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4-1

Section 4

About the Natural Setting

If the earth’s history were compressed into a single

day, life would first stir at about 6 AM and “fossil men

and their modern representatives” would show up only

a few seconds before midnight.

—Wayne Grady, The Great Lakes1

Introduction Lac du Flambeau is in the Northern Highlands

Ecological Landscape, one of sixteen landscapes in

Wisconsin.5 This section focuses on the early

formation of the landscape and describes its

watersheds, hydrology, climate, temperature,

precipitation, wetlands, woodlands, agricultural

areas, and mineral resources. Lac du Flambeau

land uses, habitat, and wildlife types are also

examined, along with results of a community survey.

Formation of Ecological Landscapes The land and lakes known today as Lac du

Flambeau started taking shape more than 2 billion

years ago when the landmass that eventually

became the continent of North America was forming

by the jostling and fusing of two massive tectonic

plates. The seam between them, now called the

Midcontinent Rift, remained a fault line which a

billion years later split apart and filled with molten

rock from deep within the earth. Today, that seam is

beneath Lake Superior and the state of Michigan. A

second fault line formed about 570 million years

later when North America divided again, forming a

rift beneath the Lakes of Ontario and Erie,

determining the course of the St. Lawrence River.6

Over millions of years of such movements, three

stable landmasses eventually formed and joined

creating the Canadian Shield, which today is

associated with the Great Lakes and surrounding

areas. One of the landmasses, the Southern

Province, is beneath southern Ontario, parts of

Michigan, and most of Minnesota and Wisconsin.7

Lac du Flambeau is part of the Southern Province.

The shape and arrangement of the Great lakes and

surrounding areas, including Lac du Flambeau,

resulted from what ice did to the land.8 Though there

have been several long periods of glaciations during

the history of the earth, there were four that affected

primarily the formation of the Great Lakes: the

Nebraskan (1 million to 900,000 years ago), the

Kansan (700,000 to 600,000 years ago), the Illinoian

(300,000 to 200,000 years ago), and the

Wisconsinian (90,000 to 10,000 years ago).9

The physical landscape is determined by only two

factors: tectonics and climate. The movement of

continental plates forms the rough contours of a

landscape, and then climate proceeds to refine

those features as an artist uses knives and scrapers

to create the likeness of a face in wet clay. Climate’s

tools—water, wind, sedimentation, plant species,

glaciers—shape and alter river valleys, bluffs,

hills, and soil.

—Wayne Grady, The Great Lakes2

Between every two pine trees there is a door leading

to a new way of life.

—John Muir3

A lake is the landscape’s most beautiful and

expressive feature. It is earth’s eye; looking into

which the beholder measures the depth of his own

nature.

—Henry David Thoreau, 18494

4-2 Section 4: About the Natural Setting

Bear River Watershed Compreh

The exorbitant weight and pressure of the moving

ice sheets carved many depressions in the Southern

Province’s surface and distributed huge piles of silt,

clay, sand, and gravel, ranging in size from dust to

boulders. After thousands of years the ice eventua

melted and the water filled many of the depressions

forming lakes and riverbeds.10

About 9,000 years ago, the long process of soil

formation began. The melting ice had deposited

minerals needed to support plant life, but an organic

material was needed to keep the minerals from

washing away and to enable them to support plant

life. Lichens grow on almost any substrate and were

the first organisms to help in the process. Mosses

and ferns, whose roots do not require soil, then

moved in, followed by flowering plants whose spread

was aided by the wind.11

As plants grew and died, their decomposition was

aided by microscopic organisms that broke the

organic matter down into soil nutrients. Over time,

this process was aided by the addition of increasing

numbers of insects, small rodents, and a variety of

other organisms. Depending on conditions of climate

such as rainfall, drought, and temperature, soil

Figure 4-1. Ecological Landscapes in Wisconsin

Section 4: About the Natural Setting

r Watershed Comprehensive Lake Management Plan

the moving

ice sheets carved many depressions in the Southern

Province’s surface and distributed huge piles of silt,

ranging in size from dust to

boulders. After thousands of years the ice eventually

melted and the water filled many of the depressions,

About 9,000 years ago, the long process of soil

formation began. The melting ice had deposited

minerals needed to support plant life, but an organic

material was needed to keep the minerals from

support plant

. Lichens grow on almost any substrate and were

the first organisms to help in the process. Mosses

and ferns, whose roots do not require soil, then

moved in, followed by flowering plants whose spread

As plants grew and died, their decomposition was

aided by microscopic organisms that broke the

organic matter down into soil nutrients. Over time,

this process was aided by the addition of increasing

numbers of insects, small rodents, and a variety of

r organisms. Depending on conditions of climate

such as rainfall, drought, and temperature, soil

accumulated at a rate of 2 to about 10 centimeters

every 100 years. As time passed, the rock that had

been covered by sheets of ice became lands

cloaked by numerous grasses, trees, and a

seemingly unlimited variety of plants.

The interplay of tectonics and climate over time

created a variety of ecological landscapes that today

cover the earth. The State of Wisconsin, for

example, has sixteen ecological landsca

4-1), each with its own set of attributes.

Interestingly, the boundaries of areas negotiated by

tribal chiefs in 1837 and 1842 for the protection of

tribal resources (Figure 4-2) closely resemble the

boundaries of the current ecological regions,

illustrating the knowledge and importan

to tribal people.

Northern Highlands Ecological LandscapeThe Northern Highland Ecological Landscape is

located in northern central Wisconsin and includes

Lac du Flambeau and the Bear River Watershed. The

landscape corresponds to US EPA management unit

ecoregion known as Northern Lakes and Forest

. Ecological Landscapes in Wisconsin

Figure 4-2. Boundaries Negotiatedand 1842

accumulated at a rate of 2 to about 10 centimeters

every 100 years. As time passed, the rock that had

been covered by sheets of ice became lands

erous grasses, trees, and a

seemingly unlimited variety of plants.12

The interplay of tectonics and climate over time

created a variety of ecological landscapes that today

arth. The State of Wisconsin, for

example, has sixteen ecological landscapes (Figure

), each with its own set of attributes.13

Interestingly, the boundaries of areas negotiated by

tribal chiefs in 1837 and 1842 for the protection of

) closely resemble the

boundaries of the current ecological regions,

illustrating the knowledge and importance of ecology

Northern Highlands Ecological Landscape The Northern Highland Ecological Landscape is

located in northern central Wisconsin and includes

Lac du Flambeau and the Bear River Watershed. The

landscape corresponds to US EPA management unit

rthern Lakes and Forest,

d by Tribal Chiefs in 1837

Section 4: About the Natural Setting 4-3

Bear River Watershed Comprehensive Lake Management Plan

Northern Wisconsin Highlands Lakes Country (50i).14

The area is 2,081 square miles and represents 3.7%

of the total land area in Wisconsin. The Northern

Highland Ecological Landscape is predominantly

igneous and metamorphic rock generally covered by

deposits of glacial drift from 5 to 100 feet in depth.15

It is a rolling plain known for its lakes and mixture of

extensive forests, large peat lands, bogs, and

conifer swamps. Though characterized mainly by

pitted outwash plains, it also contains some coarse-

textured moraines.16

Most of the Northern Highland Ecological Landscape

soils are sands and gravels, some with loamy

material. Soil productivity is low compared to glacial

till but relatively high for outwash sands. Wetlands

are numerous, most with organic soils of peat or

muck.17

Hydrologic Features The Northern Highlands Ecological Landscape has

one of the highest concentrations of lakes in the

world. The lakes were formed as glaciers melted and

large ice blocks became stranded and outwash

materials were deposited over them. As the ice

blocks slowly melted and collapsed, lakes were

formed in areas that were below the level of ground

water. Today, the area includes 4,291 lakes and

1,543 miles of streams, including the headwaters of

the Wisconsin and Manitowish-Flambeau-Chippewa

river systems. Many lakes are connected by small

streams. Rare aquatic species and extensive

wetlands occur here.18

Lying within the Northern Highlands Ecological

Landscape, Lac du Flambeau has 260 lakes

covering 17,897 acres, 71 miles of streams and

rivers, and 24,000 acres of wetlands. Lac du

Flambeau has the third highest density of lakes in

the world with 27.09 square miles of surface water.

Nearly one-half (48.4%) of Lac du Flambeau’s

overall surface is under water.19

Temperature The Northern Highland Ecological Landscape has

an average annual temperature of 39.5 degrees

Fahrenheit, the lowest of any Ecological Landscape

in the state and almost two degrees lower than that

of other northern ecological landscapes.

Temperatures regularly range from winter lows of

-20 degrees Fahrenheit to summer highs of 95

degrees Fahrenheit.20

Precipitation The average annual precipitation is 31.6 inches,

similar to other northern ecological landscapes. The

average annual snowfall is 68.1 inches, the second

largest amount of snowfall in the state. Only the

Superior Coastal Plain receives more snowfall, an

average of 87.4 inches per year. Snowfall varies

dramatically within the Northern Highland Ecological

Landscape, with the northern part of the landscape

being within the outer edge of the lake effect snow-

belt of Upper Michigan and northwestern

Wisconsin.21

Watersheds A watershed is an area of land drained by a river

system.22

Lac du Flambeau extends over four

watersheds as classified by the Wisconsin

Department of Natural Resources (Figure 4-3 and

Table 4-1). The watersheds are commonly known as

the Upper South Fork Flambeau River Watershed,

Manitowish River Watershed, Upper Tomahawk

River Watershed, and the Bear River Watershed.23

Most of Lac du Flambeau is located in the Bear

River watershed. The part of Lac du Flambeau

within the Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest lies

within the upper South Fork of the Flambeau River

watershed. A sliver of the northeast part of Lac du

Flambeau is located in the Manitowish River

watershed, and two lobes in the southeast are within

the Upper Tomahawk River watershed. All of these

watersheds drain into the Mississippi River.24



Figure 4-3. Overlay of Lac du Flambeau on Watersheds

Table 4-1. Summary Data on Area Watersheds

Watershed

Bear Manitowish Flambeau Tomahawk

Size, square mi 145 269 279 187

Streams, miles 110 212 255 139

Lakes, acres 16,824 22,943 8,509 17,609

Wetlands, acres 30,672 33,727 63,099 20,470

The United States Geological Survey (USGS)

proffers an alternative classification of the

watersheds, considering the watersheds to be sub-

watersheds of three watersheds (Table 4-2):

Flambeau Watershed, South Fork Flambeau

Watershed, and Upper Wisconsin Watershed.25

Table 4-2. Watersheds as Characterized by USGS

Lac du Flambeau Watershed Name

USGS 8-digit Watershed

Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC)

Approximate Percentage of

Reservation Area in each

Watershed

Manitowish River (4.5%) Bear River (76.5%)

Flambeau 07050002

81%

Upper South Fork Flambeau River

South Fork Flambeau 07050003

8.9%

Upper Tomahawk River Upper Wisconsin

07070001 10.1%

Upper Tomahawk River Watershed The Upper Tomahawk River Watershed (Table 4-3)

is in Oneida and Vilas counties. It is 119,568 acres

in size and contains 139 miles of streams and rivers,

17,610 acres of lakes, and 20,470 acres of

wetlands. The watershed is dominated by forest

(59%), wetlands (17%), and open water (14%), and

is ranked high for nonpoint source pollution issues

affecting streams and lakes.26

Table 4-3. Upper Tomahawk River Watershed

Watershed Size 187 sq mi

Stream Miles 139 mi

Lake 17,610 ac

Wetland 20,470 ac

Outstanding/Exceptional Miles 19.6 mi

Outstanding/Exceptional Acres 3,765 ac

Trout Waters 14.2 mi

Impaired Streams 0 mi

Impaired Lakes/Impoundments 727 ac

The Upper Tomahawk River Watershed covers

approximately 10.1% of the total Reservation area,

and includes vast areas of highly developed

lakefront property.27

Upper South Fork Flambeau River Watershed This Upper South Fork Flambeau River Watershed

(Table 4-4) lies mainly within the Chequamegon

National Forest in Price County. Meld is the only

municipal area; there are no point source discharges

to surface waters. Much of the watershed is wetland

or forested, with very little agriculture.28

The Upper South Fork Flambeau River Watershed

covers approximately 8.9% of the Reservation and

includes expansive tracts of undeveloped Tribal land

and minimal lakefront development.29



Table 4-4. Upper South Fork Flambeau River Watershed


Stream Miles 255 mi

Lake 8,509 ac

Wetland 63,099 ac

Outstanding/Exceptional Miles 74 mi

Outstanding/Exceptional Acres 234 ac

Trout Waters 41.8 mi; 11.7 ac


Impaired Bays/Harbors/Lakes 3,249.9 ac

Manitowish River Watershed The Manitowish River Watershed (Table 4-5) is in

the northeastern-most tip of the Upper Chippewa

River Basin and is almost completely contained

within the Northern Highland American Legion State

Forest. The region is mostly forest and wetlands.

The Manitowish River originates in wetland areas of

central Vilas County and runs through several lakes

before it joins with the Bear River to form the

Flambeau River.30

Table 4-5. Manitowish River Watershed


Stream Miles 212 mi

Lake 22,943 ac

Wetland 33,727 ac

Outstanding/Exceptional Miles 46.6 mi

Outstanding/Exceptional Acres 5,140.6 ac

Trout Waters 27.6 mi


Impaired Bays/Harbors/Lakes 4,945 ac

The Manitowish River Watershed covers

approximately 4.5% of the Reservation, with limited

developed lakefront property. It has, however,

cranberry operations that affect the water quality of

several waterbodies.31

Bear River Watershed The Bear River Watershed (Table 4-6) is located in

southeastern Iron and southwestern Vilas counties

and includes the ten lakes on which this

Comprehensive Lake Management Plan focuses.

Table 4-6. Bear River Watershed


Stream Miles 110 mi

Lake 16,824 ac

Wetland 30,672 ac

Outstanding/Exceptional Miles 0 mi

Outstanding/Exceptional Acres 0 ac

Trout Waters 0 mi


Impaired Bays/Harbors/Lakes 1,721 ac

The Bear River watershed is primarily undeveloped

forest and wetlands, with its northern quarter

spanning the Northern Highland American Legion

State Forest. Most of its central and southern

sections are within the Lac du Flambeau Indian

Reservation.32

The Bear River Watershed is known for its pitted

outwash plains and kettle lakes mixed with extensive

forests and large peat lands. The watershed’s

landforms are characterized mainly by pitted

outwash and some coarse-textured moraines. The

soils are acidic and relatively unproductive due to

low moisture-holding capacity and lack of organic

matter.33

Most of the watershed’s lakes are concentrated in

the eastern half and many are linked by streams to

Flambeau Lake (Figure 4-4). The Bear River

Watershed covers the majority of Reservation

acreage, at 76.5%. It includes vast tracts of

undeveloped Tribal land as well as large areas of

highly developed lakefront property, both Tribal and

fee land.34



Figure 4-4. Lakes in the Bear River Watershed

Additional information and data about the Bear River

Watershed are presented in Section 10, and

information and data specific to the sub-watersheds

of the lakes studied in this management plan are

presented per lake in Sections 12–21.

Wetlands Lac du Flambeau has 24,000 acres of wetland

habitat, including open water marshes, beaver

ponds, bog/muskeg marshes, and riverine

bottomlands, as well as areas of swamp conifer and

lowland hardwoods. The upland habitats range from

open areas of grass to stands of mature northern

hardwoods and conifers.36

The wetlands perform

many indispensable roles in the proper function of

the hydrologic cycle and local ecological systems.

They store water and release it back into the

watershed slowly, preventing flooding and

minimizing flood damage. As more impermeable

surfaces are developed, the storage of water

becomes increasingly important.37

Wetland plants and soils store and filter pollutants,

ranging from pesticides to animal wastes. Calm

wetland waters, with their flat surface and low flow

characteristics, allow particles of toxins and nutrients

to settle out of the water columns. Plants take up

certain nutrients from the water. Other substances

can be stored or transformed to a less toxic state

within wetlands. As a result, the lakes, rivers and

streams become cleaner.38

Wetlands that filter or store sediments or nutrients

naturally for extended periods of time may undergo

fundamental changes. Sediments will eventually fill

in the wetlands and nutrients will eventually modify

the vegetation, thus diminishing the wetlands’ ability

to store or filter more sediments and nutrients.39

The hydrological function of wetlands may be

destroyed completely when filled with material

foreign to their natural function, opening the area to

improper development.40

The Powell Marsh covers the northern third of Lac

du Flambeau, and is a regionally important wetland

because of its large size and open character.

Without management, this open peat land habitat

succeeds to tamarack forest and black spruce

muskeg. A combination of prescribed fire, hand-

cutting, mowing and shearing, as well as changes in

Fee land is land in which an owner holds the title. The land is generally subject to taxation. This is the only land

that the Town of Lac du Flambeau has jurisdiction over.

Trust land is land in which title is held by the United States Government in trust for a Tribe or individual

American Indian. This land cannot be sold without approval of the Secretary of the Interior.

Tribal land is a combination of trust land and land owned by the Tribe.

Allotted land is land that was historically parceled out to individual Tribal members by the General Allotment

Act of February 8, 1887 (also known as The Dawes Act).35



water levels is used to limit the growth of shrubs and

trees while increasing the abundance of grasses and

sedges. Control of woody species is the primary

required habitat manipulation for many wildlife

species. Flowages are managed with periodic

drawdowns.41

Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Resources There are several rock, sand, and other aggregate

mines throughout Lac du Flambeau that are often

referred to as “pits” or “quarries.” These sites

produce material such as sand or gravel, and can

vary in size from just a few acres of land to large

excavations covering hundreds of acres.42

Agricultural Areas The Northern Highlands Ecological Landscape has

an average growing season of 122 days. The cool

temperatures, short growing season, and sandy

soils are not adequate to support agricultural row

crops such as corn. Only about one percent of the

Northern Highland is used for agricultural

purposes.43

In Lac du Flambeau today, there are 137 acres of

cranberry bogs on a cranberry farm in the northeast

corner of Lac du Flambeau. Also, the Tribal

Department of Forestry has maintained strawberry

fields since 2001 as a cash crop on Tribal land.

Recently, the fields were diversified to include

blueberries, raspberries, and other crops.44

Woodlands About one-seventh of Lac du Flambeau lies in the

Chequamegon National Forest, where most of the

land is owned in trust by the U.S. Forest Service.

The remaining six-sevenths of Lac du Flambeau

constitute the Reservation of the Lac du Flambeau

Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians.45

Lac du Flambeau’s 41,733 acres of woodlands play

a key role in the protection of environmentally

sensitive areas like steep slopes, shorelands,

wetlands, and flood plains. Over the years, Lac du

Flambeau has regained much of the woodland cover

lost during the days of intense logging, although the

plant species composition is not the same now as

during pre-settlement times. Now, significant

amounts of aspen, paper birch, and balsam fir exist

where pine and hemlock once stood (Figure 4-5).46

Figure 4-5. Forest Cover Types for Lac du Flambeau Commercial Forests

Summary of Land Use Table 4-7 shows the land use within Lac du

Flambeau in 2007 as calculated from a geographic

information system (GIS) computer program. Tribal

land refers to land owned or managed by the Tribe.

It is separated from Land Use Types because the

Town and Tribe have separate jurisdictions. Tribal

land includes woodlands and forested wetlands –

about 16% of the water listed in the table – and most

of the land in downtown Lac du Flambeau.47

The majority of the Town is woodland and forested

wetland, at about 30,075 acres or 37 percent of the

whole town. Both woodlands and forested wetlands

are listed together in the table. The next most

significant land use type is water, approximately 22

percent or 17,632 acres. Open Lands consist of

fields and non-forested wetlands, and cover about

1,390 acres (1.7%). Residential land covers about

1,842 acres (2.25%). Transportation land use

includes all the roads in Town, and amounts to

about 590 acres (0.7%). All other land uses listed

amount to less than 100 acres for each land use.48



Table 4-7. Lac du Flambeau Land Uses in 2007

Land Use Type Acres Percent

Agriculture 151 0.18%

Commercial 69 0.08%

Government/Institution 19 0.02%

Industrial 96 0.12%

Open Lands 1,390 1.70%

Outdoor Recreation 2 0.00%

Residential 1,842 2.25%

Resort 79 0.10%

Transportation 590 0.72%

Tribal 29,862 36.50%

Water 17,632 21.55%

Woodlands 30,075 36.76%

Total 81,808 100.00%

Table 4-8 projects land use within Lac du Flambeau

by 2028 as determined by members on the Lac du

Flambeau Zoning Committee in 2007.49

Table 4-8. Projected Land Use, 2028

Land Use Type Acres Percent

Commercial 2,582 3.16

Government/Institution 166 0.20

Industrial 221 0.27

Residential 9,827 12.01

Transportation 590 0.72

Tribal 29,862 36.50

Water 17,632 21.55

Woodlands 20,929 25.58

Total 81,808 100.00

The Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation covers

approximately 86,500 acres (135 square miles) that

include 41,733 acres of forested uplands, 24,000

acres of wetlands, and 17,897 acres of lakes and

rivers (Figure 4-6). That means approximately 49%

of the Reservation’s area is covered by lakes, rivers,

and wetlands.50

Figure 4-6. Land Cover on the Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation

Habitat and Wildlife Types Habitat on the Reservation is similar to that of

adjoining properties and much of the rest of northern

Wisconsin. These lands, while relatively intact, are

feeling the pressures of habitat fragmentation on

many differing scales. Examples of habitat

fragmentation include commercial and residential

development associated with an ever increasing

human population in the Northwoods. Habitat

fragmentation affects the species richness of natural

communities, population trends of some species,

and the overall biological diversity of ecosystems.

Whether the effects of habitat fragmentation are

found to be beneficial or detrimental depends largely

on the desired species composition and abundance

for any given area.51

Although extensive inventories of forest tree species

have been conducted, there has been little work

done on the understory of vegetative communities,

and thus specific habitat types. Because of this, the

finer scale effects of habitat fragmentation are

largely unknown. Most of northern Wisconsin’s and

the Reservation’s wildlife species are able to

traverse and occupy a wide variety of habitats and

cover types. Examples of exceptions include some

neotropical migratory songbirds species, Pine

Martens (a threatened species in Wisconsin), and

local populations of salamanders to which

chemically-treated forest roads can become fatal

obstacles during migration.52



Often the public and natural resource managers think

of fragmentation strictly as breaks or clearings

(particularly those caused by timber harvests) in the

forest canopy. However, forms of habitat fragment-

ation that affect wildlife more severely include housing

developments, parking lots, business developments,

and other types of human infrastructure that do little

to provide food and cover, and where wildlife

species are easily depredated. Wetlands, lakes,

rivers, and streams naturally are interconnected in

the landscape mosaic. Buffering of waterfront habitat

by limiting human disturbance and development is

important to providing corridors and linkage zones

through otherwise fragmented areas. Upland and

off-water corridors are harder to protect and take

planning and careful management. The Reservation

has a nature reserve system in place consisting

mainly of wetland habitats with other upland types of

habitats represented. Planned wildlife corridors are

in essence nonexistent on the reservation.53

Wildlife management on the reservation is primarily

restricted to the game species traditionally harvested.

During the spring but before leaf-out (green-up), deer,

hare, and grouse-roost surveys are conducted and

recorded for 50 transects. The following graphs depict

the status of the Whitetailed Deer, Grouse, Snowshoe

Hare, and Black Bear populations.54

Based on the spring wildlife survey, the 2012 deer

population on the reservation equaled 3.39

deer/square mile, a decrease from 2010 and 2011

(Figure 4-7). The Reservation’s deer management

goal is 13 deer per square mile.55

In the Grouse-Roost Surveys (Figure 4-8), the

results of the data collected are reported as the

number of grouse roosts per transect, and indicate a

population trend rather than an estimate. The grouse

population peaked in 1989 (0.82 grouse roosts per

transect), declining annually thereafter. Grouse

populations usually fluctuate in 10-year cycles, and it

was anticipated that a general increase in the

population would begin in 1999 (sampling data are

not available for that time period).56

Figure 4-7. Deer Density Survey Results for 1984–2012

Figure 4-8. Grouse Roost Survey Results for 1984–2006

The Snowshoe Hare Index (Figure 4-9) shows a

typical fluctuating population over time. Although

many factors play a role in hare population

abundance, predators and early spring weather

have the greatest effect on the annual population

trends.57

Figure 4-9. Snowshoe Hare Index for 250 Plots in 2012

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Gro

us

e R

oo

st/

Tra

ns

ec

t

1984 1986 1988 1990 1993 2002 2004 2006

Year



In late June to early July, Tribal Natural Resource

staff members conduct the annual Bear Bait Station

Survey (Figure 4-10). Fifty randomly selected

stations are baited with beef and staff members

return two weeks later to determine the number of

bear hits.

Figure 4-10. Bear Station Survey Data for 1986–2012

The survey is an index, not a population estimate,

and provides only general trend information on the

bear population. In 1992, bears hit only 4% of the

bait stations. In 2002, 46% of the bear bait stations

were hit. In 2012, 50% of the stations were hit, the

highest percent in more than two decades of

surveying. Since 2002, the bear population has been

relatively high. This trend is further substantiated by

the number of bear complaints the Tribal

Conservation Law Enforcement Department has

received during this time.58

Natural Heritage Inventory Wisconsin participates in the Natural Heritage

Inventory (NHI), which is part of an international

network of programs focusing on rare plants and

animals, natural communities, and other rare

elements of nature. The defining and unifying

characteristic of this network is the use of a standard

methodology for collecting, processing, and

managing data on the occurrences of natural

biological diversity.59

The Wisconsin natural heritage working list contains

species known or suspected to be rare in the state,

along with natural communities native to Wisconsin.

It includes species legally designated as

“endangered” or “threatened,” as well as species in

the advisory “special concern” category. Most of the

species and natural communities on the list are

actively tracked.60

Table 4-9 shows the species on

Wisconsin’s working list that are in Lac du

Flambeau.61

Table 4-9. Wisconsin Natural Heritage Inventory Data for Lac du Flambeau Lake Areas

Lake* BC FE FL IW LC LT LI MO PO WS

Within 2 Mile Buffer

Fairy Slipper T

T

T

T

T

Wood Turtle T T T

T

T T T T

Bald Eagle SC SC SC SC SC SC SC SC SC SC

Pugnose Shiner

T

T

Greater Redhorse

T

T

Longear Sunfish

T

T

Least Darter

SC

SC

Yellow Rail

T

Le Conte’s Sparrow

SC

Around the Lake

Bald Eagle SC SC

SC

SC SC

SC SC

Wood Turtle T T

T

T T T

T – Threatened SC – Special Concern

*Lakes BC - Big Crawling Stone FE – Fence

FL – Flambeau IW - Ike Walton LC - Little Crawling Stone

LT - Little Trout LI - Long Interlaken MO - Moss

PO - Pokegama WS - White Sand



Community Survey The process used to prepare the Bear River

Watershed Comprehensive Lake Management Plan

included mailing a survey to 3,000 households in

Lac du Flambeau. The survey posed questions

about residents’ perceptions of the quality of lake

water, fisheries, and overall environment; current

and ideal shoreline landscaping; interests on

attending a variety of workshops; and knowledge of

aquatic invasive species and aquatic plants. The

survey also included a couple of questions about the

natural setting.62

Almost one-third (996 of 3,000) of the surveys were

returned completed, representing fifty-one lakes. Of

the 996 completed surveys, 576 (57.8%) are from

households affiliated with the ten lakes of focus in

the Bear River Watershed Comprehensive Lake

Management Plan.

The respondents were presented with a list of

issues/items and then asked to identify up to three

that concern them the most. Table 4-10 shows their

responses to the question.

The column to the far right (BR-576) presents the

total numbers and percentages for all ten lakes.

Regarding algae blooms, for example, 96 of 576

(16.7%) respondents believe that algae blooms are

a major concern to them.

A review of the BR-576 column reveals that the

three issues of most concern include Aquatic

Invasive Species (41.70%), Water Quality

Degradation (27.4%), and Loss of Fish Habitat

Table 4-10. Survey Results on the Issues of Most Concern to Lac du Flambeau Residents

Lake* and Number of Respondents to Survey CS-96 LT-3 FE-123 LI-31 FL-54 M-27 IW-23 WS-102 LC-34 PK-83 BR-576

Number (#) & Percent (%) of Respondents to Item # % # % # % # % # % # % # % # % # % # % # %

Item / Concerns

Algae Blooms 13 13.50% 1 33.30% 22 17.90% 5 16.10% 10 18.50% 7 25.90% 3 13% 18 17.60% 6 17.60% 11 13.30% 96 16.70%

Light Pollution 3 3.10% 0 0% 11 8.90% 3 9.70% 9 16.70% 5 18.50% 1 4.3% 9 8.80% 5 14.70% 11 13.30% 57 9.90%

Shoreline Runoff 12 12.50% 1 33.30% 17 13.80% 4 12.90% 8 14.80% 3 11.10% 1 4.30% 18 17.60% 4 11.80% 15 18.10% 83 14.40%

AIS 42 43.80% 2 66.70% 54 43.90% 11 35.50% 13 24.10% 13 48.10% 7 30.40% 46 45.10% 14 41.20% 38 45.80% 240 41.70%

Loss of Fish Habitat 22 22.90% 2 66.60% 29 23.60% 11 35.5% 12 22.20% 9 33.30% 6 26.10% 25 24.50% 8 23.50% 20 24.10% 144 25%

Water Quality Degradation 23 24% 2 66.70% 35 28.50% 9 29.00% 14 25.90% 9 33.30% 4 17.40% 26 25.50% 13 38.20% 23 27.70% 158 27.40%

Boat Traffic 18 18.80% 1 33.30% 18 14.60% 3 9.70% 9 16.70% 3 11.10% 1 4.30% 15 14.70% 14 41.20% 11 13.30% 93 16.10%

Loss of Shoreline 11 11.50% 1 33.30% 11 8.90% 6 19.40% 10 18.50% 3 11.10% 0 0% 12 11.80% 6 17.60% 12 14.50% 72 12.50%

Septic Discharge 16 16.70% 0 0% 25 20.30% 2 6.50% 7 13% 5 18.50% 2 8.70% 21 20.60% 9 26.50% 15 18.10% 102 17.70%

Degradation of Native Aquatic Plants

7 7.30% 1 33.30% 15 12.20% 3 9.70% 9 16.70% 5 18.50% 5 21.70% 9 8.80% 3 8.80% 8 9.60% 65 11.30%

Loss of Wildlife Habitat 3 13.50% 0 0% 16 13% 2 6.50% 1 1.90% 5 18.50% 5 21.70% 8 7.80% 0 0% 6 7.20% 56 9.70%

Excessive Aquatic Plant Growth

9 9.40% 1 33.30% 8 6.50% 3 9.70% 11 20.40% 4 14.80% 2 8.70% 11 10.80% 6 17.60% 12 14.40% 67 11.60%

Noise Pollution 4 4.20% 0 0% 4 3.30% 1 3.20% 8 14.80% 0 0% 1 4.30% 5 4.90% 4 11.80% 6 7.20% 33 5.70%

Shoreline Development 11 11.50% 0 0% 12 9.80% 4 12.90% 7 13% 2 7.40% 4 17.40% 14 13.70% 6 17.60% 14 16.90% 74 12.80%

Excessive Fishing Pressure

7 7.30% 1 33.30% 16 13% 2 6.50% 9 16.70% 2 7.40% 2 8.70% 15 14.70% 4 11.80% 12 14.40% 70 12.20%

Shoreline Erosion 17 17.70% 1 33.30% 17 13.80% 3 9.70% 10 18.50% 3 11.10% 4 17.40% 24 23.50% 7 20.60% 16 19.30% 102 17.70%

Other 12 12.50% 1 33.30% 26 21.10% 5 16.10% 10 18.50% 2 7.40% 1 4.30% 14 13.70% 10 29.40% 14 16.90% 95 16.50%

Not Concerned of any Issues

13 13.50% 0 0% 19 15.40% 6 19.40% 8 14.80% 12 44.40% 4 17.40% 17 16.70% 3 8.80% 14 16.90% 96 16.70%

*Lakes CS – Crawling Stone LT – Little Trout

FE – Fence LI – Long Interlaken FL – Flambeau

M – Moss IW – Ike Walton WS – White Sand

LC – Little Crawling Stone PK – Pokegama BR – Totals Bear River



(25%). The three issues of least concern include

Light Pollution (9.9%), Loss of Wildlife Habitat

(9.7%), and Noise Pollution (5%).

The survey also asked residents for their opinions

on whether the quality of several elements of the

natural setting associated with the lake of their

residence – such as shorelines, wetlands, and

forests – have been changing over time.

Table 4-11 shows the totals for their responses to

this question. Data for individual lakes are reported

in Sections 12–21, and in the appendix.

For the Quality of Shorelines, for example, 27 of 534

(5.1%) respondents believe that the quality of the

shorelines has been improving, 278 (52.1%) believe

that it has remained the same, 158 (29.6%) believe

that it has been worsening, and 71 (13.3%)

responded that they do not know.

Table 4-11. Perceived Change in Quality of the Natural Setting of Lac du Flambeau

Element Number of Respondents

Improving No Change Worsening Don’t Know

# % # % # % # %

Quality of Shorelines 534 27 5.10% 278 52.10% 158 29.60% 71 13.30%

Quality of Wetlands/Marshes 522 13 2.50% 266 57% 64 12.30% 179 34.30%

Quality of Streams 513 5 1% 217 42.30% 54 10.50% 237 46.20%

Quality of Air 522 14 2.70% 355 68% 40 7.70% 113 21.60%

Quality of Forests 524 21 4% 270 51.50% 127 24.20% 106 20.20%

Quality of Grasslands 513 11 2.10% 246 48% 49 9.60% 207 40.40%

Quality of Overall Environment 526 25 4.80% 284 54% 120 22.60% 97 18.40%



Notes for Section 4 1. Wayne Grady, The Great Lakes: The Natural History of a

Changing Region (Greystone Books, 2007) 39.

2. Ibid, 77.

3. Dan Styer, The Quotable John Muir. Dan Styer has written an interesting piece on how he has determined that the quotation is in fact attributable to John Muir, the famous American naturalist.

http://www.oberlin.edu/physics/dstyer/Muir/QuotableJohnMuir.html.

4. Henry David Thoreau (as presented in the National Lakes Assessment: A Collaborative Survey of the Nation’s Lakes (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009) viii.

http://www.epa.gov/owow/LAKES/lakessurvey/pdf/nla_report_low_res.pdf. Also in Through the Looking Glass: A Field Guide to Aquatic Plants, Wisconsin Lakes Partnership, 109.

5. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources online:

http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/landscapes/index.asp.

6. Grady, 42-43.

7. Ibid, 45.

8. Ibid, 64.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid, 69.

12. Ibid, 71.


http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/landscapes/index.asp.

14. Maps and information related to EPA management unit eco-regions may be found at:

ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/us/Eco_Level_IV_US.pdf; ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/wi/wi_eco.pdf


http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/landscapes/index.asp?mode=detail&landscape=5.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Integrated Resource Management Plan, 2000-2023 (IRMP)( Lac du Flambeau Band of lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 2:2.

20. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources online.




22. Robert G. Wetzel, Limnology, Lake and River Ecosystems (Academic Press, Third Edition, 2001) 18.

23. Integrated Resource Management Plan, 4:3.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.


http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code=uw38&name=upper%tomahawk%river20river



http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code=uc10&name=upper%20south%20fork%20flambeau%20river

29. Tribal Plan, 4:7.


http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code=uc16&name=manitowish%20river



http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code=uc15&name=bear%20river

33. Ibid.


35. Town of Lac du Flambeau Comprehensive Management Plan, Adopted December 2008 (Prepared by the North Central Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission) 61-62. The plan is available online at

http://www.ncwrpc.org/counties/vilas/LDF_Adopted-Plan_OnWeb.pdf.


37. Town of Lac du Flambeau Comprehensive Management Plan, 40.

38. Ibid.

39. Ibid.

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid, 45.



44. Town of Lac du Flambeau Comprehensive Management Plan, 49.

45. Ibid, 61.

46. Ibid, 42.

47. Ibid, 62.

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid, 68.


51. Ibid, 6:1. Information for notes 51-58 is from two sources: Integrated Resource Management Plan (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians), 6:1-6:6 and, Final Reports Contract Number CTF55T432F8 (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Indians, 10/1/10-9/20/12) 14-16.

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid.

54. Ibid: 6:2.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid, 6:4.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid, 6:5-6:6.

59. Wisconsin Natural Heritage Inventory, http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/NHI/WList.html.

60. Ibid.

61. Information on the table was provided by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Woodruff office.

62. Data from the Bear River Watershed Comprehensive Lake Management Plan Survey, Lake-by-lake Comparisons, June 2012. See Appendix.



Figure Notes for Section 4 Figure 4-1. Ecological Landscapes in Wisconsin. http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/landscapes/documents/State Maps/Map_S1_ELs.pdf

Figure 4-2. Boundaries Negotiated by Tribal Chiefs in 1837 and 1842. Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission, http://www.glifwc.org/

Figure 4-3. Overlay of Lac du Flambeau on Watersheds. Map provided by the Tribal Natural Resources Department.

Figure 4-4. Lakes in the Bear River Watershed. Map provided by Tribal Natural Resources Department. Other maps available through the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources: http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code= uc15&name=bear%20river

Figure 4-5. Forest Cover Types for Lac du Flambeau Commercial Forests. Integrated Resource Management Plan (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 3:1.

Figure 4-6. Land Cover on the Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation. Integrated Resource Management Plan (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 2:3.

Figure 4-7. Deer Density Survey Results for 1984-2012. FY2011 & 2012 Final Reports Contract Number CTF55T432F8 (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 15.

Figure 4-8. Grouse Roost Survey Results for 1984-2006. FY2011 & 2012 Final Reports Contract Number CTF55T432F8 (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 16.

Figure 4-9. Snowshoe Hare Index for 250 Plots in 2012. FY2011 & 2012 Final Reports Contract Number CTF55T432F8 (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 15.

Figure 4-10. Bear Station Survey Data for 1986-2012. FY2011 & 2012 Final Reports Contract Number CTF55T432F8 (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 16.

Table Notes for Section 4 Table 4-1. Summary Data on Area Watersheds The table is a summary of data from Tables 3-6.

Table 4-2. Watersheds as Characterized by USGS. Integrated Resource Management Plan, 2000-2023 (Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians) 4:3.

Table 4-3. Upper Tomahawk River Watershed. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources online: http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code= uw38&name=upper%20tomahawk%20river

Table 4-4. Upper South Fork Flambeau River Watershed. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources online: http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code= uc10&name=upper%20south%20fork%20flambeau %20river

Table 4-5. Manitowish River Watershed. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources online: http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code= uc16&name=manitowish%20river

Table 4-6. Bear River Watershed. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources online: http://dnr.wi.gov/water/watersheddetail.aspx?code= uc15&name=bear%20river

Table 4-7. Lac du Flambeau Land Uses, 2007. (Town of Lac du Flambeau Comprehensive Plan, December 2012) 62. http://www.ncwrpc.org/counties/vilas/LDF_Adopted- Plan_OnWeb.pdf.

Table 4-8. Projected Land Uses, 2028. (Town of Lac du Flambeau Comprehensive Plan, December 2012) 68. http://www.ncwrpc.org/counties/vilas/LDF_Adopted- Plan_OnWeb.pdf.

Table 4-9. Wisconsin Natural Heritage Inventory Data for Lac du Flambeau lake Areas. Information on the table was provided by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Woodruff office.

Table 4-10. Survey Results on Issues of Most Concern to Lac du Flambeau resiudents. Data from Bear River Watershed Comprehensive Lake Management Plan Survey, Lake-by-lake Comparisons, June 2012, Question #31. See Appendix.

Table 4-11. Perceived Change in Quality of Natural Setting. Data from Bear River Watershed Comprehensive Lake Management Plan Survey, Lake-by-lake Comparisons, June 2012, Question #32. See Appendix.

Figures Figure 4-1. Ecological Landscapes in Wisconsin ............... 4-2

Figure 4-2. Boundaries Negotiated by Tribal Chiefs in 1837 and 1842 ....................................................... 4-2

Figure 4-3. Overlay of Lac du Flambeau on Watersheds ............................................................ 4-4

Figure 4-4. Lakes in the Bear River Watershed ................. 4-6

Figure 4-5. Forest Cover Types for Lac du Flambeau Commercial Forests ............................................... 4-7

Figure 4-6. Land Cover on the Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation ............................................................ 4-8

Figure 4-7. Deer Density Survey Results for 1984–2012 ....................................................................... 4-9

Figure 4-8. Grouse Roost Survey Results for 1984–2006 ....................................................................... 4-9

Figure 4-9. Snowshoe Hare Index for 250 Plots in 2012 .... 4-9

Figure 4-10. Bear Station Survey Data for 1986–2012 .... 4-10

Tables Table 4-1. Summary Data on Area Watersheds ................ 4-4

Table 4-2. Watersheds as Characterized by USGS ........... 4-4

Table 4-3. Upper Tomahawk River Watershed .................. 4-4

Table 4-4. Upper South Fork Flambeau River Watershed ............................................................. 4-5

Table 4-5. Manitowish River Watershed ............................ 4-5

Table 4-6. Bear River Watershed ...................................... 4-5

Table 4-7. Lac du Flambeau Land Uses in 2007 ............... 4-8

Table 4-8. Projected Land Use, 2028 ................................ 4-8



Table 4-9. Wisconsin Natural Heritage Inventory Data for Lac du Flambeau Lake Areas ......................... 4-10

Table 4-10. Survey Results on the Issues of Most Concern to Lac du Flambeau Residents .............. 4-11

Table 4-11. Perceived Change in Quality of the Natural Setting of Lac du Flambeau .................... 4-12

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