A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

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A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

John W. Santrock

Chapter Thirteen:

Moral Development,

Values, and Religion


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Domains of Moral Development

• What is moral development?– Changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

regarding standards of right and wrong– An intrapersonal dimension: regulates activities– An interpersonal dimension: regulates social

interactions and arbitrates conflict


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• Piaget’s theory– Heteronymous morality (ages 4 to 7)

• Justice, rules are seen as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people

• (ages 7 to 10): in transition between the two stages

– Autonomous morality (ages 10 and older)• Becomes aware rules and laws created by people; in

judging an action, they intentions and consequences

– Immanent justice • If a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out

immediately


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• Kohlberg’s theory– Moral reasoning unfolds in universal stages– Tested by story with moral dilemma– Theory of three levels, two stages in each– Reflects some of Piaget’s concepts


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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Preconventional reasoning — lowest level (good or bad based on external rewards and punishment)

Stage 1. Heteronomous morality — tied to punishment

Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange tied to equality

Conventional reasoning — intermediate level (one applies certain standards, but are set by others)

Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal conformity, expectations, relationships to others is basis of judgment

Stage 4. Social systems morality based on social order, law, justice, and duty

Postconventional - highest level (recognizes other moral courses, explores options, decides own moral code

Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights (evaluates validity of actual laws, social systems for preserving/ protecting basic human rights, values)

Stage 6. Universal ethical principles — moral standard on universal human rights


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• Kohlberg’s theory– Evaluation

• Seventh stage added: cosmic perspective• Peer interaction critical influence

– Criticisms• Moral reasons (overemphasized) can be shelter for

immoral behavior (underemphasized)• Faulty research: difficult to measure morality• Culturally biased? – universality of stages one to four

found in twenty-seven mostly non-European cultures


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Age and Percentage of Individuals at Each Kohlberg Stages

Fig. 13.2

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Mea

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rcen

t of

mor

al r

easo

ning

at

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age

70

1410 16 18

Age (years)

22 24 26 28 3212 34 363020


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• Families and moral reasoning– Family processes, relationships important in

children’s moral development– Gilligan: Kohlberg’s theory is gender-biased

• Korlberg’s theory has justice perspective — focus on rights of individual, one stands alone and independently

• Gilligan’s care perspective — views people in terms of connectedness with others; girls interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships


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• Reasoning – Social conventional reasoning

• Focus on conventional rules created by social consensus to control behavior, maintain society

– Arbitrary and subject to individual judgment

– Moral reasoning • Focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality• Obligatory, widely accepted, somewhat impersonal

– Distinction: personal domain (issues are personal)


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• Moral behavior– Basic Processes of reinforcement, punishment,

and imitation: behavior is situation-specific• Influence of others present like peers

– Resistance to Temptation and Self-Control• Influenced by cognitive rationales, factors

– Social Cognitive Theory of Morality• Distinguishes between moral competence (ability to

produce moral behaviors) and moral performance (actually performing them)


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• Moral feeling– Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

• Foundation of moral behavior is avoid guilt feelings• Superego: moral branch of personality (two parts)

– Ego ideal — rewards for acting ideal standards; sense of pride and personal value

– Conscience — punishes for disapproved acts; feeling guilty and worthless

– Children internalize parents’ standards; self-control replaces parental control


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• Moral feeling– Empathy

• Reacting to another’s feelings with emotional response similar to other’s feelings

• Cognitive component — perspective-taking• Develops from infant’s global empathy• Children’s ability depends on awareness that people

have different reactions to situations


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• Role of emotion in moral development– Contemporary perspective

• When strongly felt, both positive and negative feelings contribute to moral behavior

– Positive feelings: empathy, sympathy, admiration, self-esteem

– Negative feelings: anger, outrage, shame, guilt– Some emotions undergo developmental change

throughout childhood and beyond; interwoven with cognitive and social aspects of development


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• Moral personality– Three key dimensions: thoughts, behavior,

feelings– Fourth dimension: personality

• Core that may constitute moral personality– Moral identity: willpower, integrity, moral desire– Moral character: convictions, persistence, focus– Moral exemplars: being honest and dependable;

having set of virtues reflecting moral excellence» Different types (e.g. brave, caring)


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Contexts of Moral Development

• Parenting– Piaget and Kohlberg discounted parents’ input to

children’s moral development– Parents see themselves in primary role

• Relational quality– Mutual obligations of close relationship– Parental power of discipline, child’s self-control


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• Parenting– Parents see themselves in primary role

• Proactive strategies (monitoring, distracting child)– Cocooning (protect from exposure)– Pre-arming (discuss what could happen, what to do)

• Conversational dialogue– Can be planned or spontaneous– Can encourage, teach, contribute to child’s moral

development


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• Parenting linked to child’s moral behavior– Parenting recommendations

• Warm and supportive, not punitive• Use inductive discipline• Provide opportunities for children• Involve children in decisions• Model moral behaviors• Provide info and foster internal morality


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• Schools– The Hidden Curriculum

• Character Education– Direct moral education approach teaches students

basic moral literacy to prevent immoral behavior, doing harm to themselves or others

• Values Clarification– Helps clarify what life is for, what to work for– Students encouraged to define own values and

understand others’ values


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• Schools– The Hidden Curriculum

• Cognitive Moral Education– Students should value things like democracy and

justice as moral reasoning develops– Instructor is facilitator, not director

• Service Learning– Form of education that promotes social responsibility

and service to community– Benefits student volunteers and recipients


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• Cheating in schools– Moral education concern

• Plagiarism, cheat sheets in exams, purchasing papers• Copying from another student, falsifying lab reports

– 2006 survey: 60% had cheated • Many reasons given for ‘why’

– Power of the situation has impact– Strategies, preventive measures need to occur

• Promote academic integrity


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• Moral education– Integrative approach

• Use reflective moral thinking and commitment to justice• Discuss students’ experiences• Adult coach students in ethical decision making• Students need to experience a caring community

– Integrative ethical education• Program builds on concepts of expertise• Goal: turn moral novices into moral experts


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Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior

• Prosocial behavior– Altruism and Reciprocity

• Altruism: unselfish interest in helping another person, mostly evoked by empathy

– Many prosocial behaviors involve reciprocity; the obligation to return a favor with a favor

• Sharing and fairness: a developmental sequence– Equality (same, fair)– Merit (earned, deserve it)– Benevolence (special treatment for disadvantaged)


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• Prosocial behavior and gender– Females engage in more prosocial behavior than

males– Altruism and volunteerism in older adults

• Older adults engage in more altruistic behavior and volunteering

• Volunteering linked to positive outcomes• More satisfied in life, less depressed and anxious, better

physical health


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• Antisocial behavior – Most children diagnosed with “conduct disorder”– Conduct disorder

• Age-inappropriate behaviors, attitudes violating norms, rights of others

• Behaviors encompass a wide range• Serious conduct problems

– Externalizing or undercontrolled patterns of behavior


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• Antisocial behavior – Juvenile delinquency: adolescents who commit

illegal acts• Broad concept; behaviors from littering to murder• More males than females; female behaviors increasing• Behaviors peak at ages 16 to 18• Early onset more negative outcome than late onset• Rates among minority groups and lower-socioeconomic-

status youth


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• Causes of Juvenile delinquency– Pittsburgh Youth Study:

• Antecedents– Authority conflict– Covert Acts– Overt Aggression

• Not exclusively lower-SES phenomenon; characteristics of lower-SES culture can promote delinquency

– High-status traits for boys– Affected by family and peer relationships


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• Causes of Juvenile delinquency– Family

• Less skilled parents, lack of child monitoring, family discord, inappropriate discipline methods, physical abuse, presence of delinquent siblings or peers

– Cognitive factors• Low self-esteem, low IQ, lack of sustained attention, low

self-control


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Values, Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning

• Spirituality– A sense of connectedness to a sacred other

• Values– Beliefs, attitudes about the way things should be– Measured by asking what one’s goals are– Youth of today have stronger interest in welfare of

society• Lack of clear goals leads to only short-term focus


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• Religion and spirituality– Societies use many methods to ensure people

carry on religious traditions– Most adopt religious teachings of upbringing– Most religious change occurs in adolescence– Positive relationship or secure attachment with

parents make adolescents more likely to adopt religious orientation of parents


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• Religion and spirituality– Piaget’s views

• Adolescents think more abstractly, idealistically, logical• Logical reasoning gives ability to form hypothesis and

systematically sort through religious questions

– Religion important to most adolescents• Link between identity and spirituality in adolescence and

early adulthood


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• Positive role of religion in adolescents’ lives– Church going linked to better grades from low-

income backgrounds– Lower rates of delinquency and drug use– Better ability to cope with problems– More sensitivity to well-being of others,

commitment to community service


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• Positive role of religion in adults’ lives– More important to women than men– Important to adults around the world; importance

may change with aging• 70% of Americans religious

– African Americans and Latinos show higher rates of religious participation

– Individual differences in religion in middle adulthood


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• Religion and health– Religious sect members resist using medical

treatments and pain-relieving medications– Positive link between religious commitment and

health• Lifestyle: lower drug use• Social networks: more connected to others• Coping with stress; more comfort and support• More optimism, positive perceptions of pain, loss


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• Religion in older adults– Linked to mortality; church attendance lowers risk– Increased more for women than men– Linked to spirituality in early adulthood– Faith is most significant influence in one’s life– Put faith into practice more often– Highest commitment linked to highest self-esteem,

life satisfaction, and optimism


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• Religion in older adults– Has psychological benefits

• Derived sense of meaning in life

• Meaning in Life– Frankl’s three most distinct human qualities

• Spirituality, freedom, responsibility

– Quest for meaningful life is need for• Purpose and values• A sense of self-efficacy and self-worth


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The End

A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

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