Advertising Research - GBV · Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433 Statistical Significance 434...

Second Edition

Advertising ResearchTHEORY AND PRACTICE

Joel J. DavisSchool of Journalism & Media Studies,

San Diego State University

Prentice HallBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal TorontoDelhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

CONTENTS

Preface to the Second Edition xx

PART I Foundations

Chapter 1 The Nature and Process of Advertising Research 1The Contributions of Advertising Research 3

The Market 3The Consumer 3

Creative 6

Media Analysis and Placement 7

Synthesis 7Tactics, Actions, Evaluation, and Revision 8

Who Conducts Research? 8Information Users 8

Research Specialists 9Media and Consulting Companies 9

Trade Associations 10

Field Services 10The Process of Advertising Research 11

Preliminary Discussions and Agreements 13Problem Definition 13Justifying the Need for Research 15

Specifying Informational Needs 16The Complete Problem Statement 16

Planning and Data Collection 17

Identify the Appropriate Type of Research 17Sampling and Data Collection 20Selection of Data Collection Method 21Determine the Research Budget and Timing 21

Prepare, Distribute, and Obtain Approval of Research Proposal 21Prepare Research Materials 22

Conduct the Research 22

Prepare Information for Analysis 22Application 23

Data Analysis 23

Present the Results 23Decision Making 24

vi Contents

Applying Chapter Concepts 24

Summary 25

Review Questions 26

Application Exercises 27

Endnotes 28

Chapter 2 Research Ethics 30

Ethics and Individual Respondents 32

Informed Decisions and Informed Consent 32

Mistreatment 34

Confidentiality and Privacy 35

Responsibilities to Respondents: Special Populations 35

Research with Children 35

Research in Online Communities 36

Research in Virtual Worlds 37

Responsibilities to Clients 39

Appropriate Research 39

Confidential and Proprietary 40

Presentation of Findings 40

Project Changes 43

Responsibilities to Research Companies 43

Pre-selection 44

Free Advise 44

False Promises 44

Responsibilities to Society 44

Complete Data and Findings 45

Proper Interpretation 45

Sound, Objective Research 45

Research Is Not a Guise for Other Activities 45

Summary 47

Review Questions 47


Endnotes 51

PART II Sources of Information

Chapter 3 Secondary Research 53An Introduction to Secondary Research 54

Secondary Information Versus Secondary Sources 55

Contents vii

The Uses of Secondary Research 55

Advantages of Secondary Research 59

Limitations of Secondary Research 60

Evaluating the "Goodness" of Secondary Information 61

Locating Secondary Information 62

Non-indexed Online Sources 62

Indexed Online Sources: Search Strategies 63

Beyond the General Search Engines 69

Staying Current 70

E-mail Newsletters 70

Newsletter Publishers 70

Whitepapers, Research Reports, Webinars, andPresentations 72


Summary 75

Review Questions 75


Endnotes 77

Chapter 4 Sampling 79

An Overview of Sampling 80

Random Sampling and Quantitative Research 81

Sample or Census 81

Define Target Population 83

Select Sampling Method' 87

Sample Frame 87

Types of Probability Sampling 88

Sample Size in Random Samples 96

Sample Selection Bias in Probability Samples 99

Nonprobability Sampling and Quantitative Research 102

Convenience Sampling 102

Judgment Sampling 103

Quota Sampling 104

Snowball Sampling 104

Sample Size in Nonprobability Samples 105

Sample Selection and Qualitative Research 106

Sample Size 107


viii Contents

Summary 107

Probability Sampling 108

Nonprobability Sampling 108

Review Questions 109


Theory Underlying Sample Size Determination 113

Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Proportion 113

Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Mean 116

Endnotes 117

PART III Qualitative Research

Chapter 5 Collecting Qualitative Insights 119Personal and Focus Group Interviews 121

Personal Interviews 121

Focus Groups and Minigroups 122

Approaches to Collecting Qualitative Insights 123

Direct Question Types 123

Projective Techniques 127

Techniques Using Verbal Stimuli 128

Techniques Requiring Imagination or Scenarios 130

Pictures as Stimuli 131

Process Techniques 134

The Qualitative Interview 139

Active Listening and Probes 141

Setting the Right Environment 142

Summary 144



Endnotes 148

Chapter 6 Focus Groups 150

Planning for Focus Groups 152

Select a Moderator 152

Brief the Moderator 153

Prepare, Evaluate, and Revise Discussion Guide 154

Determine Group Characteristics 156

Determine the Number and Location of Required Groups 157

Contents ix

Select the Facility 158

Schedule Groups, Specify Sample, and Recruit Participants 158

Conduct the Groups 160

Assess Group Success and, If Necessary, Revise the DiscussionGuide 162

Analyze and Present Findings; Apply Findings to DecisionMaking 162

Viewing Focus Groups 163

Online Focus Groups 164


Summary 168



Endnotes 171

Chapter 7 Analysis of Qualitative Data 173

Activities Conducted Prior to Data Examination 174

Review Problem Definition and Informational Needs 174

Evaluate the Sample and Note Any Limitations 175

Data Examination 176

Understand the Intensity of Respondents' Feelings and Points ofView 177

Understand the Respondent, Not Individual Responses 177

Review with a Critical Eye and Ear 178

Reflection 179

Theme Identification, Analysis, and Revision 179

Theme Development 180

Coding Data According to Themes 181

Examining Relevant Data 181

Theme Evaluation and Revision 182

Relating Individual Themes to Form Metathemes 183

Serendipitous Discoveries 183

Evaluating the Analysis 184

CAQDAS: Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysisSoftware 185

Summary 186



Endnotes 189

Contents

PART IV Quantitative Research

Chapter 8 Observation Research: Human and Automated 190Human Observation 191

Qualitative or Quantitative? 192

Types of Human Observation 193

Human Observation: Case Examples 196

Automated Observation 199

Observing Online Behaviors 199

Observing Offline Behaviors 203

Observing Consumer-Generated Media 203


Video Consumer Mapping Study 213

Campaigning with Social Media 216

Summary 216



Endnotes 219

Chapter 9 Observation Research: Biometrics 221

Eye Tracking 222

Application of Eye Tracking to Advertising Planning 224

Application of Eye Tracking to Evaluation and Revision ofAdvertising Creative 228

Combining Eye Tracking with Retrospective Interviews 230

Combining Eye Tracking with Facial Coding and VerbalResponse 231

Additional Examples of Eye Tracking Applications toAdvertising 232

Neuromarketing 232

fMRI: Activation of Specific Brain Areas 234

Overall Brain Activation (EEG) Plus Physiological Measures 236

Exclusive Reliance on Physiological Measures 238

Alternative Views 238


Tobii Technology Eye Tracking Cases 239

Etre Web Site Analysis 240

One to One Insight: Emotion, Engagement, and InternetVideo 240

Contents xi

MindSign fMRI Advertising Test of Virgin Mobile Phones"Fantastic Journey" 241

Summary 241



Endnotes 243

Chapter 10 Data Collection Through Surveys 246

Methods of Collecting Survey Information 247

Personal Interviews 247

Telephone Interviews 248

Mail Surveys 249

Online Surveys 253

Hybrid (Mixed-Mode) Surveys 253

Criteria for Selecting a Data Collection Method 254

Cost 254

Timing Requirements 255

Sample, Interview, and Administrative Control 255

Informational Needs 256

Complexity of the Topic and Questionnaire 256

Interview Length 257

Response Rate, Nonresponse Rate, and NonresponseError 258

Causes of Nonresponse Errors 260

Improving Response Rate to Reduce Nonresponse Error 260

Summary 264



Endnotes 266

Chapter 11 Measurement 268

The Measurement Process 269

Task One: Identify and Define the Concept of Interest 269

Stage Two: Specify an Observable Event 274

Stage Three: Evaluate and Revise the Observable Event 284

Reliability and Validity: An Overview 285

Assessing Reliability 285

Assessing Validity 287

xii Contents

Summary 288



Endnotes 291

Chapter 12 Writing Survey Questions 292

Writing Closed-Ended Survey Questions 293

Nominal Level Questions 293

Ordinal Level Questions 299

Interval Level Questions 300

Ratio Level Questions 305

Developing Open-Ended Questions 306

Considerations in Question Development 307

Question Writing: An Evaluation 309


Razorfish Digital Brand Experience Report/2009 315

People From Cossette 315

Summary 316



Endnotes 322

Chapter 13 Questionnaire Design 323

Determine the Data Collection Method 325

Determine the Need for Disguise 325

Create Questionnaire Components 326

Introduction 326

Screener 327

Main Body 330

Classification 331

Physically Prepare the Questionnaire 331

Self-Administered Questionnaires 331

Online Questionnaires 333

Transitions 335

Interviewer and Respondent Instructions 335

Internal Evaluation 339

Pretest the Questionnaire 339

Prepare Field Support Materials 342

Contents xiii

Applying Chapter Content 342

VERB Campaign Evaluation 342

Generation Next 344

Summary 345



Endnotes 359

Chapter 14 Experimentation 361

Surveys Versus Experiments 362

The Characteristics of Experiments 364

Independent and Dependent Variables 365

Requirements for Causality 365

Problems Affecting Internal Validity 367

Premeasurement and Interaction 367

Testing 368

Instrumentation 368

Maturation 369

Selection and Mortality 370

History 371

Researcher Bias 371

Experimental Design 372

Quasi-Experimental Designs 372

True Experimental Designs 377

More Complex Experimental Designs 381

Conducting Experiments Online 384

Internal Validity: A Broader View 384

External Validity 386


IAB Advertising Effectiveness Study 387

Massive Video Game Advertising Test 388

Summary 389



Endnotes 393

Chapter 15 Descriptive Statistics 395

Basic Math and Key Measures 396

Percentage 396

xiv Contents

Average 396

Median and Mode 398

Standard Deviation 399

Making Certain You Have Good Data 404

Data Review, Decisions, and Editing 404

Data Analysis for Specific Question Types 406

Classification, Checklist, and Other Nominal LevelQuestions 408

Checklist Questions 411

Ranking and Other Ordinal Level Questions 414

Rating Scales and Other Interval Level Questions 415

Constant Sum and Other Ratio Level Questions 417

The Importance of Subgroup Analysis 418

Data Analysis in Action 420

The Situation 420

The Analysis 420

Conclusion 426

Summary 426



Endnotes 431

Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433

Statistical Significance 434

Making Judgments about A Single Measure from One Sample 436

Comparing a Sample Average to a Population Average 437

Comparing a Sample Proportion to a Population Proportion 439

Examining the Internal Characteristics of a Single Sample 440

Making Judgments about a Single Measure from Two or MoreIndependent Samples 441

Comparing Two Means 441

Comparing Three or More Means 443

Factorial Designs: Making Judgments about the SimultaneousInfluence of Two or More Variables 445

Neither Factor Is Significant, No Interaction BetweenFactors 446

One Factor Is Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 447

One Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction BetweenFactors 449

Contents xv

Two Factors Are Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 451

Neither Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction BetweenFactors 452

Making Judgments about the Relationship betweenTwo or More Measures 453

Correlation 453

Chi-Square 456

A Caution Regarding Statistical Tests 457

Summary 457



Theory Underlying Statistical Significance 461

The Normal Curve 461

The Standard Normal Curve, Standard Deviation and Area Underthe Curve 462

Area Under the Curve and Probability 463

Hypothesis Testing 463

Endnotes 466

PARTV Applied Topics

Chapter 17 Segmentation 468

How Advertisers Use Segmentation 471

Criteria for Selecting Segments 473

Variables Used in Segmentation 474

Demographic Segmentation 474

Geographic Variables 476

Psychographic Variables 477

Category and/or Brand-Related Attitudes and Behaviors 480

Conducting Original Segmentation Research 482

Explicitly State the Research Question(s) 482

Identify the Range of Classification and DescriptiveVariables 482

Reduce the List of Segmentation and DescriptiveMeasures 484

Sample and Survey the Population 484

If Necessary, Reduce the Data to a Manageable Number ofFactors or Dimensions 485

Use the Classification Variables to Form Segments 485

xvi Contents

Describe Segments Using Descriptive Variables 487

Create a Summary Sheet, Narrative or Persona for Each Segment 487

Evaluate Segments for Communication Priority 491

Syndicated Approaches to Segmentation 491

Psychographic Segmentation: VALS™ 493

Category and Brand Usage Behaviors 497

Geodemographic Segmentation 502


A Typology of Information and Communication TechnologyUsers 503

Generation C 506

Summary 506



Endnotes 512

Chapter 18 Brand Mapping 515

Perceptual Maps 516

What Perceptual Maps Tell Us 516

Constructing a Perceptual Map 518

Perceptual Maps and Advertising Strategy 524

Correspondence Maps 529

Application to Advertising Strategy 530

Brand Concept Maps 531

Elicitation 532 ,

Mapping 532

Aggregation 532

Application to Advertising Decision Making 533

Additional Considerations in the Use of Perceptual,Correspondence, and Concept Maps 537

Perceptual Maps for the Same Brands Often Change AcrossDifferent Consumer Segments 538

Comparing Current and Potential Customers Contributes toStrategic Decision Making 538

Before and after Maps Can Track Advertising Impact 538

Summary 542



Endnotes 545

Contents xvii

Chapter 19 Advertising Testing: Concept and Communications Tests 546

Concept Tests 547

Product and Non-Product Focused Concept Tests 547

Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Concept Test 551

Communication Tests 552

Reasons for Communication Research 552

Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Communication Test 555

Approaches to Data Collection 555

Custom or Syndicated Options 556

Measurement in Message Concept and Communication Tests 556

Introduction: Setting the Stage 557

Show Concept or Execution 567

Spontaneous Initial Reactions 567

Essential Message 567

Reactions to the Message 568

Affective Reactions 568

Message or Execution Specific Issues 569

Attitudinal and Behavioral Impact 569

Analysis of Concept and Communication Test Data 569

Data Summarization 570

Finding Relationships Among Measures 574


Healthy Eating 578

Secondhand Smoke 579

Summary 581



Endnotes 591

Chapter 20 Post-Production Advertising Testing and Optimization 593

Copy Testing Research 594

Copy Testing Television Advertising 594

Evaluating Alternative Copy Testing Methodologies 596

Split-Run Tests 597

Split-Run Test Design 597

Split-Run Test Data Analysis 600

A/B Tests 600

A/B Test Data Analysis 602

xviii Contents

Additional A/B Test Considerations 602

Limitations of A/B Testing 605

Full Factorial Designs 605

Multivariate Testing 608

An E-mail Multivariate Test 608

Advantages and Limitations of Multivariate Testing 610

Campaign Evaluation 612

Considerations in Campaign Evaluation 612


Mapes and Ross Natural Exposure Copy Test 615

National Tobacco Youth Campaign Evaluation 616

Summary 617



Copy Testing from a Legal Perspective 625

Universe Definition and Sample Selection 626

Research Design and Use of Control Groups 627

Questionnaire Design and Question Formats 629

Interviewer Qualifications, Training, and Techniques 630

Data Analysis and Presentation 630

Research Project Administration 631

Endnotes 632

Chapter 21 Reporting Research 635

Characteristics of Good Report Writing 636

Clarity and Conciseness 636

Completeness 638

Coherence 638

Care 638

The Need for Review 639

The Written Research Report 640

Title Page 640

Table of Contents and List of Illustrations/Figures 640

Executive Summary 641

Background 643

Methodology 645

Findings 646

Conclusions 647

Contents xix

Recommendations and Next Steps 647

Appendices 647

The Oral Research Presentation 647

Improving Powerpoint or Similar Slide-Based Presentations 648

The Researcher As Presenter 650

Using Tables and Charts Effectively 651

Considerations for all Tables and Charts 651

Numeric Tables 654

Bar Charts 654

Pie Charts 657

Line Charts 659

Software Options for Chart Creation 600

Special Considerations for Presenting Qualitative Data 661


Summary 663



Endnotes 665

Index 667

Advertising Research - GBV · Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433 Statistical Significance 434...

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