Adapting Human Lifestyles

8/3/2019 Adapting Human Lifestyles

1/7

Adapt ing Human Li festy les for the 21st CenturyGeorge S . HowardU n iver s ity o f No tre D a m e

A n u m b e r o f eco lo g ica l p ro b lem s ( e.g. , g lo b a l wa rm in g ,ozone deplet ion , defores ta t ion , acid ra in) have been iden-t if ied , w hich threaten to reduce the quali ty o f hum an l!fe inth e 2 1 s t cen tu ry . Th ese p ro b lem s a re h u m a n p ro d u ced ,resu l tin g p r im a r i ly f ro m o verp o p u la t io n a n d o verco n su m p -tion . Altera tions in peo ple ' s awareness , a t t i tudes, bel ie fs,a n d b eh a v io r s m a y s t im u la te ch a n g es in th e ir p o l i t i ca l a n decon omic sys tems, which in turn migh t . fos ter the kind o fl i fes tyle change s tha t could mit iga te these ecologica l prob -lems. Psychologis ts can p lay a ro le in help ing ind ividualsa n d sys tem s a d va n ce to wa rd th e g o a l o f b eco m in g a su s -ta inable society: one tha t sa t is f ies i ts current needs withoutjeo p a rd iz in g th e p ro sp ec ts o f fu tu re g en era tio n s .everal human-produced ecological crises maythreaten all people in the not-too-distant future.Among these threats are global warming, ozonedepletion, deforestation, soil poisoning and salination, de-sertification, acid rain, loss of biodiversity, and so forth (cf.

Oskamp, 2000, this issue). It is the domain of physicists,chemists, meteorologists, biologists, agronomists, ecolo-gists, and others to analyze these serious problems. How-ever, all of the looming ecological problems share a com-mon element: They are the result of people appropriatingever greater portions of Earth for human use and thengenerating geometrically increasing amounts of waste thatstress the planet's ecosystems. Psychologists can play arole in reducing these ecological threats that Earth nowfaces by identifying effective strategies to persuade peopleto reduce their birth rates and to adopt more ecologicallyappropriate lifestyles. Changing the wasteful political, eco-nomic, and business systems that currently mold people'sbehavior could lead to lifestyles that support globalsustainability.

Because of humans' central role in causing the comingecological problems, many authors have called into ques-tion the attitudes and lifestyles that have developed duringthe 19th and 20th centuries. Humans might change theircurrent wasteful, consumption-oriented lifestyles and em-bark on courses of cultural evolutionary change (Ornstein& Ehrlich, 1989) in their ways of thinking, valuing, andliving. Of course, as volitional beings, humans are free toignore the warning signs of stressed ecosystems and tochoose to do nothing. However, denying that there is aproblem will not reduce or eliminate the disturbing eco-logical realities. Psychologist s can be instrumental in grap-pling with the initial hurdle of humans' impulses towardescape from (and denial of) impending threats.

C h a n g i n g H u m a n L if es ty le sHistory demonstrates that human attitudes, behaviors, andlifestyles have changed dramatically over time, Humanbeings now tend to average 3.6 offspring per woman. Thatwas not always the case. For example, the birth rate in theUnited States was cut almost in half between 1910 (30.1births per 1,000 people per year) and 1994 (15.3 births per1,000 people per year; A l m a n a c , 1996). Furthermore, cur-rent birth rates are vastly different in different locations,ranging from 11 births per 1,000 people per year in Italy to45 births per 1,000 people per year in Tanzania (Reddy,1994). Extreme social and cultural circumstances highlightthe variability in behavior of which humans are capable.Humans may strive to change their thoughts, actions, life-styles, and ambitions toward the goal of becoming a sus-tainable society--that is, one that satisfies its current needswithout jeopardizing the prospects of future generations.Ecological problems of the 21st century might betractable to both effective human engineering and techno-logical breakthroughs. Recent declines in worldwide cornreserves to a 60-year low ("Record-High Corn Prices,"1996) offer a good example. Although agricultural break-throughs will always offer some help for changing theworldwide food situation, none appear to be in the offing toalleviate the shortage of corn and other grains. However,two areas of human engineering could help mitigate thisfood problem.The first concerns current eating habits. Approxi-mately l0 calories of vegetation are required to produce 1calorie of meat (Ehrlich & Ehrlich, 1990; Hardin, 1993).Thus, if people were to eat less meat, there would be a10-fold (in th eor y- -6 - to 7-fold in actuality) increase in thenumber of vegetable calories available for consumption foreach of the meat calories a person forgoes. This is espe-cially U'ue for corn shortages, because far more co rn isconsumed by livestock than by humans. Some health ex-

Editor's note. Stuart Oskamp developed this Psychology n the PublicForum section.Author's note. This article is based on the presidential address to Divi-sion 24, Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology,at the 104th AnnualConventitm of the American PsychologicalAssociation n Toronto, On-tario, Canada, in August 1996.Correspondence conceming this article should be addressed toGeorge S. Howard, Department of Psychology,Haggar Hall, Universityof Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556-5636. Electronic mail may be sentto [email protected].

May 2000 American PsychologistC o p y r i g h t 2 0 0 0 b y t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , i n c . 0 0 0 3 - 0 6 6 X / 0 0 / $ 5 . 0 0V o h 5 5 , N o . 5 . 5 0 9 - 5 1 5 D O I : 1 0 . 1 0 3 7 / / 0 0 0 3 - 0 6 6 X . 5 5 . 5 . 5 0 9

509


2/7

p e r t s c l a im th a t a d i et c o n s i s t i n g o f l e s s m e a t a n d m o reg ra in s wo u ld , i n f a c t , b e h e a l th i e r fo r Am e r i c a n s .Se c o n d , i f h u m a n s r e d u c e d th e i r fe r t i li t y r at e f ro m 3 .6c h i ld re n p e r wo m a n to 2 .1 c h i ld re n p e r wo m a n , t h e wo r ld -wid e fo o d s i t u a t i o n wo u ld im p ro v e d ra m a t i c a l l y (Eh r l i c h &Ehrl ich , 1990) . Al l o f the b i r th contro l techno logies nee dedto p ro d u c e th i s r e d u c t io n in b i r t h r a t e s a r e a l r e a d y a v a i l -a b l e . Wh a t , t h e n , k e e p s p e o p le f ro m re d u c in g th e i r b i r t hra t e s?T h e p r o b l e m s i n s t e m m i n g p o p u l a ti o n g r o w t h i n l e ss -d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r i e s a r e c o m p le x a n d d a u n t in g , b u t t h e yh a v e b e e n p ro d u c t iv e ly a d d re sse d b y so c i a l sc i e n t i s t s ( c f .Se v e ry , 1 9 9 3 ) . Sp a c e h e re a l l o ws o n ly a f e w o b se rv a t io n s ,c o n f in e d to t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s . Th e Am e r i -c a n p u b l i c h a s o n ly r e c e n t ly b e c o m e a wa re t h a t se v e ra lc h e r i sh e d so c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e u n in t e n t io n a l ly fo s t e re de c o lo g ic a l ly i n a p p ro p r i a t e o u t c o m e s . Fo r e x a m p le , t h e rea re wa y s i n wh ic h th e t a x c o d e , t h e we l f a re sy s t e m , a n dim m ig ra t io n p o l i c i e s h a v e c o n t r ib u t e d t o t h e o v e rp o p u la -t i o n o f th e c o u n t ry ( se e Ha rd in , 1 9 93 ). Th e s e p o l i c i e s ,m i sg u id e d in so m e wa y s , w e re i n s ti t u te d i n r e sp o n s e t o r e a lp ro b le m s a n d we re e n e rg i z e d b y th e g o o d in t e n t io n s o fth e i r c r e a to r s . Th e c u r re n t U.S . t a x c o d e , h o we v e r , m a ye n c o u ra g e l a rg e f a m i l i e s ( t h ro u g h a $ 2 ,2 5 0 t a x e x e m p t io np e r c h i ld p e r y e a r ) . Th e c u r re n t we l f a re sy s t e m i s r e sp o n -s iv e t o t h e n e e d s o f c h i ld re n b o rn i n to p o v e r ty , b u t c r i t i c sc l a i m t h a t th e s y s t e m m i g h t e n c o u r a g e s o m e t o h a v e l a r g erf a m i l i e s so t h e y m a y o b ta in i n c re a se d we l f a re p a y m e n t s .S im i l a r ly , t h e c u r re n t im m ig ra t io n p o l i c y su p p l i e s c h e a pl a b o r t h a t m a y h e l p A m e r i c a n b u s i n e s s e s b e c o m p e t i t i v ein t e rn a t io n a l ly . Ho we v e r , t h a t p o l i c y m a y a l so l e s se n p o p -u l a t i o n p re ssu re s i n o th e r c o u n t r i e s , r e l i e v in g o v e rp o p u la -t i o n wh ic h m ig h t h a v e e n c o u ra g e d th o se c o u n t r i e s t o r e -d u c e t h e i r b i r t h r a t e s so m e wh a t . Ov e r t im e , su c h p o l i c i e sm ig h t u n d e rm in e in d iv id u a l s ' i n t e n t io n s t o d o th e i r p a r t t os t e m g lo b a l o v e rp o p u la t i o n .In format ion Tha t Obscures theN e e d f o r C h a n g eW h e n e x p o s e d t o g l o b a l p o p u l a t i o n t r e n d s ( s e e O s k a m p ,2 0 0 0 ) , m a n y p e o p le e x p re ss su rp r i se t h a t t h e wo r ld p o p u -l a t i o n i s g ro win g so r a p id ly . Th e re a re se v e ra l r e a so n s wh ym a n y p e o p l e l a c k a b a s ic a w a r e n e s s o f d i s t ur b i n g p o p u l a -t i o n t r e n d s . Th e d i s t r i b u t io n o f p a l l i a t i v e i n fo rm a t io n b yso m e in U.S . so c i e ty i s o n e r e a so n . Th e fo l l o win g e x a m p lei l l u s t r a t e s h o w t e c h n ic a l ly c o r re c t i n fo rm a t io n c a n b e u se dto p ro m o te i n c o r re c t c o n c lu s io n s , t h u s r e d u c in g ( r a th e rth a n e n h a n c in g ) p e o p le ' s a wa re n e ss o f e c o lo g ic a l i s su e s .S tu d e n t s i n a n e c o lo g ic a l p sy c h o lo g y c o u r se h e lp e dwr i t e a n e d i to r i a l o n t h e c o n n e c t io n b e twe e n g lo b a l o v e r -p o p u la t i o n a n d d win d l in g g ra in s to c k s t h a t wa s p u b l i sh e din the Chicago Tr ibune (Ho w a rd , 1 9 96 ). A w e e k a f t e r t h ea r t i c l e a p p e a re d , a n a n o n y m o u s l e t t e r a r r i v e d . In s id e we refo u r p ro fe ss io n a l ly p ro d u c e d p a m p h le t s e n t i t l e d W o r l dP opu la t ion F ac t s , To ta l F er t i l i t y R a te s A r e P lung ingW o r l d w i d e , T h e W o r l d C a n F e e d I t s P e o p l e , an d M o r eGr a in on Les s Land . T h e s e p a m p h l e t s w e r e a c c o m p a n i e db y a sc r ib b l e d n o te t h a t s im p ly sa id , "Ch ic k e n L i t t l e - - t h e

sk y i s n o t f a l l i n g . " Me ssa g e s c o n ta in e d in t h e fo u r p a m -p h le t s we re q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t wi th o n e a n o th e r . Th e yc la im e d th a t , i f a n y th in g , so c i e ty o u g h t t o wo r ry a b o u tth e re b e in g to o f e w ra th e r t h a n to o m a n y p e o p le o n Ea r th ,a n d t h a t g a i n s b y m o d e m a g r i c u l t u r e w o u l d b e m o r e t h a na b le t o m e e t g lo b a l fo o d d e m a n d . Of c o u r se , t h e s tu d e n t swe re q u i t e d i s tu rb e d b y th e d i sp a r i t y b e twe e n th e " f a c t s "o f fe re d i n t h e se p a m p h le t s a n d th e i r u n d e r s t a n d in g o ft r e n d s i n p o p u la t i o n a n d in fo o d p ro d u c t io n a n dc o n s u m p t i o n .

A se n io r t o o k i t u p o n h im se l f t o f i n d o u t h o w th ep a m p h le t s ' a u th o r s c o u ld i n t e rp re t t h e wo r ld p o p u la t i o ns i t u a tio n so d i f f e re n t ly t h a n d id E h r l i c h a n d Eh r l i c h (1 9 9 0 ) ,G o r e ( 1 9 9 2 ) , H o w a r d ( 1 9 9 7 ) , a n d O s k a m p ( 2 0 0 0 , F i g u r e3) . The f i rs t few l ines of the T o t a l F e r t i l i ~ R a t e s A r eP l u n g i n g W o r l d w i d e (n o d a t e ) p a m p h le t g iv e t h e f l a v o r o fi t s m e ssa g e :Throughout the world birth rates and total fertility rates areplunging faster and further than ever recorded in human history.Despite all the apocalyptic doomsday predictions of certain over-population propagandists, the fact is that population growth inmany countries are [sic] already below replacement levels and theworld's growth rate is rapidly approaching that figure. (p. 1)By th e e n d o f t h e p a m p h le t , a n a iv e r e a d e r m ig h t b ec o n v in c e d th a t t h e sp e c i e s ' s r e a l t h re a t i s t h i s p lu n g in gfe r t i l i t y p ro b le m ra th e r t h a n o v e rp o p u la t i o n .To a n a ly z e t h e se c l a im s , t h e s tu d e n t o b t a in e d d a t af r o m t h e Wor ld P opu la t ion P r o f i l e ( U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o fCo m m e rc e , 1 9 9 6 ) r e v e a l in g th a t t h e wo r ld p o p u la t i o ng ro wth r a t e h a s d e c l in e d f ro m 2 .0 % p e r y e a r d u r in g th ep e r io d o f 1 9 6 0 -1 9 7 0 , t o 1 .8 % fo r 1 9 7 0 -1 9 8 0 , t o 1 .7% fo r1 9 8 0 -1 9 9 0 . Ho we v e r , t h e a n n u a l i n c re m e n t s i n g lo b a lp o p u la t i o n a c tu a l ly i nc r eas ed d u r in g th a t p e r io d f ro m 6 7m i l l i o n p e r y e a r ( fo r t h e 1 9 6 0 -1 9 7 0 p e r io d ) t o 7 5 m i l l i o np e r y e a r ( fo r t h e 1 9 7 0 -1 9 8 0 p e r io d ) t o 8 2 m i l l i o n p e r y e a r( fo r t h e 1 9 8 0 -1 9 9 0 p e r io d ) .Th e se d a t a sh o w th a t t h e p a m p h le t wa s t e c h n ic a l lycorrec l , in tha t the annua l g r o w t h r a t e h a s b e e n d e c l in in gs in c e a b o u t 1 9 65 . H o w e v e r , t h i s f a c t sh o u ld n o t a l la y f e a r so f o v e rp o p u la t i o n . Re c o rd s fo r i n c re a se s i n t h e wo r ld ' st o t a l h u m a n p o p u la t i o n c o n t in u e t o b e b ro k e n y e a r a f t e ryear , wi th l i t t le prospec t for th is t rend reversing in thefo re se e a b le fu tu re . Th e m a th e m a t i c s o f t h e se a p p a re n t lyin c o m p a t ib l e t ru th s i s r e a l l y q u i t e s im p le . Co m p a re t h ey e a r 1 9 6 5 wi th 1 9 9 7 to se e h o w c o m p a t ib l e d e c l in in ga n n u a l g ro wth r a t e s c a n b e wi th a r a p id ly i n c re a s in g h u m a np o p u la t i o n :In 1 9 6 5 :3 .3 b i l l i o n (p o p u la t i o n ) X .02 1 (g ro wth r a t e )

= 7 0 m i l l i o n p e o p le a n n u a l i n c re a se (b i r th s - d e a th s ) .In 1 9 9 7 :5 .9 b i l l i o n (p o p u la t i o n ) X .0 1 6 5 (g ro wth r a t e )

= 9 2 m i l l i o n p e o p le a n n u a l i n c re a se (b i r th s - d e a th s ) .

5 1 0 M a y 2 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t


3/7

C u l t u ra l E v o lu t io n t o C o m b a tE c o l o g i c a ll y I n a p p r o p r i a t e B e lie fsS e v e r a l r e c e n t b o o k s b y p s y c h o l o g i s t s ( G a r d n e r & S t e r n ,1 99 6; H o w a r d , 1 9 9 7; M c K e n z i e - M o h r & O s k a m p , 1 9 95 ;Win te r , 1 9 96 ) i n c lu d e p ro p o s a l s fo r cu l tu ra l ev o lu t io n .T h e y a r e d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e m o r e e c o l o g i c a l l y v i a b l ewo r ld v i e ws , a t t i t u d es , an d l i f es ty l es . Each b o o k i ll u m in a t esin it s o wn wa y ce r t a in co g n i t i v e t en d e n c i es ( e .g ., f a i l i n g toco n s id er t h e so c i e t a l co s t s o f i n d iv id u a l ac t i o n s , a s s ig n in gm o n eta ry v a lu es t o a l l t h in g s , o v erweig h in g sh o r t - t e rmco n s id era t i o n s i n d ec i s io n m ak in g ) t h a t co n t r ib u t e t o t h en u m e r o u s e c o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s h u m a n i t y n o w f a c e s . B yco n t in u a l ly sh o win g th ese t en d en c i es a t wo rk in h u m ana c t i o n , t h e a u t h o r s m i g h t i m p r o v e r e a d e r s ' a w a r e n e s s o fi s s u e s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s t h a t w o u l d s u g g e s t m o r e e c o l o g i -ca l l y b en ig n a t t i t u d es , ac t i o n s , an d l i f es ty l es .W h e n e x p o s e d t o t e c h n o l o g i e s l i k e c o m p a c t f l o r e s ce n tb u lb s , g eo th erm al h ea t in g an d co o l in g sy s t em s , ex t r em elyfu e l - e f f i c i en t ca r s , an d so fo r th , m an y p eo p le im m ed ia t e lyr e c o g n i z e t h e i r e c o l o g ic a l v a l u e . H o w e v e r , r e s e a r c h r e v e a l sth a t f ew co n su m ers m ak e th e f i n an c i a l sac r i f i ces n ecessa ryto o v erp a y g rea t ly ( i n th e sh o r t ru n ) fo r an eco lo g ica l ly an deco n o m ica l ly b en ef i c i a l ( i n t h e l o n g ru n ) t ech n o lo g y(Ho ward , De lg ad o , Mi l l e r , & Gu b b in s , 1 9 9 3 ; Ho ward ,No eth e , De lg ad o , & F lem in g , i n p ress ) . Th u s , fo r m o s tp e o p l e , m o r e t h a n a s i m p l e c h a n g e i n e c o l o g i c a l a w a r e n e s si s r e q u i r e d . R a t h e r , a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l r e a s s e s s m e n t o fb as i c b e l i e f s an d th in k in g a lg o r i t h m s i s n eed ed . As E l l i s(1 9 9 4 ) h as n o t ed , b e l i ev in g i r r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t s can m ak eo n e ' s p sy ch o lo g ica l l i f e m i se rab l e . S im i l a r ly , t h e re a r em a n y b e l i e f s t h a t m i g h t p r o v e e c o l o g i c a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e t oth e wo r ld i n t h e n ex t cen tu ry .S c h w a r t z ( 1 9 8 6 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h r e e i m p o r t a n tc o n t e m p o r a ry b e l i e f s y s t e m s - - r a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c m a n t h e-o r y , b e h a v i o r a l p s y c h o l o g y , a n d s o c i o b i o l o g y - - r e p r e s e n ts l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s o n a co m m o n th em e. Each ap p l i es t h es a m e b a s i c i d e a t o a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e n t d o m a i n o f h u m a nac t io n . F i r s t , i n m o s t co n tem p o rary eco n o m ic t h eo r i es ,u t i l i t y m ax im iza t io n i s as su m ed to d r iv e h u m an ac t io n s(Her rn s t e in , 1 9 9 0 ) . S im i l a r ly , h u m an ac t io n i s u n d er s to o db y s o m e b e h a v i o r a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s a s p e o p l e ' s a t t e m p t s t om a x i m i z e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g p u n i s h m e n t s(Sch war t z , 1 9 8 6 ) . F in a l ly , i n so c io b io lo g y , ac t i o n s a reth o u g h t t o b e t h e r esu l t o f a t t em p t s b y "se l f i sh g en es" t om a x i m i z e t h e n u m b e r o f t h e i r k in d t h a t m a k e t h e i r w a y i n t oth e n ex t g en era t i o n ' s g en e p o o l (Dawk in s , 1 9 8 9 ) .Her rn s t e in (1 9 9 0 ) e m p h as i z ed th a t b e l i e f in t h e m a x -i m i z a t i o n v i s i o n o f h u m a n a c t i o n n o w r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o s tb a s i c , u n e x a m i n e d a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t h u m a n n a t u r e :No t just econom ics, but all the disciplines dea ling with behavior,from political philosophy to behavioral biology, rely increasinglyon the idea that humans and other organisms tend to maximizeutili ty, as formalized in modern economic theory . . . . The scat-tered dissenters to the theory are often viewed as just t ha t- -scattered and mere dissenters to an orthodoxy almost as en-trenched as a religious dogma. (p. 356)

T h e b e h a v i o r m a x i m i z a t i o n t h e m e r e p r e s e n t s a v i s i o n o fh u m a n n a t u r e t h a t w i l l s p a w n m a n y e c o l o g i c a l l y d e s t r u c -t i v e b e l i e f s fo r t h e 2 1 s t cen tu ry . Th e Ap p en d ix p resen t sn in e "k i l l e r t h o u g h t s" f ro m Ho ward (1 9 9 7 ) t h a t r esu l t f ro mt h e c u r re n t m a x i m i z a t i o n a n d o p t i m i z a t i o n v i e w o f h u m a nn a tu re . Becau se t h e b e l i e f s sk e t ch ed in t h e Ap p en d ix wi l ll ead t o o v erco n su m p t io n b y a f f l u en t p eo p le ( an d n a t io n s ) ,t h e y t h u s h a v e b e c o m e t o x i c . N o t i c e t h a t w h e n t h e s et h o u g h t s d e v e l o p e d , i n t h e u n d e r p o p u l a t e d w o r l d o f t h e1 9 t h c e n t u r y , t h e y w e r e q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h a t w o r l do f 1 t o 1 .5 b i ll i o n p e o p l e ( w h e r e t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u -t io n w a s j u s t g a i n i n g m o m e n t u m ) . H o w e v e r , t h e set h o u g h t s w i l l b e q u i t e d a n g e r o u s f o r t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y ( o f8 t o 2 0 b i l l i o n p e o p l e ) , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y o v e r s t r e s s e dwas t e s in k s ( e .g . , p o l lu t ed a i r , r i v e r s , o cean s , l an d f i l l s )a n d c r a s h i n g e c o s y s t e m s .O n e e x a m p l e o f a n e c o l o g i c a l l y i n a p p ro p r i a t e b e l i e f is" th e fu tu re i s t o b e d i sco u n ted . " In case a f t e r case wh ereeco sy s t em s a re b e in g s t r es sed , t h e re i s ex t r av ag an t p resen tco n su m p t io n wi th l i t t l e o r n o r eg ard fo r t h e b u i ld u p o fw a s t e s t h a t w i l l j e o p a r d i z e e v e r y o n e ' s f u t u r e ( D u r n i n g ,1 9 9 2 ) . Eco n o m is t s v i ew each p er so n as h av in g a s u b j e c t i v ed i s c o u n t r a t e . T h e f o l lo w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u st r a te h o w s u b -j ec t i v e d i sco u n t r a t es a r e ca l cu l a t ed . Su p p o se I t o ld y o uth a t y o u h av e ju s t wo n $ 1 m i l l i o n t h a t I wi l l p ay to y o u asa l u m p s u m 1 0 y e a r s f r o m n o w . Y o u a r e h a p p y , u n le s s y o uh eav i ly d i sco u n t t h e fu tu re ( i .e . , y o u h av e a h ig h su b jec t iv ed i sco u n t r a t e ) . Peo p le wi th h ig h su b jec t iv e d i sco u n t r a t esm ig h t ac tu a l ly h av e a n eg a t iv e r eac t io n t o h av in g to wai t 1 0y ear s t o g e t t h e i r m o n ey th a t i s s t ro n g er t h an th e i r p o s i t i v ereac t io n t o t h e win d fa l l .Im ag in e t h a t I o f f e red t o b lu n t y o u r n eg a t iv e r eac t io nto h av in g to wai t ( i . e ., t o d e l ay g ra t i f ica t i o n ) b y o f f e r in g tog iv e y o n $ 9 0 0 ,0 0 0 n o w in li eu o f y o u r $1 m i l l i o n a d ecad ef r o m n o w . W o u l d y o u t a k e m y o f f e r ? M o s t p e o p l e w o u l dju m p a t t h e o f f e r , wh ich su g g es t s t h a t t h ey h av e a su b j ec -t i v e d i sco u n t r a t e o f I% o r h ig h er ( t h ey wo u ld t ak e 1 0 %less m o n ey to g e t i t l 0 y ear s ea r l i e r ) . Wo u ld y o u t ak e$ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 n o w ? M a n y p e o p l e w o u l d d o s o . T h e i r s u b j e c ti v ed i s c o u n t r a t e w o u l d b e 7 % o r h i g h e r ( b e c a u s e c o m p o u n d -in g $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 a t t h a t r a t e wo u ld r each $ 1 m i l l i o n i n 1 0y ear s ) . M o n ey h a s a u t i l it y o f u se fo r p eo p le . I f o n eb e l i e v e s h e o r s h e c a n m a k e m o r e m o n e y b y i n v e s t i n g a ni m m e d i a t e p a y m e n t ( e v e n t h ou g h m u c h o f t h a t g a in w i l l b elo s t t o t ax es ) , o n e m ig h t r easo n ab ly ad o p t a h ig h er su b j ec -t i v e d i sco u n t r a t e .Fo r eco lo g i s t s , p r esen t co n su m p t io n ( r a th er t h anp resen t i n v es tm en t ) i s t h e co n cern b ecau se i t ea t s i n to( r a th er t h an ad d s t o ) fu tu re v a lu es ( e .g . , sh o u ld p eo p lec o n s u m e o i l n o w o r c o n s e r v e i t f o r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s ? ) .Giv en th is k in d o f ch o ice , sm al l su b j ec t i v e d i sco u n t r a t esa re g en era l l y p re fe r r ed . In s i t u a t i o n s wh ere p resen t i n v es t -m en t i s p i t t ed ag a in s t fu tu re v a lu e , t h e i n d iv id u a l b o thb ear s t h e co s t s o f n o t co n su m in g ( e .g . , t h e $ 9 0 0 ,0 0 0 ) im -m ed ia t e ly an d a l so r eap s t h e fu tu re b en ef i t s . Ho wev er , i ncases wh ere p resen t co n su m p t io n i s p i t t ed ag a in s t fu tu reb en ef i t s, t h e i n d iv id u a l r eap s t h e b en e f i t s o f p resen t co n -su m p t io n ( e .g . , p u rch as in g an d d r iv in g a g as -g u zz l in g au -

M a y 2 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t 5 11


4/7

t o m o b i l e ) , w h e r e a s t h e f u t u r e c o s t s ( e . g . , l e s s o i l a v a i l a b l ef o r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s , p o l l u t i o n p r o b l e m s ) a r e b o r n e b ys o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l o r b y f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s ( E h r l i c h &E h r l i c h , 1 9 9 1 ; H a r d i n , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s m a k ep r e s e n t c o n s u m p t i o n a t e n a c io u s a d v e r s a r y f o r p s y c h o l o -g i s t s t o a t t e m p t t o r e d u c e .C u r r e n t r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t p e o p l e ' s s u b j e c t i v e d i s -c o u n t r a t e s t y p i c a l l y r u n f r o m 5 % t o 1 5 % ( N o e t h e , 1 9 9 6 ) .P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , h i g h e r s u b j e c ti v e d i s c o u n t r a t e ss u g g e s t o n e ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o g i v e u p p l e a s u r a b l e e v e n t s i nt h e f u t u r e t o g r a t i f y o n e s e l f i n t h e p r e s e n t o r o n e ' s w i l li n g -n e s s t o e n d u r e g r e a t e r p u n i s h m e n t i n t h e f u t u r e ( b y r e p a y -i n g p r i n c i p l e p l u s i n t e r e s t ) t o e s c a p e f r o m a p r e s e n t p r o b -l e m . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , p e o p l e ( c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d c o u n t r i e sa l s o ) w h o a r e i n d e b t h a v e m u c h h i g h e r s u b j e c ti v e d i s c o u n tr a t e s t h a n d o s o l v e n t p e o p l e , c o r p o r a t i o n s , a n d n a t i o n s ,b e c a u s e d e b t o r s ( a s o p p o s e d t o n e t c r e d i to r s ) a r e m o r el i k e l y t o b e d e s p e r a t e f o r m o n e y i n t h e p r e s e n t . T h e l a t e s tt r ap f o r d e s p e ra t e p e o p l e i s t h e p a y d a y l o a n c o m p a n y ( o rt h e m o n e y s to r e ), w h e r e p e o p l e w i t h a j o b a n d a c h e c k i n ga c c o u n t c a n e a s i l y g e t s h o r t -t e r m l o a n s ( o f a f e w w e e k s ) o fa f e w h u n d r e d d o l l a r s . I f o n e d o e s t h e m a t h o f t h e s et r a n s a c t i o n s , t h e y t y p i c a l l y r e v e a l s u b j e c t i v e d i s c o u n t r a t e s( a n d a n n u a l i n t e r e s t r a t e s a ls o ) f r o m 7 0 0 % t o 1 , 0 0 0 % . H o wd o s u c h p r a c t i c e s e s c a p e U . S . u s u r y l a w s ? T e c h n i c a l l y , n oi n t e r e s t i s c h a r g e d , b u t t h e " t r a n s a c t i o n c o s t s " w o u l d t r a n s -l a te i n t o o b s c e n e l y h i g h i n t e r e s t r a te s i f th e y w e r e l a b e l e da s i n t e r e st ( K i l b o m , 1 9 9 9 ) .P r e s c i e n t p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e l o n g r e c o g n i z e d t h e s e -d u c t i v e n e s s o f th e c u r r e n t m a t e r i a l is t a n d c o n s u m e r i s t s o -c i e t y , a n d t h e y h a v e w a r n e d u s a g a i n s t i t s c o r r u p t i n g i n f l u -e n c e s . F o r i n s t a n c e ,The capitalist system, in order to sell i ts plethora o f man ufactu redgoods , has had to enli s t the help o f the mo t ivat ion researcher andthe Madison Avenue ad agency to get r id of the excess ive andever growing pi le of manufactured go ods not rea l ly needed in oursocie ty . To encourage consumpt ion in the absence of rea l needand to associate status and self-esteem with wasteful consump-tion, i t has been necessary to encourage relatively mindless im-pulse buy ing and self-gratification. By now , we hav e raised sev-eral generation s of people on endless an d repetit ive exhortationsthat i t is all right to yield to impulse, to b uy w ithout guilt , and toconsum e wi thout shame. Ins ta l lment buying ma y have been thefatal blow to the self-denial of the Protestant ethic. (Albee, 1977,p. 150)M a d i s o n A v e n u e ' s a d v e r t i s e m e n t p r o p a g a n d a , u r g i n g p e o -p l e t o a d o p t w a s t e f u l , c o n s u m p t i o n - o r i e n t e d l i f e s t y l e s , r e p -r e s e n t s a n i m p o r t a n t e c o l o g i c a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e a g a i n s tw h i c h c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s n e e d t o b e i n o c u l a t e d . C o n t r a r yt o t h e c o n s u m e r i s t v i s i o n o f l if e , w a s t e fu l o v e r c o n s u m p -t i o n , u n b r i d l e d g r e e d , a n d s h o r t - t e r m m y o p i a s h o u l d b eu n d e r s t o o d a s d e s t r u c t i v e v i c e s .The Challenge of ReengineeringW asteful SystemsO v e r t i m e , p e o p l e h a v e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d w a s t e f u l a n d d e -s t r u c t i v e l i f e s t y l e s b y c r e a t i n g s y s t e m s ( e . g . , b u s i n e s s , p o -

l i t i c a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , l e g a l ) t h a t v i r t u a l l y d e m a n d t h a t i n d i -v i d u a l s s t r e s s t h e i r e c o s y s t e m s . I t m a y b e d i f f i c u l t f o r m a n yr e a d e r s t o a p p r e c i a t e a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t s u c h b a s i c b e l i e f sa s th e v a l u e o f t h e c u r r e n t s o - c a l l e d " f r e e m a r k e t " c a p i t a l-i s m ( H o w a r d , 1 9 9 7 ). T o c h a n g e h u m a n a t ti tu d e s a n d b e -h a v i o r s i n r a d i c a l w a y s , t h e s y s t e m s t h a t s e r v e t o t r a i n a n dt o m a i n t a i n d a i l y b e h a v i o r s n e e d t o b e r e e n g i n e e r e d . A g a i n ,m i s l e a d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n m a y m o v e p e o p l e i n t h e w r o n gd i r e c t i o n . C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a r t l i n g c l a i m m a d e b yPasse l l ( 1996) :Substitute 500,0 00 electric cars for the same n um ber of newgasol ine-powered ones in Los Angeles- -a p laus ible number fort he yea r 2010- - and w ha t happens? N o t m uch . Peak l eve l s o fozon e are reduced, but only f rom 2 00 par ts p er b il lion to 199. Thecurrent safe level is estimated to be 120 paris per bill ion, an d newresearch suggests that the target should be lowered to around 70parts per bill ion to meet the law's requirement to eliminate allhealth r i sk . . . The fact i s, we 'd not get any benefi t f rom elect riccars. (p. D2)T h i s r e m a r k a b l e c o n c l u s i o n i s b a s e d o n r e s e a r c h b y L a v e ,R u s s e l l , H e n d r i c k s o n , a n d M c M i c h a e l ( 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e c l a i mt h a t o z o n e l e v e l s w o u l d b e r e d u c e d f r o m 2 0 0 t o 1 9 9 p a r tsp e r b i l l io n i s t r u e o n l y i f o n e a s s u m e s t h a t a ll o f L o sA n g e l e s ' s a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r i c i t y w i l l b e p r o d u c e d b y d i r t ys o u r c e s ( f r o m n a t u r a l g a s a n d c o a l ) , w h i c h w a s t h e p r o c e -d u r e u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p r o j e c t e d o z o n e f i g u r e o f 1 9 9 .T h u s , t h e s o u r c e o f p o ll u t io n w o u l d s i m p l y b e m o v e d f r o mt a i lp i p e s t o e l e c t r i c i t y - g e n e r a t i n g p l a n t s . H o w e v e r , L o s A n -g e l e s d o e s n o t p r o d u c e e l e c t r i c i t y s o l e l y f r o m p o l l u t i n gs o u r c e s : W i n d , p h o t o v o l t a i c , g e o t h e r m a l , a n d h y d r o e l e c t r i cs o u r c e s a r e a l r e a d y b e i n g u s e d . W i t h e v e r y p a s s i n g y e a r ,m o r e a n d m o r e o f L o s A n g e l e s ' e l e c tr i c it y w i l l b e p r o d u c e db y n o n p o l l u t i n g m e t h o d s ( H e n d e r s o n , 1 9 8 1 ). I n f a c t , o v e rt i m e t h e e s t i m a t e o f 1 9 9 p a r t s o f o z o n e p e r b i l l io n m a d e b yL a v e e t a l . w i l l b e m o r e m i s l e a d i n g t h a n i t a l r e a d y i s .

L a v e e t a l . ' s ( 1 9 9 6 ) s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t e x p e r i m e n t r e p -r e s e n t e d a f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i s i n g e n u o u s a r g u m e n t f r o m t h es t a r t . H o w e v e r , i t i s a n e x e r c i s e t h a t s h e d s l i g h t o n t h ep r o b l e m s o f m a k i n g c h a n g e s w i t h i n w a s t e f u l s y s t e m s . I na d d i t i o n t o u s i n g s o m e h i g h l y s u s p e c t a s s u m p t i o n s a n df a c t s ( a s n o t e d a b o v e ) , L a v e e t a l . a s k e d w h a t w o u l dh a p p e n i f o n e p u t a s u p e r - e f f i c ie n t c o m p o n e n t ( e l e c t r icc a r s ) i n t o a g h a s t l y , i n e f f i c i e n t e n e r g y - p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m( t h e c u r r e n t h y d r o c a r b o n - b a s e d e l e c t r i c i t y p r o d u c t i o nm e t h o d s ) a n d t h e n c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e i m m e d i a t e r e s u l t sw o u l d b e d i s a p p o i n t i n g . T h a t i s l i k e a s k i n g w h a t e f f i c i e n -c i es w o u l d b e o b t a i n e d i f o n e p u t a m o d e m , h i g h p e r f o r -m a n c e c a r b u r e t o r i n to a M o d e l T F o r d . I f th e c a r w o u l d r u na t a l l , i t s u r e l y w o u l d n o t s h o w g r e a t e f f i c i e n c i e s . T h e r e s to f a M o d e l T ' s e n g i n e i s n o t e q u ip p e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o ft h e n e w c a r b u r e t o r ' s p e r f o r m a n c e e f f i c i e n c i e s . R a t h e r t h a nr e c o g n i z i n g t h a t s o c i e t y c a n n o t t o t a l l y r e d e s i g n a n i n e f f i -c i e n t , p o l l u t i n g e n e r g y s y s t e m o v e r n i g h t a n d r e p l a c e i t w i t ha n e f f i c i e n t , n o n p o l l u t i n g s y s t e m , L a v e e t a l . i n c o r r e c t l yc o n c l u d e d t h a t s o c i e t y s h o u l d n o t c h a n g e t o u s i n g e l e c t r i cc a rs . M a s s i v e c h a n g e s m a y n e e d t o b e u n d e r t a k e n p i e c e -m e a l o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t im e . T h e e f f i c i e n c i e s o f a n y o n ec o m p o n e n t m a y o n l y b e f u l l y r e a l i z e d a f t e r o t h e r p a r t s o f

5 1 2 M a y 2 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t


5/7

t h e s y s t e m a l s o h a v e b e e n i m p r o v e d . H o w e v e r , i t i s i m p o r -t a n t t o a d o p t l o n g - r a n g e t i m e f r a m e s ( i . e . , n o t t o d i s c o u n tt h e f u t u r e ) w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g s u c h c r u c i a l i s s u e s . F o r e x -a m p l e , i f L o s A n g e l e s o b t a i n e d a ll o f i ts e l e c t r i c it y f r o mless p o l lu t in g r en ew ab le so u rces ( e . g . , su n l ig h t , w in d , t i d es ,g e o t h e r m a l e n e r g y ) , t h e n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o o z o n e b y5 0 0 , 0 0 0 e l e c t r i c a u t o m o b i l e s i n L a v e e t a l . ' s e x a m p l ew o u l d h a v e b e e n r o u g h l y z e r o !A f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d r e e n g i n e e r i n g t h e w a s t e f u l p o w e rg e n e r a t i o n s y s t e m , w h i c h i s c u r r e n t l y i n c a p a b l e o f a d e -q u a t e l y t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f e le c t r i c c a r s , m i g h t b e t oin i t ia te a g r e e n t a x ( H a w k i n , 1 9 9 3) . A g r e e n t a x w o u l d g i v en o n p o l l u t i n g s o u r c e s o f e l e c t r i c i ty a c h a n c e t o g a i n ag r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f th e e l e c t r i c i ty g e n e r a t i o n m a r k e t .G r e e n t a x e s a r e u s e d o n l y w h e n p o l l u t i n g a n d n o n p o l l u t i n gm a r k e t c h o i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e ( e . g . , b o t h c o m p a c t f l u o r e s -c e n t a n d i n c a n d e s c e n t b u l b s ) . R a t h e r t h a n c o a r s e l y l a b e l i n gs o m e e n e r g y s o u r c e s a s " g o o d " a n d o t h e r s a s " b a d , " i n t h ec a s e o f e l e c t r i c it y g e n e r a t i o n a m o r e p r e c i s e t a i l o r i n g o ft a x e s c o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d . A p a n e l o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l e x -p e r t s m i g h t r a n k t h e v a r i o u s f u e l s o u r c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t om a n y f a c t o r s ( e .g . , a m o u n t a n d t y p e s o f p o l l u ta n t s , d o m e s -t i c a l l y a v a i l a b l e v s . i m p o r t e d , r e n e w a b l e v s . n o n r e n e w -a b l e ), y i e l d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e t i c a l r a n k i n g o f t h eu n d e s i r a b i l i ty o f e a c h f u e l s o u r c e :S o u r c e U n d e s i r a b i l i t y : C o a l = O i l > N a t u r a l g a s

> H y d r o > S o l a r = W i n d = G e o t h e r m a lM a x i m u m g r e e n t a x: 1 0 0 % = 1 0 0 % > 5 0 %

> 2 5 % > 0 % = 0 % = 0 % .T h e l o w e r l i n e i n di c a te s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s o m e m a x i m u ml e v e l o f g r e e n t a x ( e .g . , $ 0 . 0 3 p e r k i l o w a t t h o u r o f e l e c tr i c -i t y g e n e r a t e d ) t o b e p l a c e d o n e a c h e n e r g y s o u r c e ( n a m e da b o v e ) f o r p r o d u c i n g e l e c t r i c i t y . T h u s , t h e p r i c e o f n o n r e -n e w a b l e , p o l l u t i n g , i m p o r t e d f u e l s o u r c e s w o u l d i n c r e a s ed r a m a t i c a l l y . C o n v e r s e l y , p e o p l e u s i n g r e n e w a b l e , n o n p o l -l u t i n g , d o m e s t i c f u e l s o u r c e s w o u l d p a y n o g r e e n t a x . S u c ht a x e s c o u l d b e p h a s e d i n o v e r m a n y y e a r s , a n d t h e t r i l l i o n so f d o l la r s r a i s e d m i g h t b e u s e d t o l o w e r f e d e r a l i n c o m e t a xr a t e s ( H a w k i n ' s , 1 9 9 3 , s u g g e s t e d u s e ) , t o r e d u c e t h e n a -t i o n a l d e b t , o r t o p r o v i d e g r a n t s t o d e v e l o p m o r e e n e r g y -e f f i c i e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s . G r e e n t a x e s a r e v e r y v e r s a t i l e t o o l sa n d r e p r e s e n t o n e o f m a n y w a y s t h a t c h a n g e s i n th e U . S .t a x s y s t e m c o u l d f a c i l i t a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e f o r m s . A s a n -o t h e r e x a m p l e , t h e p r o b l e m o f o z o n e d e p l e t io n ( c a u s e d b yc h l o r o f lu o r o c a r b o n s ) m i g h t h a v e b e e n s o l v e d b y i m p o s i n gg r e e n t a x e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e p h a s e d - i n b a n s t h a t w e r e u s e d .S im i l a r ly , e s t ab l i sh in g a g reen t ax o n th e sa l e o f i n e f f i c i en tg a s o l i n e - p o w e r e d a u t o m o b i l e s c o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e r a t i o o ff u e l - e f f i c i e n t t o f u e l - i n e f f i c i e n t c a r s o n U . S . h i g h w a y s .S o m e m i g h t o b j e c t t h a t g r e e n t a x e s r e p r e s e n t u n w e l -c o m e i n t r u s i o n s i n t o t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e f re e m a r k e t p l a c e .M a n y a u t h o r i t i e s ( e .g . , H a r d i n , 1 9 9 3 ; H e n d e r s o n , 1 9 8 1 ;H o w a r d , 1 9 9 7 ) h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t m a r k e t s a r e n o tf r e e a n d p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n i n g p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e n o t a l l o f

t h e r e al c o s t s o f v a r i o u s g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s a r e i n c l u d e d i nt h e i r m a r k e t p r i c e s . G r e e n t a x e s w o u l d a l l o w a d d i t i o n a l ,r e a l c o s t s ( e .g . , th e c o s t s o f e m i t t i n g g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s ,p r o d u c i n g a c i d r a i n , d e p l e t i n g n o n r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e s ,d e s t r o y i n g n a t u r a l h a b i t a t s ) t o b e e n t e r e d i n t o m a r k e tp r i c e s . W h e r e a s m a n y o f t h e d e s tr u c t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s o fb u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s a r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g t r e a t e d a s e x t e r n a l i -t i e s ( i . e . , f ac to r s t h a t can b e i g n o red ) , g r een t ax es w o u ldi n t e r n a l i z e t h e s e e x t e r n a l i t i e s a n d t h u s w o u l d p r o d u c e am o r e c o m p l e t e f r e e m a r k e t t h a t w o u l d b e t t e r p r o t e c t t h ee n v i r o n m e n t .T h e r e n e w a b l e , e f f i c i e n t , a n d n o n p o l l u t i n g t e c h n o l o -g i e s t h a t w i l l d o m i n a t e t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y a r e a t a d i s a d v a n -t a g e i n a m a r k e t p l a c e t h a t w i l l n o t c h a r g e i n e f f i c i e n t , p o l -l u t in g , n o n r e n e w a b l e c o m p e t i t o r s f o r t h e i r n e g a t i v e i m -p a c t s . E c o n o m i s t s s h o u l d d e l i n e a t e t h e t o t a l c o s t s ( b yi n c l u d i n g a l l i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s ) o f t h e c u r r e n t s y s t e m s ,t h e r e b y c h a n g i n g t h e h a b i t o f 2 0 t h c e n t u r y e c o n o m i s t s o fe x t e r n a l i z i n g t h e r e a l e c o l o g i c a l c o s t s o f p r o d u c i n g a n dd i s p o s i n g o f p r o d u c t s ( H a r d i n , 1 9 9 3 ; H a w k i n , 1 9 9 3 ; H e n -d e r s o n , 1 9 8 1) . C i t iz e n s m i g h t e n d o r s e g r e e n t a x e s a s a w a yo f p r o t e c t i n g t h e ir e n v i r o n m e n t a n d a l s o r a i s i n g r e v e n u e s .M a n y p e o p l e a r e n o w r e p u l s e d b y t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a ld e s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c e d b y t h e c u r r e n t b u s i n e s s , e c o n o m i c ,an d p o l i t i ca l sy s t em s . S t i l l , l i t t l e so c i e t a l ch an g e seem s tob e o c c u r r i n g . P e r h a p s t h i s i s b e c a u s e p e o p l e ' s e c o l o g i c a l l yap p ro p r i a t e a t t i t u d es , b e l i e f s , an d d ream s a re n o t y e t d e -v e l o p e d e n o u g h t o m o t i v a t e t h e m t o c h a n g e t h e s y s t e m s(e . g . , eco n o m ic , p o l i t i ca l , so c i a l , l eg a l ) i n w ay s th a t w i l lt h e n a l t e r t h e i r e c o l o g i c a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e l i f e s t y l e s . M y r e -c e n l , u n s u c c e s s f u l e x p e r i e n c e i n t r y i n g t o b l o c k t h e r e p e a lo f t h e n a t i o n ' s 4 . 3 c e n t g a s t a x w a s i n s t r u c ti v e . A f t e rh e a r i n g o f th e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t a x a n d e c o l o g i c a li s s u e s , m a n y c o l l e a g u e s a n d s t u d e n t s g a v e t h e i r w h o l e -h e a r t e d s u p p o r t t o m y c a u s e . O n c e a w a r e o f i ss u e s , m o s tp e o p l e w i l l d o t h e ir b e s t t o s u p p o r t a s y s t e m ( a g r e e n t a x i nt h i s c a s e ) t h a t h e l p s o t h e r s b e h a v e a p p r o p r i a t e l y . H o w e v e r ,i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o e v e n u n d e r s t a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a li m p a c t t h a t p o li t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c c h o i c e s a n d p o l i c i e s w i l lp r o d u c e ( H o w a r d , 1 9 9 7) . I t a p p e a r s t h a t m o r e s e l f - c h a n g eb y e a c h p e r s o n i s r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e t h e e n o r m o u sc h a n g e s n e c e s s a r y t o c h a r t a s u s t a i n a b le c o u r s e f o r t h ew o r l d . B y s u p p o r t i n g l i k e - m i n d e d p e o p l e a n d p o l i c i e s ,p s y c h o l o g i s t s c a n n u r t u r e t h e c o l l e c t i v e d r e a m o f a h u m a nn a t u r e a n d a s o c i e t y t h a t c a n l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h t h e m a n yo t h e r b i o l o g i c a l s p e c i e s t h a t m a k e u p t h e w e b o f li f e(W i l so n , 1 9 9 2 ) .REFERENCESAlbee, G W. (1977). The Protestant ethic, sex and psychothera py.A m e r -

i can P~ycho log i s t . 32 , 150-161.A l m a n a c : A t l a s & y e a r b o o k . (1996). Boston: Houghton M ifflin.Dawkins. R. (1989). T h e s e l f i s h g e n e . New York: Oxford UniversityPress.Durning, A. T. (1992). H o w m u c h i s e n o u g h ? T h e c o n s u m e r s o c ie t y a n dthe . f u ture (~f t he ear th . New Y ork: Norton.Ehrlich, P. R., & Ehrlich, A. H. (1990). T h e p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o s i o n . Ne wYork: Simon & Schuster.

M a y 2 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t 5 1 3


6/7

E h r l i c h , P . R . , & E h r l i c h , A . H . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . H e a l i n g t h e p l a n e t . R e a d i n g , M A :A d d i s o n - W e s l e y .E l l i s , A . (1994) . R e a s o n a n d e m o t i o n i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y. N e w Y o r k : C a r o l .G a r d n e r , G . T . , & S t e r n , P . C . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . E n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a n dh u m a n b e h a v i o r . B o s t o n : A l l y n & B a c o n .

G o r e , A . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . E a r t h i n t h e b a l a n c e : E c o l o g y a n d t h e h u m a n s p i r it . N e wY o r k : P e n g u i n .H a r d i n , G . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . L i v i n g w i t h i n l i m i ts : E c o l o g y , e c o n o m i c s , a n d p o p u -la t ion taboos . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .H a w k i n , P . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e e c o l o g y o f c o m m e r c e . N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r C o l l i n s .

H e n d e r s o n , H . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e s o l a r a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e e c o -n o m i c s a g e . G a r d e n C i t y , N Y : A n c h o r / D o u b l e d a y .

H e r r n s t e i n , R . J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . R a t i o n a l c h o i c e t h e o r y : N e c e s s a r y b u t n o t s u f -f i c i en t . A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t . 4 5 , 3 5 6 - 3 6 7 .H o w a r d , G . S . ( 1 9 9 6 , A p r i l 1 3 ) . F o o d c a n ' t k e e p p a c e w i t h p o p u l a t i o n .

C h i c a g o T r i b u n e , p. 20.H o w a r d , G . S . ( 1 9 9 7 ) . E c o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g y : C r e a t i n g a m o r e e a r t h -f r i e n d l y h u m a n n a t u r e . N o t r e D a m e , I N : U n i v e r s i ty o f N o tr e D a m eP r e s s .H o w a r d , G . S . , D e l g a d o , E . , M i l l e r, D . , & G u b b i n s , S . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . T r a n s f o r m -i n g v a l u e s i n t o a c t io n s : E c o l o g i c a l p r e s e r v a t i o n t h r o u g h e n e r g y c o n s e r -v a t i o n . C o u n s e l in g P s y c h o l o g is t , 2 1 , 5 8 1 - 5 9 5 .H o w a r d , G . S . , N o e t h e , J . B . , D e l g a d o , E . A . , & F l e m i n g , K . J . ( i n p r e s s ) .W h y d o w e s t r e ss o u t" p l a n e t ' s e c o s y s t e m s t h ro u g h o v e r c o n s u m p t i o n ?H u m a n i s t i c P s y c h o l o g i s t .L a v e , L . , R u s s e l l , A . G . , H e n d r i c k s o n , C . T . , & M c M i c h a e l , F . C . ( 1 9 9 6 ) .B a t t e r y - p o w e r e d v e h i c l e s : O z o n e r e d u c t i o n v e r s u s l e a d d i s c h a r g e s .E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y , 3 0 , 4 0 2 - 4 0 7 .

K i l b o r n , P . T . ( 1 9 9 9 , J u n e 1 6 ) . P a y d a y l o a n s d r a w i n g m a n y i n t o a w o r l do f o n e r o u s f e e s . T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s, p . A 1 .

M c K e n z i e - M o h r , D . , & O s k a m p , S . ( E d s . ) . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . P s y c h o l o g y a n d t h ep r o m o t i o n o f a s u s t a i n a b l e f u t u r e [ S p e c i a l i s s u e ] . J o u r n a l o f S o c i a ll s~ues , 5(4).N o e t h e , J . B . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . A p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t o a v o i d a n c e b e h a v i o r i nthe use o f h igh -e f f i c i ency l i gh t ing . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ,U n i v e r s i ty o f N o tr e D a m e , N o t r e D a m e , I N .O r n s t e i n . R . , & E h r l i c h , P . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . N e w w o r l d , n e w m i n d . N e w Y o r k :D o u b l e d a y .O s k a m p , S . ( 2 0 0 0 ). A s u s t ai n a b l e fu t u r e f o r h u m a n i t y ? H o w c a n p s y c h o l -ogy he lp '? A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t , 5 5 , 4 9 6 - 5 0 8 .

P a s s e l l , P . ( 1 9 9 6 , A u g u s t 2 9 ) . A n o t h e r a c c e p t e d t r u t h u n d e r f ir e : E l e c t ri cc a r s - c l e a n e r a i r . T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s , p . D2 .R e c o r d - h i g h c o r n p r i c e s a d d t o f e a r o f s h o r t a g e s . ( 1 9 9 6 , M a r c h 3 0 ) .

C h i c a g o T r i b u n e , Sect . 2 , p . 1 .Reddy , M. A . (Ed .) . (1994) . S t a t i s ti c a l a b s t r a c t o f t h e w o r l d . N e w Y o r k :G a l e R e s e a r c h .S c h w a r t z , B . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e b a t t l e f o r h u m a n n a t u r e . N e w Y o r k : N o r t o n .

Severy , L . J . (Ed .) . (1993) . A d v a n c e s i n p o p u l a t i o n : P s y c h o s o c i a l p e r -s p e c t i v e s ( V o l . 1 ) . L o n d o n , E n g l a n d : K i n g s l e y .

T o t a l f e r t i l i t y r a t e s a r e p l u n g i n g w o r l d w i d e [ P a m p h l e t ] . ( N o d a t e ) . B a l -t i m o r e : P o p u l a t i o n R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e .U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m e r c e . ( 1 9 9 6 ). W o r l d p o p u l a t i o n p r o f il e . W a s h -i n g t on , D C : U . S . B u r e a u o f t h e C e n s u s .

W i l s o n , E . O . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . The d i ver s i t y o f l i f e . N e w Y o r k : N o r t o n .W i n t e r , D . D . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . E c o l o g i c a l p s y c h o l o g y : H e a l i n g t h e s p l i t b e t w e e np l a n e t a n d s e l f . N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r C o l l in s .

5 1 4 M a y 2 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s l


7/7

A p p e n d i xK i ll e r T h o u g h t s fo r a W o r l d W i t h L im i ts

1 . C o n s u m p t i o n w i ll p r o d u c e h a p p i n e s s ( a n d c o n s u m p t i o ni s " n e e d e d " )

I ' l l b e h a p p y w h e n I g e t t h a t n e w L e x u s , m y h o m eo n t h e b e a c h , e t c . S h o p p i n g a s a f o r m o f r e la x a t i o n ; c a t a lo g s h o p p i n g ;T h e S h o p p i n g N e t w o r k T h e b e l i e f th a t i f c o n s u m e r s s t o p b u y i n g , t h e n p e o -p l e w i l l l o s e j o b s

2 . T h e f u t u r e is to b e s t e e p l y " d i s c o u n t e d " W e a r e t h e " N o w g e n e r a t i o n , " s o w e d o n ' t n e e d t o

t h i n k ( o r w o r r y ) a b o u t t h e f u t u r e . W e ' l l " w o r r ya b o u t t h a t l a t e r " B u y n o w - - m a k e n o p a y m e n t s u n ti l n ex t y e a r ( asi n d i v i d u a l s g i v e n a l i n e o f c r e d i t, o r a s a n a t i o n w i t ha n e n o r m o u s n a t i o n a l d e b t )

3 . P r e s e n t c o n s u m p t i o n i s p r e f e r r e d t o i n v e s t m e n t i n ( o rc o n s e r v a t i o n f o r ) t h e f u t u r e

S h o r t - t e r m r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s a r e g r e a t l yo v e r v a l u e d r e l a t i v e t o l o n g - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s i nt h e c a l c u lu s o f d e c is i o n m a k i n g

N o o n e s p e a k s f o r t h e r ig h t s o f th e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n( e . g . , d r a i n i n g t h e S o c i a l S e c u r i t y T r u s t F u n d s )

D e b t i s n o w a s n a t u r a l a s b r e a t h i n g4 . G r o w t h i s g o o d

G D P [ g r o s s d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t ] m u s t a l w a y s i n c re a s e A n u n d e v e l o p e d r e s o u r c e is a w a s t e d r e s o u r c e M o r e o f a " g o o d " ( e .g . , p e o p l e , p r o d u c t s ) i s p r e -

f e r r ed t o l e s s5 . F r e e - m a r k e t c a p i t a l i s m i s t h e b e s t s y s t e m

" G r e e d i s g o o d " - - w e s h o u l d a ll g e t a s m u c h a s w ec a n T h e C C - P P g a m e ( c o m m u n i z e d c o s t s - - p r i v a t iz e dp ro f i t s ) (H a rd in , 1993) S y s t e m s s h o u l d e n c o u r a g e g r e a t e r h u m a n e c o n o m i ca c t i v i t y ( t h r o u g h p u t )

6 . P a y i n g l e ss ( f o r s o m e t h i n g ) i s b e t t e r t h a n p a y i n g m o r e C h eap gas (o r e l ec t r i c i t y , o r w a t e r , e t c . ) i s p r e f e r r ed

t o e x p e n s i v e c o m m o d i t i e s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r r e a l,t o t a l cos t s

K e e p p r i c e s a s l o w a s p o s s i b l e b y e x t e r n a l i z i n gw h a t e v e r c o s t s p o s s i b leG o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r t f o r " c o m m o n s s i t u a ti o n s "( e .g . , l e a s i n g f e d e r a l l a n d f o r g r a z i n g ) i s a g r e a t" d e a l "

7 . I f i t a i n ' t b r o k e ( y e t ) - - d o n ' t f ix itC o l l a p s e o c c u r s l o n g a f t e r a n e c o s y s t e m ' s c a r r y i n gc a p a c i t y h a s b e e n e x c e e d e dW e d o n ' t n e e d t o a c t f o r t h e s a k e o f " u n c e r t a in "p r o j e c t i o n s a b o u t , f o r e x a m p l e , g l o b a l w a r m i n g ,o z o n e d e p l e t i o n , f o o d s h o r t a g e s , e t c .I f i t ' s n o t m y p r o b l e m , i t ' s n o t a p r o b l e m ( e .g . ,soc i a l s ecu r i t y , s t a rva t i on )

8 . U n t il s c i e n ti s ts c a n p r o v e a p h e n o m e n o n b e y o n d s c i e n -t i f i c d o u b t , s o c i e t y d o e s n ' t n e e d t o a c t o n i t

N o o n e c a n p r o v e th a t s m o k i n g c a u s e s l u n g c a n c e r R i s k s s h o u l d b e m a n a g e d b y t h e f r e e m a r k e t E c o l o g i c a l t h r e a t s a r e m o r e l i k e p e o p l e ( i n n o c e n t

u n t i l p r o v e n g u i l t y ) t h a n l i k e d r u g s ( g u i l t y u n t i lp r o v e n i n n o c e n t )

9 . I n n o v a t i o n s ( t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d o t h e r s ) c a n p u s h b a c kb i o l o g i c a l l i m i ts i n d e f i n i te l y

M a l t h u s w a s " w r o n g " b e c a u s e o f t h e " g r e e n r e v o -l u t i o n " W e d o n ' t n e e d t o w o r r y a b o u t u n i n te n d e d , n e g a t i v ec o n s e q u e n c e s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l " s o l u t i o n s " ( t h e fa c tt h a t s o l u t i o n s o f t e n p r o d u c e a n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t s e to f p r o b le m s ) . T h e " n e x t " t e c h n o l o g i c a l b r e a k -t h r o u g h w i l l s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m

S o m e s t i l l t h i n k w e c o u l d s h i p e x c e s s p e o p l e t oa n o t h e r p l a n e t

N o t e . From E c o l o g i c a l P s y c h o l o g y : C r e a t i n g a M o r e E a r t h - F r i e n d l yH u m a n N a t u r e (pp. 55-56), by George S. Howard, 1997, Notre Dame, IN:University of Notre Dame Press. Copyright 1997 by University of NotreDame Press. Reprinted with permission.

M a y 2 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g is t 5 1 5

Adapting Human Lifestyles

Documents

Transcript of Adapting Human Lifestyles