the name does notprecisely express its purport, seeing that it c:anneither be exchanged for that of Science of the Taste,nor, without still greater ambiguity, for Science ofArt.

If the purpose of general esthetics be to determinethe nature of the Beautiful, and to consider its formotheoretically, to describe the faculties of the mindcalled into activity by the Beautiful, and to expfainthe position which it occupies with regard to life ; andif it proceed in the second degree to consider the la'wsof the representation of the Beautiful in Art ; therji aspecial aesthetics should treat of the same subjeictswith reference to a particular sphere of art. There-fore we possess the ^Esthetics of musical art, as of theplastic arts and poetr>', according as the Beautiful isexpressed in tones, or forms, or in thought-picturesand words ; and explanation shall be given as towhat constitutes the pleasing and the ideal in tones,and how the musical artist imparts to his works an?esthetical contents. (


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INTRODUCTION. 1

VI.Tl IE Science of tones may be divided into threebranches, the physical, the mathematical and thecesthetical. The physical nature of tones, how theyar(3 produced and become perceptible, is taught byiVcoustics. The Canonic treats of the value andmutual relation of tones ; and their combinations, and,in the science of composition, gives the rules for theirtreatment.The science of ^Esthetics regards the fine-art music

as an object of investigation, in order to ascertain howthe 13eautiful is made apparent in \\-orks of this art,and what it is that makes a musical [product a workof art. Far removed from it is formal technic, whichin a work of musical instruction, remains the subjectof treatment only as far as it may be unassociatedwith a higher intellectual significance ; and c\-en thatwhich is formal in respect of ^Melody and Harmony,and constitutes the scientific part of composition, doesnot wholly come under consideration. But inasmuchas it makes the Intellectual a subject of investigation,and treats of the Beautiful in musical works, it cannotproceed secureh', until an understanding is arri\-ed atas to what music may represent, and how such repre-sentation is made. Consequcnth' we ma\' not foregoto speak of the Nature of Music generally, or to re-gard the whole tone-world, even as it is, without theperfect impress of Beauty ; for we should but erro-


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l6 INTRODUCTION.neously ascribe to tone itself, a Beauty which doesnot primarily dwell within it. If we may allow our-selves the definition, such a science is a Philosophyof Music.

VII.In the following investigation we shall endeavour tocomplete, in four books, the tasks here brieflymentioned. The first of these books will treat of theNature of music ; the second of the Beautiful inmusical art ; the third of the laws of musical art worksin general ; the fourth of the rules relating to indi-vidual musical works. We shall commence by fixingthe boundary line which divides the province ofNature from that of Art, and by following theaesthetical element in its separation from the naturalmaterial, and in its gradual development to perfectBeauty. Arrived at the Art-work we shall then haveto seek out the universal art rules for the invention ofa musical work, and to explain the peculiarities andlegality of the various kinds of art forms hithertoinvented and made use of


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BOOK THE FIRST.

OF THE NATURE OF MUSIC.

In a certain sense, as the following' investigation willshow, music falls to the lot of mankind onh', whoregards it from the province of intellectual life, whereinthe word and the idea have a narrow signification andonly become perfectly valid when used in reference toart. In a broader and niore universal sense, music inclusive even of the Beautiful which per\'ades itbelongs to the whole of Nature, and to every beingpossessing intelligence. The Beautiful does not con-fine itself A\'ithin the limits of human art, but is notless apparent in the creations of Nature, and indeedearlier than and before all art, although it perhapsexists for mankind alone. Therefore our first obser-vations must be directed to the Music of Nature ingeneral. It forms the foundation of all that which isto follow, and must be made to take in the full import

C


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1 y-ESTIIETICS OF MUSICAL ART.of the presence of an intelligent, and, in many differentgrades, efficient existence.

This investigation shall not proceed from a defi-nition which could only pass current as the explana-tion of a term, but shall rather, by the progressivediscussion of particulars, secure such a grasp of thewhole subject that a general principle must of itselfresult.


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CHAPTER I.OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL.

1.S

HEREVER life is found, it appears,however various the spheres of its exist-ence may be, as Motion. Active forcesmake themselves known, for a rigidrestraint gives place to free movement,the fetters of an outer necessity are

broken, and Rest is converted into Motion. All lifehas motion. The phenomenon of life presupposesand is thus far independent of outer conditionsaninner power, which asserts itself in the same, and ofitself dnknown, thus becomes recognisable. Thereforewherever in Nature we percei\'e life, it is alwa\'s aManifestation, the result of an inner force, a motionderived from within.The nature of this phenomenon is twofold. In the

first case it is observable in the works of Nature,C 2


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20 /ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.where the active, and, as far as we are concerned,hidden powers, strive after and attain to a definite andsettled form, from the crystalHzation of stones, to theconception and animation of animal bodies. This islife, or the motion of life in Space. It also exists inTime, where the motion itself constitutes life, from thebeating of the heart to the periodical revolution of theplanets in Space. Here and there an inner power ex-presses itself externally, and becomes visible, whetherthis be when in the act of perfecting itself, or whenrecognisable as an already perfected product seem-ingly in a state of constant quiescence.

Motion in Space is visible and exists for the eye ;that in Time, on the contrar)-, is audible; and whereverlife is present in Time it is perceived, as far as maydevolve upon the sense, by the ear. Thus somethingdwelling within makes itself known in the Visible andAudible, and for the reason that that which becomesmanifest is not the body itself, but the active forceswithin it, and an invisibility which we term Spirit, thismanifestation is Spiritual. This spirituality operatesthrough form, inasmuch as it fills Space, and alsothrough tones, inasmuch as it renders possible a con-templation of Time. This latter constitutes the tonelife of Nature, which, although perhaps not alwaysperceptible to the human ear, is still a revelation ofthe inner spiritual existence, which pervades every-thing and is itself the Spirit of Nature.


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22 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.

111.It will perhaps be remarked that the crroneousnessof the above statement is quite obvious, seeing thatTones are nothing else than Motion in Space, eitherdirect or resulting from air-waves produced by oscil-lating bodies, these merely being conditions of Space.And true it is that air in vibration constitutes themedium through which the Time-life of Nature ismade perceptible to us, and that it exists in spacestill, that which an inner life makes known to us, inthese conditions of space, by means of the senses, is,as far as the sense of hearing is concerned, only tem-poral, and we regard as the spirit of the same not themoving air, not the corporeal air-waves, but throughthem the progressive motion in Time. Even theexistence of such vibrations has been recognised bythe eye only, and the science of Physics teaches usthat the individual impressions only become percep-tible by their frequent repetition.

If therefore the physical anal}'sis of tone refers it tothe vibrations of elastic bodies and of the air, so, froma metaphysical point of view, to tone is given an innerlife, in which the accumulative corporeal tones areincorporeal, and effect more than the mere excitationof the nerves. Even, may we say that the life ofsounds and tones tears itself from the body andbecomes the purest of phenomena. From the pointof view from which we now regard the matter, only


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX C.ENERAL. 23the purely audible, which is temporal, is taken intoconsideration. The wind murmurs, the wheels of acoach rattle, a pistol-shot resounds simply as a con-cussion of the air ; for not cver\^ sound is to us theexpression of an independent life, although it must beconfessed that a free Spirit, elevated above the humansphere, may regard as being animated, and as takingpart in the universal harmon}-, an infinite number ofNature's phenomena, which we are accustomed toregard simply as mechanical productions, and areunable to refer to spiritual animation. When wespeak of the tones and music of Nature, we under-stand thcrcb}' a direct or indirect manifestation arisingfrom self-encrg)'.

IV.Having seen that in tones and their motion aninner life expresses itself, and constitutes the tone lifeof Nature, we are next led to inquire more closelyinto the character of Tone and Rh\-thm, having alreadyanticipated, by hinting that tone is not regarded by ussimply in the light of an External. It being foreignto the subject in hand, the reader must seek elsewherefor an explanation, in accordance with ph}-sical laws,of the nature of the disturbed air and its motion ;here onl)- the result of such investigation will be madeuse of, in order to show how the Temporal element oflife melts into the Spacial, and the Spacial into theTemporal, and that the}- both obe\- similar laws ; how


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24 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.the motion of the air becomes the expression of themoved Soul, and again operates upon the ner\-es, inorder to be recognised in its similar and continuousmotion. Sounds and tones are, to us, not merelyarbitrarily selected signs, but the direct expression ofinner life, and are products of Nature bound by a lawof inner necessity. We must not overlook the factthat the nature of music may be regarded from twodifferent points of view, either as produced, or originat-ing within us, or as received and reaching us throughthe sense of hearing. In the one case the effect ofmusic has to be taken into consideration, in the otherthe cause and origin of the same. In both respectsthe Visible forms an antithesis. Light illumines theworld and discloses to us all visible existence, so thatbeing enticed by objects, we draw nearer to them andcomprehend them. Tone, on the contrary, brings theworld to us, and causes it to penetrate within us, andto continue to live there. Both, by a power of com-prehension, are perceived and appreciated, althoughlanguage has but one word to express the two relations,describing as contemplation, the comprehension of bothSpacial and Temporal forms.From what has already been said it appears that that

which we perceive in tones does not wholly dependupon corporeal contact, nor is the ear the ultimateresort. An inner susceptibility of spirit constitutes theperception, and a spirituality constitutes that which isperceived. And thus we have to consider a temporalexistence, in which the changethe variation in rising


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GENERAL. 2^and fallingproceeds from an inner principle, andstrives to attain to the unity of ideal contemplation.

V.OF TONE.

Those things which, from the observations of man-kind, it was found necessary, at an early date, todistinguish one from another, language has fixed bya varied nomenclature ; but ordinary usage by failingto observe the precise properties of words, and by con-founding them, has placed considerable difficulty inthe way of a clear comprehension. Therefore, in orderto enable us the more readily to explain the variousphenomena of the province of tones, and also to avoidmisunderstandings, we must proceed to define certainrelated ideas.

Definite and indefinite sounds* are in a general waythe effects perceived by the ear, and we thus describethat which, by the motion of air-waves, affects moreor less powerfull}- the nerves of the bod\-, and moreparticularly those of the ear. We thus speak of a

* In order to maintain the necessary distinctions, it was con-sidered advisable to translate certain words which occur in thisand the following sections thus :Lautdefinite sound.

Schallindefinite sound.Klangmusical sound.

The English language contains no equivalents.


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN CENERAL. 2"Herein lies the essential character of tone, and not

in the simultaneously sounding harmonics, as Rameau,and others before Chladni, took for granted ; thisadmixture, on the contrary, robs the tone of its higherdeterminate character. Of these distinctions, the usageof ordinary life takes no account, and thus peoplespeak of the good tone of an instrument, of a chordcomposed of three musical sounds (Dreiklang), andso forth, but thereby the matter is but little prejudiced.In scientific language, however, we must demandgreater precision.

VI.Definite and musical sounds result from the vibra-tions of elastic bodies, or elastic masses ; these vibrationsbeing conveyed to the ear by the air and air-waves.In a space devoid of air no sound can be heard orproduced. Upon the variety of the spacial propertiesof bodies depend the peculiarities of their vibrations,and consequenth' of their sounds ; this is taught bythat branch of natural science termed Acoustics, whoseprovince it is to explain the laws by which vibrationsare produced and made known to the ear ; whereby arelation between the \'ibrations and this perceptiveorgan becomes apparent. J]ut an inner quality isever prominent, w^hich forms itself to an external phe-nomenon in Time,as it were tearing itself free fromthe corporeal. Then evcr\' \-ibrating bod}- exhibitsits o\\-n peculiar power of producing musical sound,


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28 .'ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.inasmuch as a particular elasticity gives rise to aparticular modification of the vibrations, just as, onthe other hand, the comprehension of a certain motionis possible to the .ear, or, by reason of imperfect for-mation, is denied to that organ. If then the whole ofNature exists in motion, and in vibrations which aresometimes perceptible, and sometimes incomprehen-sible to the human ear, we must acknowledge theexistence of an universal tone-life in the great Wholeand all its parts, and also, that every thing that liveshas its own sound and its own voice. To a higherSpirit, which may be able to perceive more than man,the whole world must sound ; and thus Pythagorascould speak of the music of the spheres, and JeanPaul, the poet, could hearken to the enchanting soundsof the blossoming trees, and the melody of the open-ing buds. Only in lifeless Nature does silence prevail,and the rest of Death knows no sound. In the soundsof Nature many different properties may be distin-guished, in the illustration of which we may makeuse of analogies from the perceptions of the othersenses, and speak of a clear, dull, thick, thin musicalsound. But this we need not here take further intoconsideration ; rather must we employ ourselves inelucidating what it is that converts musical sound intoa tone. If we prosecute our inquiries with regard tothe creation of tone, three points for considerationwill arise.


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OF THE MUSIC OF XATUKE IX GENERAL. 29

r^ VII.(i.'' A MUSICAL sound, which always constitutes amanifestation of inner properties, is either excitedfrom without, or proceeds immediately from an innerspontaneity ; although in life the boundar}- whichdivides the two is not clearK- defined, and thereforea precise distinction is impossible. In the abovedistinction we recognise the first important tokenaccording- to which we described Tone as a musicalsound resulting from Spontaneity. This we fix bymeans of language. We obtain from a string a mu-sical sound, but the human voice gives tone, and sodoes an instrument voluntarily excited by us. Man-kind fashions the musical sounds of the twitchedstring or the blown fiute into a succession of tones,and expresses his feelings therein ; then from theinstrument human tones are heard, a human voiceon the other hand, the gusts of air midst the stringsof an .Eolian harp produce now musical sounds, nowan analogy to melody.

(2.) All sound belongs to time, and whatever of aspacial nature may clea\"e to it is not comprehendedb\' the sense to which sound is gi\'cn, but is gained byreflection, or b\- comparati\'e observations of diftercntkinds, and by combinations with that which is reallyperceptible to the sense of hearing. The ringing bell,the vibrating string, set in motion b\- the hand ofman, are conscqucnth' not recognisable in their sounds


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30 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.as visibilities. Only the Temporal falls within thesphere of the Audible, and Chladni's sound figuresrepresent nothing more than the moving segments ofthe sheet of glass between the nodes of rest. If acertain fixed relation of time is associated with therhythm, and a regularity appears, then the sound be-comes tone. Every tone depends, as phenomenon oflife in Time, upon the fixed relations of a regularrhythm, and the laws of rhythm are, as later investiga-tions have shown, identical with those of tone forma-tion. Here we shall in nowise be embarrassed bythe question whether the rhythmical is not also obser-vable in Space, seeing that the flight of a bird, themotion of a galloping horse, have been termed rhyth-mical. The eye sees nothing more than spacialrelations, and whatever of a temporal character isattached to, or blended with them, is merely the resultof reflection. If in the gallop of a horse, or in adance, rhythm shall be perceptible, then the soundingbeat of the pulse, or the sound of the footstep mustbe added, or if this term shall also hold good forspacial motion we must accept a double meaning ofthe word. The vibrating string is in itself no tone,nor does it give tone until it audibly vibrates in acertain time, and the vibrations similarly succeed oneanother, when, in short, the objective precision ismaintained in the subjective comprehension.Though the power or weakness of a tone may be

dependent upon the greater or less degree of theelasticity of the body, and its vibrations, and though


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GENERAL. 3a bell standing with its mouth upon the ground maysound as little as lead, yet this will not define the toneas such, for here we have nothing- to do with spacialrelations, and do not seek for the tone /'// something;but, rather, regard it as a manifestation independentof the corporeal. In such a case the body which ismoved or vibrates comes no longer under consideration,but only the life which moves within it, which becomesa temporal phenomenon. This phenomenon is soindependent in character that we do not inquire afterthe body which is visible to the eye, but believe in anexistence which is not merely confined to space.

(3.) Sound is perceptible as a Difference and thusbecomes Tone. As light in its indifferent condition isnot recognisable as such to the eye, but becomescolour, and thus must enter into a Difference, and anAntithesis, so is it with Sound, which as Indifferenceis not recognisable as Tone. We perceive and com-prehend a tone when the relations of acuteness anddepth, of strength and weakness are added. Even asingle tone maintains this difference, both with regardto a second tone, and to the tones which sound withit (overtones^ the existence of which has long beenacknowledged in the case of strings and is undeniableas regards \\-ind instruments. In the music of mankindthe different tones combine again in unity and formharmon\-. Height and depth, strength and weakness,constitute the third important point for consideration,which in so far coincides with the second, that therhythmical laws are at the same time the laws for the


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32 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.various vibrations in a certain time. We call a tonehigh when the vibrations or air-motions are many andfollow one another rapidly, and low when they succeedeach other but slowly. The character is modified bythe length of the body, and in such a manner that theacuteness of tone is in inverse ratio to the vibratingbody, as the long and short strings of the pianoforteshow. Two strings of equal substance vibrate andsound differently when their lengths are different. Butthe tension and thickness must also be taken intoconsideration, for a tightly strained and thin bodyvibrates quicker and sounds more acute ; also by thestrength of a body a greater rigidity and thereby morerapid vibrations can be produced ; thus, for instance, athin and not too stiff oboe reed gives the lower tonesmore readily than does a thick one.A tone is called strong or weak when, through thevarious degrees of elasticity, a greater or less extentof vibration is induced, whereby it appears that anincrease and decrease of motion in a certain ratio, isobservable in the successive air-waves, to which wehave an analogy in the case of colour ; we thereforecall it colour of tone.The Difference, however, in which a tone appears

must be definable and susceptible of an unity. Evenin the case of musical sounds we distinguish purity asthe unity of similar vibrations, for the reverse of thisis noise.


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GENERAL.

VIII.Ox these particulars depends tone, which we regardas the spontaneous manifestation of an inner Hfe, inrhythmical relations, and in difference to a diversity.It would not suffice were one to limit the nature oftone to the regularity of vibration, for by this alone aspiritual life could never become manifest. On theother hand, it may be well to offer a word of warningagainst attributing to the nature of tone that whichthe human mind develops from it by reflection, andthen discovers in music ; an error through which somehave been led to regard the phenomenon of tone insuch an abstract light, that not only all connectionwith the corporeal basis of sounding objects is dis-regarded, but it is made a purely ideal phenomenon,and is volatilized. We must not lose sight of the realfoundation, however strongly we may attach ourselvesto a spiritual importance. Before we turn to regardthe boundary line which separates that which is humanin the world of tones, we must more closely define thenature of rhythm and the ratio of differences in tones.

R II Y T II M .But few words have, by their improper use, led to somany misconstructions as has the word Rhythm, which,

D


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j4 yESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.derived from a foreign language, should have enjoyedthe positive application of a technical term. It willtherefore be necessary to explain the various uses ofthe word. But we must observe beforehand thatrhythm is not peculiar to human art, but belongs tothe whole tone world, and that it is observable in thesimplest phenomena of Nature, before all art, in whichit becomes Beautiful rhythm.Numerous have been the later attempts to explain

in a definition the nature of rhythm, and it appearsthat almost every one has been successful in graspingthe truth from his own point of view, without havingsecured for himself the right of rejecting the opinionsof others. It was readily agreed that rhythm falls totime and its accomplishment, for by the generallyaccepted signification of the word, we understand theaccented division and continuance of time by some-thing perceptible, as illustrated, for example, by thesound of footsteps or the tick of a pendulum. A pro-portional recurrence of the sound causes the progres-sive time to become perceptible ; and if this term hasbeen applied to spacial motion it has always been soin an improper sense. The province becomes nar-rower when we speak of musical rhythm and distinguishit from the metrical, however similar the laws of bothmay be. The former belongs to sounding nature andart, the latter to the human art of language. Bothare based upon similar principles, for that which formsthe metrical rhythm constitutes merely the musicalelement of laneruao-e.


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GENERAL. 35If we regard together the most important signs by

which rhythm, in the strict sense of the word, becomesdistinguishable to us, it will appear, as it always hasappeared, that rhythm converts to an unity the com-bined sums of certain and various divisions of time,whereby it must be taken for granted that the time isfilled and not empty, for void time cannot be per-ceived. Whatsoever appears in time must presentitself under the form of divisions of time, and onlyin its divisions is time intuitively comprehended.Different parts, whether they are such by length orshortness, or by strength or weakness, form in rhythma whole, as docs proportion in space, wherefore thetypical term time-figure, borrowed from spacial con-templation, may not be unsuited to its expression.That which it is here necessary to comprehend maybe thus illustrated for clearer contemplation.The roar of a waterfall and the /Eolian harp, have

for us little or no rhythm,although it cannot bedenied to either but soar above the province ofhuman comprehension, not carrying sufficient decisionwithin them. Still variety is requisite. A singlemusical sound offers no rhythm ; to develop this atleast a pause must occur between the sound and itsrepetition. Two tones form a rh}-thm within thenarrowest bounds ; several sounds a complete rhythm.But even multifariousness is not sufficient. Perfectlyequal divisions of time in continued succession, asproduced by the blows of a hammer, or the swings ofa pendulum, evince observance of law, and if it be

D 2


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36 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.found convenient to regard these equal motions, byreason of their separate parts, as rhythmic, and thus,for instance, to speak of the rhythm of a pendukim,then, at least, the coercion must be recognised ; on theremoval of which at the entry, or rather at the return,of a diversity of rhythm, this latter attains to perfectvalidity. This rigid observance of rule is onlyobservable in life that is not free, or in an imposednecessity, such as is nowhere found in Nature, orat least only in cases where the mechanical predomi-nates. We must not, therefore, assume, as is toofrequently done, that diversity develops itself fromsimilarity, for it is a primitive condition. Never-theless we may speak of a primitive agitation which isso constituted that, the divisions of time being equal,the one makes itself intensively prominent and theother recedes. If diversity be wanting in this coercedequal division of time, it is intensively gained by theheightened power, that is by accent, or whatever wemay choose to term the differences of enhanced orgreater power, expressed by musicians as strong andweak divisions of time, or Thesis and Antithesis, andby writers on metric as Arsis and Thesis.The questions which now arise are : What may the

principle of this arrangement of the various divisionsof time effect in rhythm ? How does this varietybecome an important requisite of rhythm ? How canwe explain the origination of a Thesis after, or out ofan Arsis, and the combination of the two ? Thesediscussions have been so disunited and so directly


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GEXERAL. ^yopposed to one another by scientific enquirers, who,as already stated, were for the most part agreed uponthat which has hitherto occupied our attention, thatthis province may well be likened to a battle-field.However, more misunderstandings than errors haveobtained on these subjects, or, at all events, the latterhave resulted from the former. Almost all have, toa considerable extent, grasped the truth, and eachindividual has busied himself in denying it to others.Mutual respect and assistance would have brought thegoal nearer than has a polemic which has often dis-regarded the right.The first scientific foundation was laid by Hermann,

who pointed out the principles of rhythm in a reciprocaloperation, or rather in the relation of cause and effect.This was misunderstood and misinterpreted, for somedenied the reciprocal operation because the divisionsof time do not operate from both sides positiveh- andnegatively upon one another, a simple causal relationalone being in force ; others pointed out the perfectaccordance of cause and effect, as though an equalityof the time-divisions could be demanded, which wouldentirely destroy the character of rhythm. Truly theidea of cause and effect appears too universal, and theexpression reciprocal operation errs against the usageof language by which it applies only to a simultaneouspresence : but even Apel himself, after a not exactlythorough refutation, was forced to recognise a causalrelation. This learned man attempted a more preciseexplanation and laid down the propositionRh)-thm


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38 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.is the sensuous contemplation of the unity of a succes-sion of moments of evolution ; but thereby advanced,in the main, nothing more than did Hermann'sCausality, although the indications may be of a moregeneral character, for in Evolution, and in theGeneration and Generator alluded to we perceivenothing further than a cause arising from an effect.Where the process allows us to recognise a progressioninto some state or condition, the mind naturallyconceives a relation of cause and effect.

Through Apel a substantial indication, not tho-roughly grasped by himself, was obtained of anexistence appearing in temporal form. But the pro-blemsto what extent the diversity in the coerceddivisions of time, which by no means first makes itsappearance in association with Beauty, may becomean essential of rhythm ; and how, in the constantprogressive development, an increase and diminutionof power is possible :remained unsolved. At a morerecent date errors again arose from a belief thatrhythm, in its primitive condition, contained the Beau-tiful, disregardful of the fact that not every rhythmis beautiful, nor wholly a matter of art. All werecontent to see in this beauty nothing further thanvariety and its unity, through which alone, however, itcannot be produced. A solution of the problem wasarrived at by deliberating as to what is afforded by abeautiful rhythm, which is doubtless a freedom frommonotony and flatness, but as to how such varietyexists, and is attained to, whether arbitrarily, or by


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40 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.an inner life did not assert itself, and if the form ofthe tone-motion were not also the form of the inner lifemotion. The inner life, however, consists, inasmuchas one effort determines the other, in the reciprocaloperation of active forces, and, indeed, not altogetherin manifold agitation, but in the alternate play ofexcitement and calm, which latter, however, by nomeans constitutes absolute rest. Expression andimage of this inner life are the tones which becomeaudible, which rhythmically unite and arrange them-selves, inasmuch as they iill time in perceptiblealternation, just as the inner life, as a Temporality,exists in rhythmical relations. The prime free reasonfor the rhythmical motion of tone is consequently con-tained in the inner life; from it the excitement proceedsit determines the commencement, the change, and theexpiration of the motion. The form ofthe phenomenonand of the manifestation is throughout of a temporalnature, and is a combination in which the subsequentis always dependent upon the antecedent, the presentdetermined by the past. At the same time, however,both an alternation of activity and varying degrees ofpower are requisite, for if the former be wanting, amonotonous rest results, which may be compared withdeath, and progression is only possible by renewedexcitement. An equal motion, like that of a pendulum,allows, as already observed, only a coerced life to besupposed, and is therefore only to be observed in themechanical ; it offers regularity, but no rhythm. Whentherefore some assumed, in respect of this, a Causality,


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 4Others considered the one effect to be produced by theother, it remained unexplained how this connectioncould arise from the effects themselves. That whichhere constitutes the operative, is the activit)' of thespiritual life which exists in collective Nature, as inmankind, the expression of which occurs in rhythm.In life, from strain and exertion proceed relaxationand rest, and the second result of activity cannot begreater than the first. That Causality which obtainsin our own inner life is also observable in tones, and isthe modifying principle.

XI.The simplest excitement of living motion consists, byequality of time divisions, in an intensive concentrationof power, whereby one part is made prominent. Thisgives accented rhythm, in which the one equal partstands out through intensity of force, and the concen-tration repeats itself, thus : J_. ^ ^ ^_ _ orL ^ But accent must not herebe confounded with pitch of tone, but only themarked tone forming the boundary point of thetime-figure must be understood. This concentrationof power may appear in a double form, inasmuchas in the equality of parts, several, and in certaingrades different, accents may exist and consequentlya rhythm with various accents be produced Al_ J_or LL , _^ . This diversity becomes greater


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42 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.with the change of the duration of the time-divisions,or through the extensive relations of tones, whichcan give rise to a multitude of even and unevendivisions ; thus, for instance, a long may be of equalvalue with two shorts, or with three or four shorts,and may be resolved into the same. The durationof these longs and shorts is not regulated by anylaw, and the sub-divisions may be carried to anyextreme that their perception by the human earadmits of. That which extends beyond the naturalcapacity of that organ may well exist, but it islost.Although the understanding cannot find out and

express the quantities, the feelings comprehend theunity of the rhythmical relation. Still for the humanmind a limit is fixed, represented by the quadruplequantity, whether it be expressed musically bycrotchets or semiquavers. Even that which existsimmediately beyond this quantity in the number five,although still comprehensible to the feelings, is notpleasing, and it is difficult to obtain, by the accentua-tion of the first division, a balance between one andfive, or to realize the unity of five divisions. Aseptuple arrangement is still more objectionable tothe feelings, and rhythms of ii, 13 and 17 divisions arequite disagreeable and useless. Therefore Leibnitzwas justified in asserting that the human ear can onlycount up to five. The relations 1-2 and 1-3 are themost natural and most usual.

It docs not appear necessary to enumerate the


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GENERAL. 43various forms of the association of longs and shorts,for even though the combination should evince agreater or less degree of freedom, still the character-istics of rhythm remain in each case the same. Let it,however, be remarked, how vain was the contentionbetween writers on metric and musicians when thelatter bitterly complained that the former, startingfrom the assertion that a long is equal to two shorts,confined themselves to the long ' and short ( u ) anddid not point out in the newly-invented notation a differ-ence ofvarious shorts : ^ . ^ ,\ #or, J^ ^^0 m^'for example. The relative proportions of length do notinduce an alteration of form as far as metrists are con-cerned,and as rhythm (metric associated with languageonl)' presents itself in art productions, it must be ad-mitted that a proportion of 1-3 is therein onh- permis-sible conditionally and in transition. RecentK- metristshave conceded a duple rh\'thm, with which musiciansmay rest content, and recognise with the ancientrh\'thmists the existence of an irrational long, whichdoes not quite contain two divisions, and admits thata long syllable may be lengthened by a half, thus : u u u ^vhich is equivalent to . """ Whenhowever, they are disinclined to regard with musiciansthe triolc """" as equivalent to . , the justificationexists in language which is confined to the simplerand more easily comprehended relations.


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44 ^ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.

XII.If a rhythm contain a Whole, this, although dividedinto moments of time, has an end, but no break.But during the undisturbed progress of time, a breakmay occur in the tones which fill it, and thus amoment void of tone may occur. Through this, how-ever, the rhythmical relation is not disturbed, inasmuchas the time unfilled by tone is also included in thetime series. This is the pause which at certain pointsprevents the filling of time, but does not destroy therhythm. The duration of the pause may be equal tothat of a long or a short, and it obtains to rhythmicalimportance through the rhythm, which is in the mainapparent, and in which it takes part. It has beenasserted that within a rhythmical succession a pausecannot occur, but only between two rhythms, whichunite to form a single series ; j-et within the series,there is an interval which falls to the recovery suc-ceeding the exertion, and which, although void of tone,is still of importance, and does not occasion a break.What are so-called staccato, or briefly sustained notesJ^ '^^ J^ --I ,*^ -1 but a rhythm with pauses interspersed ?Such do not destroy rhythm.

XIII.No one has ever doubted that rhythm belongs to Time,and consequently to Tone-life ; it has, however, often


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GENERAL. 45been questioned whether tones and music occur abso-lutely under the form of rhythm. Gottfried Weberhas declared rhythm to be a not wholly indispensableproperty of music, y,'iving an illustration of musicwithout rh\'thm. This assertion, however, arises froma misunderstanding, by which rhythm is mistaken formusical time, or the strictly preserved norm of equalrh}'thm, and \\-hen Weber quotes, as an illustration,and compares with recitative, the ordinary choralsong of the communit}', in which the longer orshorter duration of tone does not strictl}- conform tomusical time, but is, so to say, arbitrary, it is evidentto us that only time is absent, and not rh\-thm. Ofmusical time we shall have occasion to speak else-where. It is evident that a sound, in itself, is wantingin rhythm, but when it participates in certain relationsit becomes tone, and when combined with others in aseries, exhibits rh\-thmical form, and thus wherevertones exist in combination, the law of rh)-thm obtains.

XIV.THE RELATION OF TONES IN ACUTENESS AND

GRAVITY.

Between tones, b}- reason of the various degrees ofrapidity of the vibrations, a difference arises, which istermed Interval. The length of the vibrating body,its substance and tension, determine the number of


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46 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.air-waves which, striking upon the organs of hearing,constitute acute or grave tone. How it is broughtabout that the sounding body vibrates, and that theair-waves act upon the organs, and excite the sensa-tions, is for that part of Physics termed Acoustics todetermine and explain. If the vibrations follow oneanother at equal intervals, then, instead of mere sound,a tone is produced which has a certain pitch. In acertain sense the deeper tone, resulting from slowermotion, can be regarded as the compact unity of thediverging higher tones, so that we may say, theseproceed from the deeper fundamental tone. But, onthe other hand, the more acute tone is equal to thegraver, for the reason that by increased motion, itgains in number what it loses in fulness. Thus theoctave is equal to the prime, and yet different from it.The compass within which tone exists, must be

regarded as of infinite extension ; even within thelimits of the human comprehension it is still verylarge, extending, according to Wollaston, over tenoctaves. The 32 feet C of the organ, which vibrates32 times in a second, and the C which vibrates 16,384times in the same length of time, may be regarded asthe extremes; but Weber has shown that air-waves ofall kinds produce sound, when not less than 15 andnot more than 30,000 vibrations reach the ear in asecond. The proportions of the successive tones recuragain in an enhanced state, but still the same, in theoctave, so that within an octave we can comprise allintervals. Rut as acuteness and gravity arc only


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 47relative ideas, and the difference of tones is intiniteand scarcely definable, so it occurs that from a desirefor a fixed starting point, we proceed to judge alltones in accordance with the organisation of thehuman ear, and to arrange their relations. It is notfor us to discuss whether a differently constitutedorganisation, and another manner of comprehension,may not be able to appreciate other tone relationswhich with us have no value. We are not in a positionto judge of the Nature beyond ourselves, otherwisethan as it exists for mankind. Even where the Pleas-ing and the Beautiful are in question, we know thatin the human province of tones, different periods andindividuals are opposed to one another, and the rela-tions which were recognised in ancient times, and inwhich the Asiatic and Northern races delighted, areperhaps useless to us, and displeasing to our ears.Man, as soon as he has attained to mental develop-ment, perceives and determines, in the relations whichhe is able to calculate by means of figures, a certainsuccession, such as is offered by the scale. Thisfinds its application in Art. We shall return to itfurther on.

From what has hitherto been said, it will appear thateverywhere, where tone becomes perceptible as theexpression of an inner life, rhythm and the relationof acuteness and gravitv forms the basis, and that


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48 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.therefore, these are present throughout soundingNature, even when they cannot be estimated by therules adopted in the music of mankind. In this formthe Spiritual, which pervades the whole of the exist-ence around us, is exhibited temporally, so thatNature, in the broadest sense of the word, lives andappears in tones, and we may thus speak of the musicof the world and of every single thing. But we maygo still further in this investigation, and enquireHow is music made known in the circles of the livingproductions of Nature beyond the human sphere ?What is the tone-life of Nature in contradistinctionfrom human Art ? Can we regard musical art as animitation of Nature ?

XVI.THE MUSIC OF NATURE BEYOND THE HUMAN

SPHERE.

In regarding the vast range of the living productionsof Nature, and enquiring in individual cases into thetone-producing faculty, and the capacity for music inthe same, we must not fail to take every precautionagainst the possibility of error, for only too easily dowe transfer human nature to other beings, and ascribeto Nature, from a poetical regard, as peculiarity andspontaniety, that which has a foundation only in ourimagination ; thus the poet hears songs in the murmur


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE I.\ GENERAL. 49of the wind, and melody in the ripple of the brook.Even the assertion that the greater the power of abeing to produce tone, the higher it stands in thescale of earth organisations, does not apph' in generaland in every case, for numerous well-founded expe-riences militate against it. This m}-stcry of creationis concealed beneath a veil which wc can raise onlyin certain places, and our glance never penetratesdeeply enough into alien natures. Who would rankthe docile and affectionate dog far below the notparticularly intelligent nightingale ? In general itwill be found that the nature beyond mankind pos-sesses only definite and indefinite sound, althoughits participation in the development of tones cannotbe denied.

XVII.The world of the inorganic we do not call dead ; ithides within the predominating mass of the bodya slumbering life, and the forces which are able tocreate sounds and tones are not yet awakened ; thetones themselves remain hidden in the immobilemass, to be awakened by a foreign impulse, whenman makes it a means of his free purposes. Thebodies of this sphere, A\hich lack the power of pro-ducing notes spontaneous!)', are distinguishable onefrom another, by the greater or less degree in whichthey serve the purpose of producing human tones

E


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50 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.The noble metals distinguish themselves also in thisrespect, for they are better adapted to tone than arethose which we regard as the inferior metals. Inless dormant life the activity for tone production isenhanced. Truly, we are not in a position to com-prehend by means of the organs of hearing the motionof the temporal plant life, which, without doubt,expresses itself in musical sounds, but we observe inthe instruments derived from the vegetable kingdom,that the property which adapts them to the produc-tion of tone, is given to them in a higher degreeof perfection than it is to those constructed of metal.This possibility of receiving spiritual animation pointsat least, to a kindred nature : still, to the, in itself,passive instrument we cannot ascribe anything furtherthan the subordinate part above mentioned. If wepass upwards through the scale of living things, wefind in the lower regions, at first, neither any apparentpower of producing sounds which are perceptible tous, nor susceptibility to tones. The organs for bothare wanting. Noises produced by outer portionsof the body, as in the case of bees, crickets, andother insects, must not here be taken into con-sideration. Tone-life appears in the least degreeof activity in fishes, amongst which a few species(Cottus cataphractus, Cobitis fossilisj produce sounds.Of animals of this low class authentic observationshave been communicated which cause astonishment,for in the susceptibility for melody evinced by fishesand crabs, which followed a strain of music, a re-


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OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IX GENERAL. 5production of that which was heard must be takenfor granted. With the Amphibia, owing to thepresence of the hmgs, a development of voice andnote commences, without, however, attaining tomusical importance, for however various in thisrespect the individual species of animals may appearand a number of the class Mammalia occupy a lowpositionothers by a participation in music thatbecomes audible to them, distinguish themselves in aremarkable manner, as vv^as observed in the well-known concert for two elephants at Paris 'videMiisikaliscJie Zeitung, 1799, No. 19)still it is gene-rally recognised, that, in the voice of the bird, whichamongst animals alone sings, \\c first meet with thatwhich may be regarded as music. Here again apoetical conception, not seldom causes persons toascribe to Nature that which is quite foreign to it, and,for instance, to hear in the notes of the quail thewords Lobe Gott, syllabically rendered in English" Praise the Lord ") and in the trill of the lark a hymnin celebration of spring, and otherwise to interpretsymbolically the sounds of Nature. It is not every-thing in this sphere, which, possessing a voice, canproduce music. Where the power of self-energy docsnot make itself known, nor that which is inward andspiritual express itself, tones are but the result ofexternal circumstances, or of a corporeal, but not freeactivity. Just as the flute clock, by means of amechanism which in itself is dead, performs evenworks of art, the action which mechanically repeats

E 2


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52 -ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.them being but the product of human ingenuity, sothe song of birds lacks the expression of a free innerhfe, for they sing mostly at a time when they areinfluenced by sexual instinct. We can, therefore,ascribe tones to them only as the product of a condi-tional spontaneity of low grade, in which perfectfreedom is wanting, and consciousness, by choosingfor its representation a fixed and distinguishable sign,does not operate decisively. Herein we may onlyrecognise the product of instinct. But even whenmore closely regarded, these tones are, from a musicalpoint of view, in many respects distinguishable fromthose of mankind. It is quite impossible to adaptthem to our musical scale, and in vain do we attemptto express in notes, the song of birds, while all thelaborious attempts from Athanasius Kirscher to thepresent time have led to no results. Although, in acertain sense, mathematically determinable propor-tions cannot be denied to it, still it oversteps theharmonic conditions which regulate human music, andwhich cannot be regarded as accidental. The varietyand contrasts are great, inasmuch as from the funda-mental tone much finer proportions are developedthan our scale exhibits ; they are, however, useless forthe music of mankind, and cannot even be graspedwith certainty by the human ear. What we perceiveare but analogies.The song of the bird is by no means deficient in

rhythm, although it is not human or musical rhythm,but deviates from the laws which are valid with us.


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54 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART.rhythm, which may be variously regarded, but itcannot, without alteration, be adapted to our metricalsystem. However admired the songof the nightin-gale may be, and however delightful its lively play oftones, still it moves in no musical rhythm, and afterlong sustained notes, not seldom a number of shortnotes follow, or an irregular shake, which is apt todegenerate into a scream.The mocking-bird (Turtus polyglottus), native in

America, is regarded by naturalists as the most excel-lent of all singing birds, as master of his art. Accord-ing to J. Renunie {3Iaga.zine of Natural History,No. 5, 1829, compare Yxior&ps Noti::en, 1829, No. 519),and Audubon {Ornithology of America, compare Mor-geiiblatt, 1832, No. 84), it possesses on the one hand,a large compass, and much variety in a full voice thatmodulates with remarkable ease, resembling the songof the nightingale, but without the long sustainedtones, and on the other hand, a power, developed toan extraordinary degree of facility, of imitating thesounds of Nature, such as, for instance, the murmur ofthe leaves, and of the brook, and the songs of otherbirds, blending

Aesthetics of Musical Art - The Beautiful in Music (Ferdinand Hand)

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