A study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and...

SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF MUSLIM FEMALE HEADS OF

HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC,

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS

PUTTALAM DISTRICT

SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF MUSLIM FEMALE HEADS OF

HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC,

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS PUTTALAM DISTRICT

2015

The views and opinions expressed in this publication do not represent the views of FOKUS.

Published by:FOKUS WOMEN34 A, Sulaiman AvenueColombo 5Sri LankaTel/Fax: +94112055404Web: http://www.fokuskvinner.no

Cover Photo: Muslim Women’s Development Trust (MWDT)

Printed and Published in 2015

All rights reserved. This material is copyright and not for resale, but may be reproduced by any method for teaching purposes. For copying in other circumstances for re-use in other publications or for translation, prior written permission must be obtained from the copyright owner.

Printed and bound in Sri Lanka by Wits Originals

iii

FOREWORD

FOKUS WOMEN undertook this research in 2014. The available literature on female heads of households indicated many gaps and there was a need to clarify the conceptual understanding of who a female head of the household (FHH) is. This common understanding among development actors and state institutions is crucial as a first step towards working on the issues of FHH.

This study focuses on the status of Muslim female heads of households in the Puttalam district. These Muslim FHH face multiple challenges when they access their economic, social and cultural rights. The situation is further complicated for these women who have been displaced due to the war.

The methodology included the administering of a questionnaire to 1000 Muslim FHH, a pre –test pilot study, a focus group discussion, interviews and other research, including internet based research.

FOKUS WOMEN believes that the findings of this research study will contribute to post war reconstruction efforts and to a greater understanding of the issues faced by Muslim FHH with regard to their economic, social and cultural rights, an area hitherto under researched. The research will also contribute to more targeted interventions with Muslim FHH.

FOKUS WOMEN would like to thank Dr. Fazeeha Azmi, Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya for undertaking the research for this study and for writing the report. FOKUS WOMEN would also like to thank Juwairiya Mohideen, Muslim Women’s Development Trust (MWDT) for assisting in the research by carrying out the quantitative and qualitative research for the study.

Shyamala GomezCountry Director FOKUS WOMEN

iv Survey on the Status of Muslim Female Heads of Households and Their Access to ESCR - Puttalam District

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was carried out for FOKUS WOMEN for the “Survey on the Status of Female Heads of Households including Widows and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) in Puttalam District”. The project would not have been possible without support from a number of people to whom I am deeply indebted. First, I would like to express my gratitude to Shyamala Gomez, Kamaleswary Letchumanan and Thilina Madiwala of FOKUS WOMEN, who have taken time to initiate the research topic and for being constructive, professional and consistent.

From the beginning of this research, I have had the privilege of sharing my interests and concerns about the research topic with Ms. Juwairiya Mohideen from Muslim Women’s Development Trust (MWDT). Being an activist and an experienced woman in Muslim women’s issues, the guidance, knowledge sharing, insightful comments and coordination given by Ms.Juwairiya Mohideen throughout the project should be appreciated with sincere thanks.

I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to all of the dedicated women and men from Muslim Women Development Trust, who contributed to this research. The generosity they shared in their work and the possibilities and challenges they faced has greatly contributed to the understanding of the potential issues associated with accessing ESCR of FHHs in the future. I thank A.H. Riswan, M. Faheema Behum, Z.F. Hela, A.C. Suraiya Gaphoor, A.K. Siththi Saleema, R.U.S.E. Vinijini, I.S.Jesmin, M. Mahnas, I.F.Ihshana, H.R.Rilha for their devotion to a successful field work and data entry work.

I also would like to thank Ms. Suganya Ganesamoorthy and Ms. Juliet Roshani who are attached to the Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya who have helped me with data analysis and map. Finally, but most importantly, I would like to thank all those interviewees, who gave their time and shared their stories with me and the research team for the completion of this report.

Dr. Fazeeha AzmiSenior LecturerDepartment of GeographyUniversity of PeradeniyaSri Lanka

May 2015

FoKUS Women v

CONTENTSForeword iiiAcknowledgements iv

Chapter I 1OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND 11.1. Introduction 11.2. What are ESCR? 21.3. Women and ESCR 31.4. Conceptual clarification 31.5. Households 51.6. The Problem and its importance 51.7. Objectives 61.8. Context of the study: War, forced migration in Puttalam 61.9. Background: Forced Migration 71.10. Post war Puttalam 81.11. Conclusion 8

Chapter II 9RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 92.1. Introduction 92.2. Methods 92.3. Selection of the research area 102.4. Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions 112.5. Time period of residence 122.6 Limitation of the study 132.7. Data Analysis 132.8. Conclusion 14

Chapter iii 15BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 153.1. Introduction 153.2. Age 153.3. Displacement status 163.4. Reasons for displacement 163.5. Education 173.6. Age at marriage 183.7. Reasons for under age marriage 183.8. Reasons for becoming FHHs 213.9. Length of the time responsible for households 233.10 Conclusion 24

vi Survey on the Status of Muslim Female Heads of Households and Their Access to ESCR - Puttalam District

Chapter IV 25BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS 254.1 Introduction 254.2. Sex and Age 254.3. Employment of FHHs members 274.4. Level of Education 284.5. Civil status of other household members 284.6. Other household earners 294.7 Conclusion 30

Chapter V. 31ACCESS AND RIGHT TO ADEQUATE STANDARD OF LIVING 315.1. Introduction 315.2. Ownership of house 315.3. Housing condition: materials of construction 325.4. Access to electricity 345.5. Toilet facilities 355.6 Source of energy used for cooking 365.7. Source of drinking water 365.8 Quality of water 375.9. Problems related to water 385.10. Access and right to food 385.11. Access to technologies 415.12. Conclusion 42

Chapter VI 43

ACCESS TO WORK 436.1. Introduction 436.2. Reasons for unemployment 436.3. Type of employment 456.4. Nature of employment 466.5. Working hours per day 466.6. Income satisfaction 476.7 Availability of holidays 476.8 Gendered wage differences 486.9 Reported monthly income 496.10 Work environment 506.11 Membership in labour unions or organization 506.12 Future income security in private or government sector 516.13. Conclusion 52

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Chapter VII 53ACCESS TO ECONOMIC RESOURCES 537.1. Introduction 537.2 Possession of assets 537.3 Land and its use 607.4. Knowledge about land related institutions 627.5. Issue of debts 647.6 Conclusion 65

Chapter VIII 66ACCESS TO SERVICES 668.1. Introduction 668.2 Available services 668.3. Access to educational services for children 668.4. Problems in accessing education 678.5 Access to adult education or vocational training centres 708.6 Access to health services 718.7 Access to financial services to treat health related issues 738.8 Awareness about health related programmes 758.9 Influence of culture on accessing services 758.10 Satisfaction of available services 778.11 Conclusion 77

Chapter IX 78ACCESS TO SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL RESOURCES 789. 1 Introduction 789.2 Access to social support system 789.3 Social interaction 799.4 Participation in cultural events 839.5 Access to political resources 849.6 Membership in organizations 869.7 Conclusion 87

Chapter X 88PHYSICAL SECURITY AND VIOLENCE 8810.1 Introduction 8810.2 Awareness of violence 8810.3 Perpetrators of Violence 9010.4 Awareness and action about reporting violence 9110.5 Conclusion 93

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Chapter XI 94CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9411.1 Introduction 9411.3 Socio economic background of the informants 9411.4 Access to economic resources 9511.5 Access to socio cultural and political resources 9611.6 Domestic and physical violence 9611.7 Recommendations 97

List of Reference 99Questionnaire 101

List of FiguresChapter I 1

Box 1: Basic List of ESCR 2

Chapter II 9Table: 2.2.1 Distribution of population 10Map: 1 Location of study areas. 11Figure: 2.4.1 Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions 12Figure: 2.5.1 Time period of residence 12

Chapter iii 15Table: 3.2.1 Age distribution of the respondents 15Figure: 3.3.1 Displacement status 16Table: 3.4.1 Reasons for displacement 16Table: 3.5.1 Respondents’ level of education 17Figure: 3.6.1 Age at Marriage 18Figure: 3.7.1 Reasons for early marriage 19Figure: 3.7.2 Correlation between age at marriage and level of education 20Table: 3.8.1 Reasons for becoming responsible for households 21Figure: 3.9.1 Length of the time responsible for households 23Figure: 3.9.2 Age at present and length of taking household responsibility 24

Chapter IV 25Figure: 4.2.1 Age distribution of FHHs household members 25Figure: 4.2.2 Age and sex distribution of FHHs members 26Figure: 4.3.1 Status of Employment - FHHs members 27Figure: 4.3.2 Sex and employment status of FHHs’ household members 27Table: 4.4.1 Level of education of FHHs family members 28Figure: 4.5.1 Civil status of other household members 28Figure: 4.6.1 Types of jobs done by other household members. 29

FoKUS Women ix

Chapter V. 31Figure: 5.2.1 House ownership 31Figure: 5.3.1.1 Type of material used for constructing walls 33Figure 5.3.2.1 shows the construction materials used for roofs in FHHs. 33Figure: 5.3.3.1 Material used for floor 34Figure: 5.4.1 Access to electricity 35Figure: 5.5.1 Types of toilet facilities 35Figure: 5.6.1 Energy used for cooking 36Figure: 5.7.1 Main source of drinking water 36Figure: 5.8.1. Quality of water 37Figure: 5.9.1 Problems related to water 38Figure: 5.10.1.1 Monthly food expenditure patterns 39Figure: 5.10.1.2 Methods use to manage food expenditures 40Figure: 5.10.1.3 Sources of support to solve the problem of high food

expenditure41

Chapter VI 43

Figure: 6.2. Reasons for unemployment 44Figure: 6.3.1 Types of employment among FHHs 45Figure: 6.4.1 Nature of employment 46Figure: 6.5.1 Distribution of working hours per day 46Figure: 6.6.1 Income satisfaction of FHHs 47Figure: 6.7.1 Availability of holidays 47Figure: 6.8.1 Wage difference 48Figure: 6.10.1 satisfactory work environment 50Figure: 6.11. Reasons for not joining 50Figure: 6.12 Future income security 51

Chapter VII 53Table: 7.2.1 Asset possession of FHHs 54Figure: 7.2.1 Type of ownership of land 55Figure: 7.2.2. Different types of ownership 56Figure: 7.2.3 Title owners of state land 56Figure: 7.2.4 Size of the land 57Figure: 7.2.5 Savings from last one year. 58Figure: 7.2.6 Sources of financial assistance 60Figure: 7.4.1 Institutions approached for land issues 62Figure: 7.4.2 Problems faced by FHHs in offices 63Figure: 7.5.1 Amount of loan to be re-paid. 64Figure: 7.5.2 Different sources FHHs borrowed money 65

x Survey on the Status of Muslim Female Heads of Households and Their Access to ESCR - Puttalam District

Chapter VIII 66Figure: 8.4.1 Monthly expenditure on children’s education 68Figure: 8.4.2 Distance to schools 69Table: 8.4.1 Mode of transport 70Figure: 8.5.1 Reasons for not following adult education or vocational

training courses70

Figure: 8.6.1 Health issues in the household 71Figure: 8.6.2 Places access for treatment 72Figure: 8.7.1. Reasons for not being able to solve health related financial

needs.74

Figure: 8.7.2 Different sources of help for health related issues 74Figure: 8.9.1 Reasons identified under cultural barriers 76Figure: 8.10.1 Reasons for not complaining 77

Chapter IX 78Figure: 9.2.1 Daily interaction patterns 79Figure: 9.3.1 Frequency of outside interaction of FHHs 80Figure: 9.3.2 Reasons for going out rarely 80Figure: 9.3.3 Reasons for social discrimination 81Figure: 9.3.4 Reasons for interaction with people from other religions 82Figure: 9.3.5 Reasons for not interacting with people from other religions. 83Figure: 9.4.1 Reasons for not participating in cultural events 84Table: 9.5.1 Political involvement 85Figure: 9.5.1 Political information sources FHHs access 85Figure: 9.6.1 Membership in different organizations 87

Chapter X 88Figure: 10.2.1 Awareness level of violence 88Figure: 10.2.2 Type of violence taking place 89Figure: 10.2.3 Places violence/harassment is prevalent 90Figure: 10.3.1 Perpetrators of violence/harassement 91Figure: 10.4.1 Actions taken regarding violence 92Figure: 10.4.2 Reasons for remaining silent 92

1

CHAPTER I

OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND

1.1. IntroductionEnsuring human rights for all citizens is essential for a dignified life. The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) recognizes the importance of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) as universal and interdependent body of rights (UN, 2005). ESCR are specified in the Articles 16 and 22-29 of the UDHR. To further endorse this claim, in 1967 the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) was adopted by the UN General Assembly to protect economic, social and cultural rights. This has been ratified by 137 states. In addition to these efforts, the World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993 provided the platform for a renewed effort to strengthen the human rights by acknowledging the universal, indivisible, interdependent and inter-related nature of human rights in a more broader and interconnected way. More than 150 UN member countries have committed to fulfil their obligation to ensure ESCR through legal and institutional frameworks. Over the past half a century, ESCR were re-emphasised through various international and local agreements and declarations. As a result, during the last three decades, there has been an increasing interest in economic, social and cultural rights, especially in the areas of human rights and development. The failure of development policies, plans, practices and strategies has created spatially and socially marginalized, vulnerable groups who are the victims of such development efforts. As a result new efforts to address development and human rights related issues have revitalized the interest in ensuring ESCR for everyone. As mentioned in the introduction, the international and national interests for a re-focus on ESCR are now taken up even by grassroot community level organizations. However, even the renewed interest in some cases is limited to discourse on papers alone. Unlike civil and political rights, economic, social and cultural rights are difficult to implement immediately. These rights should be implemented in a progressive manner. Meanwhile, during the last couple of decades, in academia, government policy making and planning, and among NGOs, ESCR has gained prominence in developing countries in an unprecedented way. Although civil rights and political rights have been identified in the human rights long before, acknowledgement of economic, social and cultural rights did not receive the due attention they ought to have. The protection, promotion and the advancement of ESCR of every individual is important to achieve a decent living and live with dignity in the society.

2 Survey on the Status of Muslim Female Heads of Households and Their Access to ESCR - Puttalam District

1.2 What are ESCR?ECSR includes essential elements of a decent and dignified life. According to UN (2008) ESCR are:

Economic, social and cultural rights are those human rights relating to the workplace, social security, family life, participation in cultural life, and access to housing, food, water, health care and education1

Box 1: Basic List of ESCRWorkers’ rights, including freedom from forced labour, the rights to decide freely to accept or choose work, to fair wages and equal pay for equal work, to leisure and reasonable limitation of working hours, to safe and healthy working conditions, to join and form trade unions, and to strike;

The right to social security and social protection, including the right not to be denied social security coverage arbitrarily or unreasonably, and the right to equal enjoyment of adequate protection in the event of unemployment, sickness, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond one’s control;

Protection of and assistance to the family, including the rights to marriage by free consent, to maternity and paternity protection, and to protection of children from economic and social exploitation;

The right to an adequate standard of living, including the rights to food and to be free from hunger, to adequate housing, to water and to clothing

The right to health, including the right to access to health facilities, goods and services, to healthy occupational and environmental conditions, and protection against epidemic diseases, and rights relevant to sexual and reproductive health;

The right to education, including the right to free and compulsory primary education and to available and accessible secondary and higher education progressively made free of charge; and the liberty of parents to choose schools for their children;

Cultural rights, including the right to participate in cultural life and to share in and benefit from scientific advancement, and protection of authors’ moral and material interests from scientific, literary or artistic production

Source: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf

Within the above context, various rights are identified and expressed in a very flexible manner as these rights can overlap when defined within a rigid framework. It is also important to understand that ESCR can be expressed in different ways (not deviating from the main focus) in different country contexts2. The research conducted includes context specific to ESCR elements in its focus without deviating from internationally defined inclusion criteria.

1 http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf Accessed on 15.10.2014.2 http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ESCR/FAQ%20on%20ESCR-en.pdf Accessed on 15.10.2014.

FoKUS Women 3

1.3 Women and ESCRESCR are an essential part of human rights. The dimensions listed in the above Box (1) in terms of ESCR are not merely an option, but are essential for security, freedom and happiness of human beings. As human beings are hierarchically positioned in the society on the basis of various intersections such as ethnicity, caste, class and gender, a comprehensive approach to ESCR should acknowledge these intersections too.

Among different intersections ‘gender’ is an important aspect that needs careful consideration. Achieving ESCR is defined by gendered nature of societies, which locate women differently in their social spaces. Ensuring ESCR of women will bring tangible improvements in their lives. Do all women know about ESCR? Do all women have access to ESCR? Do proper implementation and monitoring of ESCR take place? How do governments ensure such rights are protected and ensured? What are the impediments women faces in achieving ESCR? Were there any attempts to understand the complex nature of ESCR as women are not a homogeneous category? Are violations of these rights taking place? All these questions posed above reveals that accessing, implementing, monitoring, achieving and advocating ESCR is complex. However, if neglected, decreased access to ESCR can result in the rise of socio, economic and cultural inequality.

Women play a significant role in households and communities in bringing socio economic development. However, their important role is not translated into equality of opportunity in gaining access to different types of resources. Although men and women share common constraints in access to various types of resources, opportunities are often curtailed for women who tend to face additional constraints due to their gender which cuts across social, economic, cultural and political divides. Such divisions are created and sustained by socio cultural norms. The resulting differences can push women to more vulnerable and marginalized positions. Although women are more likely to be in disadvantaged positions in their societies due to already established gender norms, the position of women who for various reasons have taken up the family responsibility, may be worse as they might face multiple challenges in accessing ESCR. The commonly painted picture of these women are as passive victims. They are located in disadvantaged positions in terms of access to various dimensions of ESCR and affected by high dependency burdens, burden of poverty, and vulnerability. Apart from these challenges some women also have to play ‘triple roles’ in the absence of family or kinship support. Further, due to their lower social identity, reduced social space, and embedded cultural expectations in their own societies, these women have to navigate difficult terrains and negotiate their positions using their active/passive resistance or agency.

1.4 Conceptual clarificationReference to women in terms of female headed households (FHHs) has raised many problems associated with practical applications and conceptual clarifications (Buvinic and Gupta 1997; Chant 1997; Chant 1999; Fuwa 2000; Ruwanpura 2003). As they are diversely represented and positioned in different societies, there is hardly any agreement as to who constitutes FHHs. According to UN (1991) FHHs are identified as residential units, where no peer adult males reside. This identification is problematic as there are residential units, where adult males are


remaining at home without any contribution to the households or they are temporarily out of the households for a long or short time. Apart from this conceptual confusion, it is important to consider the problem of universal application of the term. They are viewed and defined differently in different socio-cultural contexts. In patriarchal societies of South Asia, though women are responsible for the socio, economic well-being of their households, accepting them as heads of the households remains a challenge. This is partly due to the fact that the way ‘household headship’ is defined by the government in the official documents and projects and programmes (which always assume men as the head of the households). Gendered ideologies of the societies, those hardly accept women as heads of the households, though women serve as the main financial contributor, primary care taker of the family and perform all household chores is another form of influence which undermines women’s single contribution to the dependent family. Due to the gendered ideologies existing in patriarchal societies, even in the presence of an adult male, who is not performing any of the afore said responsibilities, women who are performing all those responsibilities are not treated as heads of the households. They silently bore the burden of the family in various spheres (Ruwanpura and Humphries 2004). At the same time in such societies, women too are not openly willing to accept themselves as the ‘heads’ of the households due to the notion of power reflected by the terminology. A similar attitude exists among the respondents of this study.

Further, women who are identified as FHHs do not constitute a homogeneous group from an intersectionality perspective. They may differ according to their age, education, caste, class, length of time that they have been heading the households, access to resources, capabilities and etc. Apart from these differences, a wide range of factors have led women to take over responsibilities of their families. It is evident that the increasing life expectancy of women, increasing access to employment and education for women, husband’s illness, death or disappearance, rising separation and divorce rates and demographic aging has been responsible for, increasing number of women to take responsibilities of their families.

The current study acknowledges FHHs are not a homogeneous category. Within their society FHHs positions vary according to their marital status, age, education, employment, and reasons for becoming responsible for households. In this study the categorization of FHHs include, unmarried women, married with husband remaining in the household without any economic contribution, widows, grandmothers, divorced, separated/deserted women, women whose husbands have been absent for more than five years for economic reasons and women whose husbands have disappeared3. Apart from the aforesaid categories, the reasons women identified for the question ‘why have you became responsible for your household?’ give a clear picture on the determinant of FHHs in the study areas. The study emphasises that the FHHs label includes much diversity and it is not a unique identity. Further it should be accepted that the label of FHH is merely a categorization and within this category there are individuals with different voices. The study also questions their portrayed identities in the society as poor, marginalized and powerless group as they are not homogeneous.

3 The definition of female-headed household adopted for this study, is similar to the ILO: Household where either no adult males are present, owing to divorce, separation, migration, non-marriage or widowhood, or where men, although present, do not contribute to the household income. http://www.ilo.org/thesaurus/default.asp Accessed on 12.01.2015.

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1.5 HouseholdsSimilar to female headship, the concept of household is also problematic when it comes to the context it is applied. Unlike in Western societies, the non-Western society’s, application of the concept of household is difficult as it is defined by social structures in practice. A household in a non- Western society, especially like in the context of Sri Lanka, can mean kinship unit, economic unit or simply a housing unit. In Sri Lanka, one often cited definition of the term is the one given by the Department of Census and Statistics (DCS) in its population and housing survey. For the official purpose, the DCS defines households as “A household may be (i) as a one-person household or multi-person household. A one person household is one where a person lives by himself and makes separate provision for the food. A multi-person household is one in which a group of two or more persons live together and have common arrangements for provision of food. Household includes not only members of the family such as husband, wife and children but also others such as relatives, boarders, domestic servants etc. who live with the family and share common arrangements of cooking and the partaking of food with them. Lodgers of a household, who have their own separate arrangements for meals, are considered as a separate household”4.

1.6 The Problem and its importanceIn Sri Lanka the latest available statistics show that the number of women, responsible for households has risen. According to DCS (2001, 2011), the percentage of FHHs has increased from 19.2 % in 1990 to 23 % in 2010. This demographic trend has created new areas of policy concerns, which should understand the needs of this special category of people. The reasons for the increase in FHHs is in Sri Lanka are associated with war and other factors. Unlike their counterparts (Male headed households), FHHs face multiple challenges in accessing Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to live a dignified life. The situation can be worse for women who live in displacement due to war related forced migration. Further, being FHHs belonging to the Muslim community, the challenges, vulnerabilities and risks they face in their everyday life may deny their access to ESCR for their personal wellbeing and the wellbeing of their dependent family members.

At the same time it is also pertinent to note, the heavy research focus given generally to Northern Muslim IDPs and especially to Muslim women IDPs can easily undermine the problems faced by the host communities and especially FHHs in that community. It is therefore, important to acknowledge that the process of migration, whether it is forced or voluntary, creates changes in both the sending and receiving areas. The changes can have impacts on the socio, economic, political and cultural fabrics of the displaced and host communities (Azmi 2012; Brun 2000, 2008; Shanmugaratnam 2001). The sudden influx of IDPs from Northern provinces in 1990 considerably altered the everyday life of both the host and IDP communities and had a long lasting impact. Therefore, this study includes both FHHs from host and IDP communities, though it doesn’t try to look at the differences in terms of the identified objectives, relevant to both groups which are beyond the scope of this study.

4 http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=ConceptsandDefinitions&gp=StudyMaterials&tpl=2 Accessed on 02.02.2015


Although forced migration has opened up new spaces for women by forcing them to take up responsibilities and provided them with the space for public interaction and hence could have helped them to integrate in the process of empowerment, the extent to which these changes impact on FHHs is limited. The findings of this research will be important in the context of post-war reconstructions, as FHHs’ position regarding ESCR is an under explored element. The failure to ensure ESCR of FHHs through possible mechanism in accordance with international standards can undermine the stability of peace and could discourage the ability and interest of FHHs to participate in post conflict reconstruction activities directly or indirectly.

While the government is paying attention to the physical infrastructural development and resettlement of IDPs, the issues faced by FHHs, get scant attention in post war development. Even in the above mentioned areas, women’s voices are muted (Azmi, 2012).

1.7 Objectives The overall objective of this study is to gather systematic information on Muslim women who are responsible for households in Puttalam, including widows5 with special focus on their access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) to take effective measures to address the issues faced by them.

Major objective:

• Exploring issues related to FHHs in accessing ESCR and participation in public life.

The secondary objectives of the study are as follows:

• Understanding their Land and Housing rights.

• Understanding Physical Security and Violence related to FHHs.

• Document the Prevalence of Underage Marriage.

1.8 Context of the study: War, forced migration in Puttalam The District of Puttalam located in North Western Province has sixteen Divisional Secretariat Divisions consisting of 548 Grama Niladari divisions. According to the Department of Census and Statics (DCS, 2012), the total population of the district is 759720, in which males accounts for 39728 and females accounts for 42310. The research was carried out in four DS divisions. The reason for selecting these DS divisions was influenced by the fact that these areas are considered as high Muslim concentrated areas in terms of population, which is pertinent to the research topic. Since 1990, Puttalam has witnessed a massive change in its demographic structure as a result of the expulsion of Muslims from the Northern districts by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE). The sudden influx of internally displaced persons (IDPs) not only changed the demo-graphic structure of Puttalam, but also created socio, economic, cultural and political problems

5 Herein after, when referring to FHHs it includes widows too.

FoKUS Women 7

as it considerably altered its landscape in terms of above aspects. The Muslims who were ex-pelled from their home lands continued to live in Puttalam for more than two decades as they could not return to their homes as expected. The protracted nature of living in displacement not only created problems for themselves as IDPs but also to the host community. Such issues have received wider scholarly attention (Brun 2000, 2008; Hasbullah 2001; Shanmugaratnam 2001; Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka 2011; Azmi 2012). However, less attention has been paid to the issues faced by FHHs in Puttalam both belonging to the IDP and host community. Any development activities in Puttalam should consider its socio, economic, cultural and demo-graphic contexts carefully as the district attracted large number of IDPs since 1990 that altered the socio, economic, cultural, demographic and political landscape of the area. It is also pertinent to note such development programmes should not have the ‘one size fits for all’ approach due to the complex socio, economic and cultural and demographic landscape of the district. Among the population groups in Puttalam, FHHs from host and IDP communities need careful attention. During the initial pilot visits to Puttalam regarding this project, informal discussions with women from these categories, activists and voluntary social service individuals, revealed various types of socio, economic and cultural problems this particular groups encounter in their everyday life.

1.9 Background: Forced MigrationThe twenty six years long war between the government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) have made considerable changes in the socio economic, cultural, demographic and political landscape of Sri Lanka. One of the severe impacts of war is the displacement of people. The war displaced thousands of people internally regardless of their ethnicities, although the nature of impacts and the geography of displacement varies. The discussion on Sri Lankan IDPs has been reignited by the war related IDPs crisis since 1990s. However, the problem has a much longer history. The expulsion of nearly 80,000 Muslims from Northern Province by the LTTE in 1990 is an important event in Sri Lanka’s internal displacement history. In 1990 almost all of the Muslims in the North were forced to leave by the LTTE. They were given about 2 to 48 hours to leave their homes. Muslims who were forced to leave made their way towards government-controlled areas in Vavuniya and Anuradhapura, as well as to Puttalam District on the North-Western coast (Brun 2000). The IDPs who arrived in ad hoc groups to Puttalam were allocated to various welfare centres in, what could best be described as a random allocation. Those who are living in Puttalam, over the course of two decades, have continued to live in what are generally called as open camps, which have not been affected by the conflict.

Statistics are not available regarding the exact number of IDPs at present due to various complicated problems. However, according to Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka (2011) in 2009, there were 74,433 IDPs in 17,302 families in Puttalam district. They were living in 172 relocation centers. Among the displaced 77,965 displaced persons from 18,945 families returned to their places of origin and 8,466 displaced persons from 2,247 families is still living in the Puttalam district (Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka 2011). Among the displaced people, even though it is difficult to gather information about the number of women, as sex specific data is not available on an island wide basis, women form a significant number in the IDP community.


1.10 Post war Puttalam In 2009, Sri Lankan government militarily defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE), and stepped in to a post war period. The war between the two parties considerably altered the socio, economic and political landscape of the country from 1983-2009. It caught wider political and academic attention nationally, regionally and globally. End of the war created an environment for the government to invest in larger infrastructural programmes in the North and East and rest of the country. While the government was able to invest is massive infrastructural projects, the attention paid to meaningful recovery in terms of psycho social aspects has been criticized for its weaknesses and lack of coverage (Herath 2012; Azmi 2012). Another important negligence by the government is the failure to recognize the intersectionality of the war affected people. ‘One size fits for all’ is not the correct approach to recovery as the affected people varies in terms of ethnicity, religion, marital status, gender, age, IDP status and geographical location.

Besides all the weakness associated with post war reconstruction programmes, moving from a war to post war situation has created lots of hope among the people who were affected by the war. Though new hope has been created, since the official end of the war in 2009 May, the year 1990, still remains as a bitter memory in the history of Northern Muslims, who were expelled from the Northern Province without any logical reason and living in protracted displacement. The post war situation has already opened opportunities for Muslim IDPs to return. However, not all of them opted ‘return’ as a sustainable solution for various reasons. Due to the nature of the protracted displacement, especially the second generation of IDPs have opted to remain in the places where most of them were brought up from their childhood. They hardly have any memories of the places of their former villages. Their decision to remain in the host community has influenced resettlement decisions of many families. Some IDP families did not accept the government invitation for resettlement as they did not want to live as an IDP back in their original villages in the North (Azmi 2012). As a result some families are living a trans- local life as well. .All these have impacts on various dimensions of individual life including that of FHHs.

1.11 ConclusionThis chapter introduced the context of the study and outlined the research problem, objectives and concepts relevant to the research. Access to ESCR is important for achieving gender equality, empowerment and to live a decent life. Although ESCR has been recognized by national and international institutions, in practice the diversity of women is not acknowledged or hardly recognized in programmes and policies. FHHs form a special category of women who needs careful attention in designing programmes and policies related to access to ESCR.

9

CHAPTER II

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

2.1. Introduction The study was conducted in the district of Puttalam, from October– December 2014. From the beginning FOKUS WOMEN and Muslim Women Development Trust (MWDT) were consulted in all steps of the research. A detailed questionnaire was prepared in consultation with FOKUS WOMEN and MWDT, according to major objectives of the research. After finalizing the questionnaire, a one day workshop was conducted to discuss the application of questionnaire in the field and train the research assistants. Through this training, it was expected that the interviewers will conduct interviews in a uniform manner. The workshop commenced with the introduction to the survey. Then the questionnaire was discussed in detail. The workshop was very helpful as the well experienced field research assistants, came up with new ideas and inputs to improve the field work procedure as the sample population covered 1000 informants.

Next, a pilot study was conducted to pre-test the questionnaire in the field. After the pilot study, necessary changes were made to questionnaires. The pre testing of the questionnaires provided more clarity, time management and a deep comprehension of the field. After the pre-testing few more changes were made. Then the finalized questionnaire was handed over to MWDT’s research team which consisted of 12 members. MWDT’s research assistants started to engage in the field work with a close monitoring by the consultant. The trained field research assistants who had knowledge of the language of the area, filled the questionnaire by travelling from door to door in each DS divisions. The enumeration was conducted between November and December 2014. After the completion of the questionnaires, data were entered using Access software. During the analytical process, data was transferred into excel for practical reasons.

2.2 MethodsThe study used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies though it gave a heavy weightage to quantitative method. A detailed structured questionnaire was employed to generate data. The data gathered were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively where necessary.

The research mainly used quantitative methodology. In order to support quantitative data and supplement data that was not quantifiable, qualitative methods such as a focus group and


interviews were conducted. Quantitative and qualitative data was supplemented by secondary data sources where necessary. A questionnaire survey was conducted with 1000 households. The questionnaire adopted for the survey was based on the literature on ESCR.

A less rigid focus group discussion was held at MWDT office on issues that needed to be discussed in a group. The issues discussed concentrated topics like community and social dimensions as they have a collective dimension. The participants were encouraged to talk to each other rather than answering only to the moderator’s question. Discussion lasted for two hours. It was very useful as it provided range of different responses to one question that led to greater understanding of attitudes, knowledge, opinions and behaviour. Four individual telephone interviews were also conducted to obtain information that some group members in the focus group wanted to discuss confidentially. The research also benefitted largely from, reports, books, journals and internet sources on the selected topic

2.3 Selection of the research areaThe research area was selected using a purposive sampling procedure. Research sites included four Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions in the district of Puttalam out of sixteen. The DS divisions were selected based on the ethnicity of the population. Compared to all other DS divisions in Puttalam district the selected DS divisions had a relatively high concentration of Muslims population or close to the number of the major ethnic group. Distribution of IDPs was also higher in the selected villages. The following table shows the population distribution of the selected DS divisions according to ethnicity.

Table: 2.2.1 Distribution of population

DS divisions Sinhalese Tamils (Sri Lankan)

Tamils (Indian Tamils)

Sri Lankan Moor

Others

Kalpitiya 26,668 11,275 206 46,166 1704

Puttalam 21,800 6,840 893 51,804 704

Vanatavilluwa 9,729 1,336 76 6,249 09

Mundel 25,508 11,929 123 23,656 161

Source: District Statistical Handbook, Puttalam, 2012.

The above table (2.2.1) shows the population distribution of the selected DS divisions highlight-ing the ethnic composition. The following map (1) shows the geographical location of the study areas in which the research was conducted.

FoKUS Women 11

Map: 1 Location of study areas.

Source: GIS Lab, Suganya, G., Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya.

2.4 Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisionsThe geographical coverage of the study consisted of four DS divisions. One thousand FHHs were selected from the selected DS divisions. The selection criteria of respondents were made in consultation with MWDT, using a purposive sampling technique. While the respondents covered different types of FHHs, IDP and host status also formed one basic categorization. This was done, because of the fact that while, IDPs gain considerable attention among NGOs, gov-ernment and individual researchers, the issues faced by the host populations have not received due attention. The following figure (2.4.1.) shows their distribution.


Figure: 2.4.1 Distribution of FHHs according to DS divisions

375 389

179

57

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Kalpitiya Puttalam Mundel Wanathivillu

Source: Questionnaire survey 2014.

According to the above figure majority of the FHHs belong to the Puttalam DS division, followed by Kalpitiya, Mundel and Wanathavillu.

2.5 Time period of residenceTime period the respondents lived in the villages was also collected as it had an influence on the access to Women’s ESCR.

Figure: 2.5.1 Time period of residence

1 - 5 years

5 - 10 years

More than 10 years


The above figure (2.5.1) shows the time period of residence of the FHHs in their present villages. Majority of the respondents are living in the villages for more than 10 years (75%). 13% of the FHHs are living in their present places for the last 6-10 years and 15% of the FHHs are living in their villages from 1-5 years.

FoKUS Women 13

2.6 Limitation of the studyEvery study has its own limitations. Inability to obtain detailed information on gender based violence and abuse, during the questionnaire survey and focus group discussions, due to ethical consideration of the research. There were potential participants who could have provided valuable information to the study. They were approached at the beginning to know their willingness to be included in the study. However, they declined to participate in the study for various reasons. Due to the limited time and focus on the structured questionnaire survey with 1000 FHHs, adequate attention could not be paid to qualitative data collection. Though in a large scale study that involved 1000 FHHs, qualitative data collection is practically difficult with time, by employing such a method more in depth data could have been obtained. The study included women from both IDP and host communities in Puttalam. These women were directly or indirectly affected by the war. However, a focus on differences between these two categories in terms of access to ESCR could form an interesting investigation, though it is beyond the scope of the study.

Food consumption pattern of the households was addressed through only one question in the questionnaire. Respondents did not provide answers or expressed difficulties in answering the question. Access to reliable income related information was a challenge to the field work assistants. Despite the repeated explanation regarding the study, false expectations of assistance by the respondents, in some cases were clearly observed. Hence under reporting of income was evident in responses. It is also the same with the respondents’ expenditure patterns. It was difficult to estimate the actual expenditures of FHHs.

2.7 Data AnalysisData collected through questionnaires were transferred to a Microsoft Access-2007 spread sheet. After preparing grids to collate the data obtained through the questionnaire data entry was done. Answers given to open ended questions were read and grouped into meaningful categories by assigning codes. Analysis for distribution was run for the entire survey questionnaire. This preliminary analysis was important for two reasons. First it was necessary to check and clean the data. The second was to check for disparities and/ or consistencies between the entered data and questionnaires. After completing the scrutiny, tabulated data were presented through, tables, charts and graphs where necessary. Data analysis and presentation were accomplished in a way that they allowed to address the objectives of the research properly. Hence the sequence followed in the question could not be followed in the presentation of the data. Data discussion and presentation is done according to the main focus of the objective.

Qualitative data obtained through focus group discussion, individual interviews and telephone interviews were analysed according to themes. This was done according to the themes identified in the main structured questionnaire. Qualitative methods were used mainly to support the data collected through the questionnaire.


2.8 ConclusionThis section provides an introduction to the research area, different data collection methods used, briefly mentioned how the samples were selected, limitation of the study and data analysis.

15

CHAPTER III

BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

3.1 IntroductionThe present section sets the scene by using the questionnaire survey data in order to provide a profile and the background characteristics of the FHHs that were covered.

3.2 AgeTable: 3.2.1. Age distribution of the respondents

Age Number of women< 20 2

21 - 30 6931 - 40 17641 - 50 20651 - 60 28761 - 70 19471 - 80 6081 - 90 6

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014

The women were requested to indicate their age. It was felt that age is an important variable that could influence FHHs access to ESCR. The table (3.21.1) above shows the age distribution of 1000 FHHs, included in the survey. The ages of the respondents ranged from below 20 to 81-90 years. However, the majority of the respondents were between the age ranges of 51-60 (287). The chances of becoming widows for women peak after the age of 55. This is also related to the age gap between the spouses at their first marriage. It should be noted that the age differences between partners can vary within and between societies. Compared to other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, the age difference between partners in the Muslim society is relatively higher. The category 41-50 has 206 women, while the category 31-40 years has 176 women.


Sixty nine women are in 21-30 years category, which is a relatively young category in term of taking household responsibility. Women in younger ages (below 20), and older ages (above 80) is relatively low in the sample.

3.3 Displacement statusAs mentioned in the introductory sections, the study includes FHHs from both displaced and host communities. Among the respondents, while 65 per cent are displaced and 35 per cent of the respondents come from the district of Puttalam. The following figure (3.3.1.) shows their distribution.

Figure: 3.3.1 Displacement status

NoYes

35%

65%


3.4 Reasons for displacement Following from the question regarding displacement, among the displaced category, (65%) FHHs were asked to identify the reasons for displacement. Following table (3.4.1) shows the reasons for displacement identified by them. Majority of the displaced FHHs belong to war related displacement category. Marriage and education related displacement show very low number of cases. These women were selected as they also can be categorised as FHHs directly or indirectly affected by war.

Table: 3.4.1 Reasons for displacement

Reasons for displacement NumbersWar 632

Education 5Marriage 7

Any Other 3


FoKUS Women 17

3.5 EducationTable (3.5.1.) shows the detail regarding educational levels of the respondents. This variable was selected because of the crucial importance of education in accessing various types of economic, social and cultural rights. It is also evident that improved access to education can result in im-proved, income, health and a better quality of life as schooling helps women to acquire neces-sary skills which increase their chances of employability.

Table: 3.5.1 Respondents’ level of education

Level of Education NumbersNever gone to School 102

Grade 1 - 5 470Grade 6 - 10 304GCE (O/L) 82GCE (A/L) 31

University Education 8Any Other 3


In the above figure high number of FHHs has only received primary education only. Four hundred and seventy women have studied up to grade five. Three hundred and four women have education up to grades 6-10. Eighty two women have studied up to GCE (O/L) and thirty one women have studied up to Advanced level. Only 8 women have received university education. It is also pertinent to note of the 1000 respondents covered, 102 women have never gone to school. Women’s education in the selected study villages are highly influenced by socio-cultural traits. Under any other category women also reported they have completed the courses in religious schools.

Among the older women, who are above the age of 70 years, the socio, economic and cultural context in which they lived their childhood did not encourage the education of girls. Women belonging to this group were born between1925-1945. During the colonial period women’s and especially Muslim women’s access to education was very limited. Besides, the personal benefits assign to education may vary according to different cultures, ethnicities and societies. In Muslim families, especially after attaining puberty girls were once not allowed to continue their education, though that trend has changed considerably. . In the villages in which the research was conducted, level of education was generally low among FHHs to compete in a job market. In a previous study done by the author in Kalpitiya DS division in Puttalam, low level of education was observed among the first generation IDP women, who were older than 60 years (Azmi, 2012).


3.6 Age at marriageAge at marriage, was an important question asked from the respondents as it formed one of the sub objectives. As the figure (3.6.1) below shows, majority (56 %) of the FHHs have married between the age category of 18-30 and 42 % have married below the age of 18, which is a notable feature. It is pertinent to note that only 2% of the respondents have married after thirty years.

Figure: 3.6.1 Age at Marriage

42%

56%

2%

Less Than 18 years

18 - 30 years

More than 30 years


In Sri Lanka’s legal system there is no provision for customary early marriages (Goonesekere and Amarasuriya 2013). The marriage registration ordinance of Sri Lanka recognizes 18 as the minimum age for marriage for both boys and girls. However, regarding marriage parallel to the formal law, personal and customary laws are followed by different ethnicities are also in practice where age at marriage is not clearly defined. Muslims are governed by Muslim Personal law regarding marriage. However, the Muslim marriages and divorce Act (1951) does not mention the minimum age of marriage for women. In the study areas, it was found that 42 % of the respondents (who falls under the married category) have married before the age of 18. Most of these respondents are above 30 years of age at present. The socio economic situation in which these women lived, nearly three decades before was very different to the conditions in which they live at present.

3.7 Reasons for under age marriage Age at marriage for women is an important factor that has direct link to their right to education, health and personal development. It also has implications for their personal and emotional well-being. Although age at marriage in Sri Lanka for females is rising during the last two decades with the socio economic changes taking place in the country, not all women are affected by such changes. The situation in the study villages are captured through the following figure (3.7.1.)

FoKUS Women 19

Figure: 3.7.1 Reasons for early marriage

Family tradition / customs

55%

Economic reasons

23%

Protection

7%

Religious resons 1%

War 0%

Others 14%


The above figure (3.7.1) shows reasons for under age marriage. The reasons identified for underage marriages were related to family traditions and customs, economic reasons, protection and security. Religious reason and war have contributed very low to this pattern, while 23 % of the respondents put forward various other reasons. Among the women who married before the age of eighteen, 55 % of the marriages have taken place due to family traditions and customs6.

This study includes IDP women, women from Puttalam and a smaller percentage of women who migrated to Puttalam because of education and marriage. Among the IDPs, early marriages continued not only because of family tradition but also because of economic reasons and indirect impacts of war and internal displacement. During the focus group discussions, one woman who married at the age of 16 told:

“My mother decided to make wedding arrangements for me, when I was 14 years. I was going to school and I refused to marry. But I was the eldest in the family and my father died nearly one year after the expulsion. Considering my family situation, I said yes. I married in 1993, exactly after two years living in Puttalam”

A widow: from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion.

In the case of IDP women, who are presently above the age of 30 and who got married before the age of 18, the pre-displacement socio-economic contexts were different than the present contexts. Most of these women lived in isolated, remote villages. Such villages were governed by

6 It is also important to note, that the Muslim personal law does not specify any minimum age for marriage. Therefore, in the Muslim community underage marriage is still taking place as it is not forbidden in the religion. This is especially applicable to rural Muslim communities and in places where Muslim population concentration is high. In rural Muslim communities, underage marriage for girls continues to be a social norm though a similar pattern could not be observed among the educated urban Muslim females. In urban areas, opportunities for education and employment delay the age of marriage for women in all ethnicities, including that of Muslims


unwritten socio-cultural rules, in which their gendered position were hierarchical in the society. As shown by the author in a previous study, opportunities for education and employment were restricted for these women. Early marriages for girls were common in those societies. Since their migration to Puttalam, they had to face a new reality and new challenges. While some of the IDPs followed their tradition of underage marriage customs in the case of girls, others valued girl’s education and employment.

The following figure (3.7.2.) shows the link between age at marriage and level of education among the women included in the survey.

Figure: 3.7.2 Correlation between age at marriage and level of education

24

Figure: 3.7.2.Correlation between age at marriage and level of education


Figure (3.7.2) above shows the level of education among FHHs and its link with their

age at marriage. There are considerable disparities in educational attainment by age

at marriage. Regardless of the displacement status, in all cases, the graph indicates

that the percentage of education of women who got married in the 19-30 years

category is higher. The level of education of this age category peaks at primary level

and gradually declines. Those who were below the age of 18 at the time of marriage

could study mainly up to GCE (O/L), while a handful of women could study up to the

GCE (A/L). It also important to note that women who got married above the age of

30 do not show any considerable educational achievements. Since education is

provided free of charge in Sri Lanka, it is important to see the reason for this pattern.

It is also important to consider that delayed marriage age cannot always be linked

with higher educational achievements or women’s labour force participation. In the

above figure those who got married after the age of 31 do not have a good

educational background. The reason for their lower level of education can mainly be

attributed to economic and cultural factors which existed in their societies.

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Not Married < 18 19 - 30 31 <

Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.31"


Figure (3.7.2) above shows the level of education among FHHs and its link with their age at marriage. There are considerable disparities in educational attainment by age at marriage. Regardless of the displacement status, in all cases, the graph indicates that the percentage of education of women who got married in the 19-30 years category is higher. The level of education of this age category peaks at primary level and gradually declines. Those who were below the age of 18 at the time of marriage could study mainly up to GCE (O/L), while a handful of women could study up to the GCE (A/L). It also important to note that women who got married above the age of 30 do not show any considerable educational achievements. Since education is provided free of charge in Sri Lanka, it is important to see the reason for this pattern. It is also important to consider that delayed marriage age cannot always be linked with higher educational achievements or women’s labour force participation. In the above figure those who

FoKUS Women 21

got married after the age of 31 do not have a good educational background. The reason for their lower level of education can mainly be attributed to economic and cultural factors which existed in their societies.

3.8 Reasons for becoming FHHs In studying FHHs access to ESCR, it is crucial to recognize the potentially large heterogeneity among them. Therefore, the study identified reasons for becoming FHHs as an important variable. The following table (3.8.1.) displays the distribution of FHHs based on reasons for taking up the family responsibility.

Table: 3.8.1 Reasons for becoming responsible for households

Reasons Number of respondentsDeath of spouse 601Spouse missing 52Migration of spouse 4Divorce/ separation 248Spouse unemployed 11Spouse sick/old 56Others specify 28


The survey respondents identified six main reasons for taking up the household responsibilities. Among the respondents, widowhood as the reason for becoming responsible for household represents a disproportionally large share. This is because of the fact that most FHHs are formed after the death of the spouse. 601 women have become responsible for their households due to the death of their husbands. During the focus group discussion when widowed women were asked for the causes of their husbands’ death, majority of them mentioned it was due to natural causes such as old age, chronic illness and sudden deaths caused by disease. At the same time, it is also pertinent to note the life expectancy of women is greater in Sri Lanka in comparison with their male counter parts. The other noticeable reason for taking up the household responsibility is divorce or separation which accounted for 248 cases. During the focus group discussions the issue of divorce and separation was highly pointed out by the participants as an increasing challenge in their community. The reasons they identified for this trend was related to personal to economic along with war which impacted on women’s lives in many ways. A separated woman from Puttalam, during the focus group discussion mentioned:

“My husband did not have a job after migrating to Puttalam. He was running small shop when we were in Mannar. We could not do the same business in Puttalam as we lost everything after becoming IDPs. After five years of life in Puttalam, he married another woman as her family gave her a good dowry”

A separated woman: 27.09.2014. Puttalam, focus group discussion.


“I am helping foreign employment recruitment agents to recruit poor women from our community to go to Middle Eastern countries for employment. I earn a good income out of this business. But my husband did not like my job and he started to find faults with everything I did. I could not continue this marriage. I have one child. I decided to get a divorce from him”

A separated woman: 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion.

Women who were divorced or separated included women who were legally and formally divorced; women who left their husbands on their own free will as they could not get a formal divorce and women who have been deserted by their partners. During the key informant interview, with a female activist it was pointed out that divorce and separation is on rise in the villages in which the research was conducted. During the focus group discussion, the topic of remarriage was also put forward for discussion. However, the chances of getting remarried are comparatively low for women despite the fact that Islamic law permits divorces and remarriage. In practice these laws seem to apply more for men than women. Though allowed for valid reasons remarriage for widows, divorced or separated women is difficult in the already competitive marriage market where dowry is a problem.

Fifty six respondents have become responsible for their households due to the sickness or old age of their husbands or former persons responsible for their households. Among the IDPs physical and mental health of men or former person responsible for the household have a direct influence on women’s economic provider role. In one of the first studies conducted on mental health impacts of forced and prolonged internal displacement among the IDPS in Kalpitiya DS division, Siriwardhana et al. (2013) found that unemployment was significantly associated with mental disorders. During the focus group discussion held, a women mentioned that physical disability and mental disorders of men who provided the economic support for the families forced women to take the responsibility of the households.

52 respondents reported that their spouses were missing. While few of them mentioned that their husbands went missing during the war (kidnapped/killed) others could not give a clear answer. It can be assumed, that the women actually do not know where their husbands were or they do not want to share the information with the interviewer. FHHs who reported that their spouses disappeared or were missing, did not want to identify themselves as ‘widows’ as the term has a socially stigmatized meaning and they themselves do not want to accept it. One per cent of the women (11 women) had to take the household responsibility due to their husband’s unemployment. Reasons for their husbands’ unemployment were mainly identified in relation to unavailability of employment in their villages or unwillingness of their partners to do menial jobs. Though, not significant few women have become responsible for households due to the migration of their husbands. In such cases men have gone mainly to Middle Eastern countries for contract employment. Women falling under this category (only four) have taken up family responsibilities for more than five years. Four women were identified under this category. Women whose husbands have migrated temporarily or for a short contract period were not included in this category. Such cases (28) were reported under the category ‘other’. Under the ‘other’ category women also mentioned their husband’s negligence over family responsibilities made them to take up the family responsibilities. Unmarried women became responsible for

FoKUS Women 23

their households after the death of the former responsible person for the households such as their father, grandfather or a brother.

3.9 Length of the time responsible for householdsLength of the time responsible for household varies considerably among the respondents. It is an important aspect to analyse, as the experience and issues related to accessing ESCR of those who are responsible for their households for a longer period can vary from a FHH who has a shorter period of experience. The following figure (3.9.1) shows the percentage distribution of length of time responsible for households among the surveyed FHHs.

Figure: 3.9.1 Length of the time responsible for households

Less than 1 year 6%

2 -

5 years

23%

6 - 10 years

23%

11 - 15 years

15%

More than 16 years

33%


Majority of them have been FHHs for more than sixteen years (33%). 2- 5 years and 6-10 years form the next highest categories in the hierarchy. 15 % of the women are responsible for the households for 11-15 years and only 6% of the women are responsible for their households for a shorter period which is less than one year.


Figure: 3.9.2 Age at present and length of taking household responsibility


According to the above figure (3.9.2) older aged women have been responsible for their households for a longer time than the others.

3.10 ConclusionThis section presented the background characteristics of the respondents which are essential to evaluate the access to ESCR. The data presented shows the disadvantaged position of the women in terms education, age at marriage, length of assuming responsibilities for the family.

FoKUS Women 25

CHAPTER IV

BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS

4.1 Introduction This section moves from the background information of surveyed women to characteristics of FHHs in terms of sex, age, marital status, level of education and employment status. These data were collected based on other members’ relationship to the women responsible for household. Women interviewed should be located within the context of their households. Because, the households they are responsible for are an important influential factor in their present position and their access to ESCR. In the study villages, generally FHHs lived in extended families. The extended families consisted of same and multigenerational households. On average FHHs covered by the study have 3-6 members. The average number for the total sample of FHHs covered in the study was found to be 3.1 persons.

4.2. Sex and AgeIn terms of sex, 51% of the household members of the FHHs are females while 49% were males. The following figure (4.2.1) shows the age distribution of the FHHs household members.

Figure: 4.2.1 Age distribution of FHHs household members

Source: Field survey, 2014


The category of 0-10 years and 11-20 years is relatively higher in the age distribution of the household members of FHHs. This shows the prevalence of higher dependency ratio. Higher dependency ratios (both children and old age people) will put extra pressure on women who have to bear the sole responsibility of the family. It is also important to note that higher dependency ratios can decrease women’s opportunities for employment. The figure below (4.2.2) shows the age and sex distribution of the FHHs.

Figure: 4.2.2 Age and sex distribution of FHHs members


According to the above figure, except in the age category of 0-10 and 21-30 years, in all the other categories number of females exceeds the number of males, with an exception of the age category 61-70, in which number of males and females are equal. However, it should be noted that number of females in the working age category are high.

FoKUS Women 27

4.3 Employment of FHHs membersFollowing figure (4.3.1) shows status of employment of both males and females in FHHs Household members were asked to state their employment status.

Figure: 4.3.1.Status of Employment - FHHs members

Student44%

Employed

24%

Unemployed 32%


According to the above figure, majority of the dependent members of FHHs’ families are coming under the category of students. While 24% of the adult household members are employed, 32% of the adult household members come under the unemployed category and hence the latter category forms dependents. It is important to look at the employed and unemployed members according to sex too. The following figure (4.3.2) shows the distribution of employed and unemployed family members according to sex.

Figure: 4.3.2 Sex and employment status of FHHs’ household members


From the above figure, it is clear that among the total employed household members in FHHs, males are higher than females. Among the dependent/unemployed household members, students contribute to a larger share followed by women.


4.4 Level of EducationIt is also interesting to note the level of education among the household members have a very interesting pattern as reflected in the following table (4.4.1)

Table: 4.4.1. Level of education of FHHs family members

Level of Education Total Males FemalesNever attended school 262 140 1221-5 th grade 475 223 2526th- GCE (O/L) 997 488 509GCE (A/L) 286 126 160Degree 43 21 22 Any other 31 21 10


According to the above table, women outnumber men from grade one to GCE (A/L). However, when it comes to higher education, number of men exceeds women. It is also important to note that women’s educational attainment is comparatively good up to GCE (O/L). However, it heavily declines after GCE (O/L). This may be due to poor academic achievements in the exam, economic situation of the families, early marriages and socio-cultural attitudes towards the education of girls.

4.5 Civil status of other household members

Figure: 4.5.1. Civil status of other household members


According to the above figure (4.5.1) majority of the household members are not married. This is due to the fact that the majority of the members are children or young people under the age of

FoKUS Women 29

20 years. FHHs among the other members, married, widowed, divorced, separated and spouse missing categories of people are also included.

4.6 Other household earners

Figure: 4.6.1. Types of jobs done by other household members.

Others51%

Governmentservent

4%

Self -employed16%

Private sector employee14%

Agriculture 4%

Hotels 2%

Construction 4%

Business 3%

Fishing 2%


According to the figure (4.3.1) only 24% of the other household members of Women Responsible Households (WHRs) are employed. There are adults who are capable of employment living in the household who are yet unemployed. This shows the economic burden that women who are responsible for their families have to bear.

Among the employed members in the household, more than half is employed in the category identified as ‘others’ (figure: 4.6.1). Under this category, employed household members were engaged various types of employment activities varying from irregular day labour to marriage brokers. Self-employment is cited as the second highest type of employment. Self-employment activities reported varied from preparing spicy snacks to sewing. Self-employment activities clearly reflected a gendered nature in the selection of jobs. 14 % of the family members living in the FHHs reported that they work for the private sector. Some of the male members in the family were working outside the village. Government sector workers, construction workers and agriculture workers each accounted for 4 %. A relatively lower percentage of the members of FHHs are engaged in the hotel sector, business and fishing.


4.7 ConclusionThis section documented information about the other family members of FHHs. Among the household members, students are large in numbers adding extra financial and social responsibilities of FHHs. Further, employment status of the other household members, the types of employment they are engaged in, their level of education and civil status all put extra pressure on women who have to shoulder the responsibility alone.

FoKUS Women 31

CHAPTER V.

ACCESS AND RIGHT TO ADEQUATE STANDARD OF LIVING

5.1 IntroductionWomen, generally in many parts of the world, face discrimination and difficulties in access to adequate standard of living. As a result, for women it is often difficult to achieve an adequate standard of living. Adequate to a decent standard of living is a pre requisite for ensuring women’s access to other rights. Poor access to housing, an unhealthy living environment and lack of access to food can undermine women’s ability to secure health, education and employment. Due to improper, laws, policies, customs and traditions women face disadvantages in accessing an adequate standard of living. In order to understand the standard of living of the respondents, data regarding house ownership, house construction materials, including access to electricity, drinking water, fuel used for cooking, types of toilets, methods of waste disposal, environmental quality and access to food were collected from FHHs.

5.2 Ownership of houseSecuring ownership of house for women is a major strategy for women’s socio economic advancement. Secure ownership of house includes the right to own, use and transfer. In the case of FHHs the possession of a house can contribute to gendered social mobility also.

Figure: 5.2.1 House ownership



In the study majority (490) of the FHHs lived in houses owned by them (figure: 5.2.1.) The other notable category regarding the house ownership of the house is ownership by other household members. Other household members included, brothers, sisters, parents or even married daughters or sons. In the study 53 women are living in houses owned by their husbands, while 56 mentioned different other categories of ownership. 40 women are living in rented houses, while there are no illegal occupancies reported.

In the focus group conducted, women mentioned about the problem of losing inheritance rights after marriage breakdowns and death of the spouse. Some women transfer the house ownership to their husband due to the dowry tradition. One woman in the focus group expressed:

I am living in my parents’ house now. After my husband’s death my in laws asked me to go to my parents’ home. I did not know what to do. The house my husband’s sister living now is the house given for me as dowry by my parents. After our marriage I transferred the ownership of the house to my husband. He has given that house to his sister as dowry. The house is in her name now. I do not have the legal title as it was transferred to her from my husband.

A widow from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion.

5.3 Housing condition: materials of constructionEven though nearly all respondents have their own, family or rented house, the quality of housing varied. Housing conditions such as the type of materials used for the construction of walls, floor and roof can reflect the standard of living of the households. Households that are in better socio-economic position tend to live in houses made of more durable materials.

5.3.1 Types of materials used for wall

The type of material used for wall is an indicator of standard of living. Types of materials used by FHHs in the construction of walls are given in the figure: 5.3.1.1. Overall 496 of all household in the study live in walls constructed with bricks while 408 walls were constructed with cement blocks. 68 households had cadjan walls. Walls constructed with wood, mud and tin are relatively low.

FoKUS Women 33

Figure: 5.3.1.1 Type of material used for constructing walls


5.3.2 Types of materials used for the construction of roof

Figure: 5.3.2.1 shows the construction materials used for roofs in FHHs.


Overall 803 of all households in the villages live in houses with roof tiles while 68 of the households use cadjan and 64 households use asbestos. Tin sheets were used by 46 households and only 5 of the households have constructed their roof with concrete and 14 with other materials. The


number of houses used cadjans for roof shows the level of poverty among the FHHs. At the same time using cadjans as roof materials is risky as fire accidents are always possible.

5.3.3 Types of materials used for floor

Figure: 5.3.3.1 Material used for floor


The above figure (5.3.3.1) shows the material used for construction of floors in respondents’ houses. Majority (917) of the households have cement floors while 56 houses have mud floors. Only 24 households have tiled floors. Other households (3) have mixed type of construction materials for floor. For example, some households have cement for the living room and a mud floor for kitchen.

5.4 Access to electricityAccess to electricity is important for FHHs to improve their socio economic situation. Among the respondents only 15% of the household do not have access to electricity while 85% of the household have electricity (figure: 5.4.1). Financial obstacle remains the most important cause for not having electricity connections.

FoKUS Women 35

Figure: 5.4.1 Access to electricity

Yes

85%

No 15%


5.5. Toilet facilitiesAccess to good sanitation facilities are essential pre condition for a healthy life. The above figure (5.5.1) shows the types of toilets used by the households

Figure: 5.5.1 Types of toilet facilities

Flush toilet

5%

Pit Latrine (Private) 87%

Pit Latrine (Shared)

8%


Household members used flush toilets and pit latrines. Pit latrines are used individually and shared basis. 8 % of the households use shared pit latrines.


5.6 Source of energy used for cooking

Figure: 5.6.1 Energy used for cooking

Wood

91% Kerosene3%

Gas5%

Electricity1%


The type of cooking fuel used by a household reflects both economic status as well as exposure to varying types of pollutants. In FHHs, wood remains the main source of energy for cooking as in the case of many rural areas in Sri Lanka (figure: 5.6.1). 5% of the households use gas and 3% use kerosene. Only 1% of the households use electricity as energy source for cooking. Using electricity is comparatively expensive that other sources.

5.7 Source of drinking water Access to safe drinking water is an important dimension in achieving a good standard of living. Improved access to water can reduce women’s work loads, increase productivity and can provide more time for income generating activities.

Figure: 5.7.1 Main source of drinking water

Piped

44%

Well

11%

Tube Well 14%

Public

4%

Others

27%


FoKUS Women 37

In the study, a greater number of households (44%) have access to piped water, while 27 % use multiple sources of water for their daily consumption needs (figure: 5.7.1). 14% of the households use their own tube wells and 11 % obtain water from wells. Only 4% of the households depend on public wells to obtain water. Among the households those who have access to piped water, 19% mentioned that the water supply is irregular in the areas in which they live.

5.8 Quality of waterThe quality of water is equally important as the access to water. The following figure (5.8.1.) points out the views of the households on the quality of water they use. 71% of the respondents mentioned that they have access to safe water. At the same time 14% of the households mentioned the water they obtain is not safe. 4% of the respondents complained about the salt and chemical mix in the water. 2% of the households mentioned that they notice colour change in the water they consume. 5% of the respondents could not tell anything about the water quality as they are not sure.

Figure: 5.8.1 Quality of water

Safe71%

Not safe14%

Salt 4%

Chemical mixed4%

Colour change2%

Not sure5%



5.9 Problems related to water

Figure: 5.9.1.Problems related to water

Water scarcity in dry period

19%

Buy bottle water (paid)

28%

Water pollution 3%

Financial problem

14%

Disrupted water supply

28%

Other

8%


Access to adequate and improved water supply is essential for families to maintain a healthy life. FHHs mentioned the above problems related to water. Disrupted water supply and buying water bottles were identified as main issues related to water. Being located in the dry zone, the study areas also face seasonal water scarcity during dry seasons where dug wells dry up. FHHs also find it difficult to construct any water storage facilities due to the cost involved. The scarcity of drinking water during the dry season has added to the burdens of the FHHs who are living in the hardest hit areas.

5.10 Access and right to foodAccess to and right to food is a fundamental dimension of human rights. FHHs disadvantaged position in terms of access to food has caught wider scholarship. FHHs disadvantaged position in terms of access to food can push them in to ‘food insecurity’7. Food security is about, availability of food, access to food and use of food. All three are essential to ensure a family’s food security.

Generally the food consumption pattern of the FHHs reflected that they consume comparatively large amount of food items with carbohydrate rice being the staple food for many families8. They consume less amount of food that contains protein. The availability of food containing good

7 The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing “when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life”. http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/ (Accessed on 04.03.2015)

8 In the study a section to know about the food consumption pattern (consumption of specific food items over a month’s period) of FHHs was included. However, that particular section was poorly answered by the respondents as they do not know their food expenditure details, based on different items. Hence information collected during focus group discussion, informal discussions with the field research assistants and key informants are used to write on food consumption patterns

FoKUS Women 39

nutritional value is a serious problem that affects the wellbeing of Food with high nutritional value is expensive for these families. The impacts of reduced dietary diversity can serious harm the health of children in FHH families reducing their ability to be healthy adults in the future.

5.10.1 Monthly food expenditure

Monthly food expenditure of the FHHs was obtained through the administered questionnaire. The following figure (5.10.1.1) shows the amount FHHs families spend on food.

Figure: 5.10.1.1 Monthly food expenditure patterns

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2014.

According to the above figure 48% of the FHHs spend 10,000-15,000 SLR on food monthly. 27% mentioned they spend less than 10,000 SLR. This may be either related to small families, government food assistance, poverty or they grow their food. 16% of the respondents reported they spend 15,001-20,000 SLR, while 6% of the families reported that they spend 20,001-25,000 SLR monthly on food. Only 3% of FHHs mentioned they spend more than 25,000 SLR on food. These families could either be large or comparatively well off. It should also be noted that due to inflation, food prices are rising in Sri Lanka. According to Household Income and Expenditure Survey report of Sri Lanka (2014)9 expenditure on food has continuously been increasing since the census year 1981. In the total income Sri Lankans spend 37.6% of their monthly expenditure on food. Poor families may spend more on food from their total income. Families are affected differently as a result of increasing food prices. FHHs can be a vulnerable category of people in terms of increasing food prices. In the absence of any other members to contribute to family income and lack of access to agricultural land FHH may face the impacts of food price increase seriously. It is also important to note some FHHs cannot participate in food production due to the gendered practices in agriculture and personal inability too. The situation can distance them

9 http://www.cbsl.gov.lk/pics_n_docs/10_pub/_docs/statistics/other/Socio_Econ_Data_2014_e.pdf Accessed on 15.02.2015


from benefitting by engaging in food production in order to reduce the impacts of increasing food prices.

In the study, 19% of the FHHs mentioned that the income they earn is hardly enough to cover the food expenditures. When they were asked how they manage the shortage, they provided different methods they use to solve the problem (5.10.1.2).

Figure: 5.10.1.2 Methods use to manage food expenditures

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

4542

39

4

9

7

Buying f

ood for l

oan

Growin

g food cr

ops

Cut down m

eal t

imes

Cut down u

nneces

sary

food co

nsum

ption Oth

er


42% of the FHHs mentioned that they buy food on loans from neighbouring shops. 39% of the FHHs mentioned that they reduce un-necessary consumptions. 9% of the women reported that they reduce the number of meal times per day. 7% of the households use various other methods to solve the problem. While only 4% grow their own food to manage the increasing food expenditures. 52% of the women said they did not get any types of assistance to manage the problem of rising food expenditures. Those who have obtained various forms of assistance to reduce the food expenditures identified the following sources figure (5.10.1.3).

FoKUS Women 41

Figure: 5.10.1.3 Sources of support to solve the problem of high food expenditure

Neighbours17%

Relatives73%

Friends2%

Religiousorganizations

4%

Government1%

NGOs1%

Other2%


Majority of the women depended on relatives to solve the problem (73%).17% of the women have got helps from neighbours. It is important to note that only 1 % of the women receive government assistance. They also identified the type of assistance they get. It included financial assistance, loans, donations, foods and subsidies.

5.11 Access to technologiesFifty two per cent of the FHHs are using mobile phones while 48 % said they do not. The work burden of women could be alleviated through access to improved technologies. Mobile phones have potential impacts on women’s access to information, employment and income generation. Among the FHHs, 52% of the respondents use mobile phones for various purposes. However, the use of mobile phones in income generation activities has not been fully realized in the area, though some women use mobile phones for their self-employment activities successfully. In self-employment some women are engaged in selling garments imported from India or bought from Colombo. They conduct this business in their homes. Business transactions are taking place through mobile phones. One woman said:

My daughter suggested using mobile phone is easy to do business. It reduces the time I have to travel. She taught me to send SMS and use Viber.

A divorced woman from focus group discussion held in Puttalam, 27.09.2014.

Although gender gap exists in technology penetration of mobile phone in communities is very high in Sri Lanka. Using mobile phones can help to improve the economic participation of women whose mobility is socially challenged. The usage of mobile phones can improve their families’ productivity and earnings and raise their own status too.


5.12 ConclusionThis section summarized the situation of FHHs in terms of adequate standard of living. Physical conditions of their housing were in a satisfactory level. However, it is important to consider that not all of them own houses. FHHs mentioned the problems they face in accessing water resources. They also reported environmental problems, though they did not prioritize it. FHHs face greater difficulties in fighting with the increasing food prices. Although the problem is common to all middle and low income people, the consequences of increasing food prices is severe on FHHs as they are hit the hardest. Their income is not enough to cover their food related expenditures. They spend 60-70% of their income on food consumption. They consume more cheap carbohydrate concentrated food items than protein food due to high prices. The alternative ways they employ to overcome the problems by obtaining loans and cutting down meal times can lead to a crisis situation. In the long run the strategies they use to handle the problem of increasing food prices can eventually affect their welfare and long term food security.

FoKUS Women 43

CHAPTER VI

ACCESS TO WORK

6.1. Introduction Since the adoption of Beijing Platform of Actions in 1995, the need for ‘Gender mainstreaming’ became the slogan of development programs of many governments, including that of Sri Lanka. Though different approaches and efforts have been made to integrate women meaningfully into the mainstream of development such attempts have not been spatially and socially equal or successfully in terms of inclusion.

Improvement in the quantity and quality of employment are pre-requisites to have decent work and a means to provide one’s own identity. Full and meaningful economic participation of women will have a greater impact on fully utilizing the human resources which in turn could contribute to human wellbeing in the long run. Despite the above expectations, majority of the women do not have access to productive resources of employment. Besides, the employment activities they are engaged in at present are not providing them with the expected satisfaction or safety. Improving women’s access to productive resources of employment, income and decent work are road map to women’s economic empowerment. Though not fully recognized by national or international statistics, women’s economic participation is rising all over the world. This trend was not reflected among the researched women. When asked the question ‘Are you employed?’ 56 % said ‘No’.

6.2 Reasons for unemploymentWhen asked for the reasons for not being employed, the FHHs provided various reasons that are represented through the following figure (6.2.1). A striking fact is that 36% of the unemployed FHHs mentioned, health as a barrier to be engaged in employment. This includes old age and physical inability to work too. For 28% of the FHHs, economically viable self-employment was not within their capacities as they lacked capital to initiate any business. Another striking fact is 10% of the respondents indicated; they do not like to work, without providing any reasons. 7% of the respondents are not allowed to work by their family due to house work and child care responsibilities. 5% of the FHHs said, they do not need to work. These families are relatively well off and had other members contributing to family income. Four per cent of FHHs said they do not meet the necessary qualifications for jobs. However, it is interesting to note that their


educational qualifications were better than the males in their families, who are economically active. Gendered employment choice can also create a similar situation. During informal discussions, some of these FHHs mentioned that they are looking for government and private sector jobs. Another four per cent of FHHs mentioned that they received no assistance from anyone in the family or community to get a job, though they are willing to do a job. During the focus group discussion, it was highlighted that the problems they faced were related to their poverty as well. Some of them were willing to obtain a loan to start a self-employment venture. However, they do not have access to loan facilities as they do not have any assets for surety. 3% of the respondents pointed out the problem of lack of jobs in their villages, while 2% of the FHHs do not want to work due to insecure work places. Merely 1 % of the FHHs pointed out culture as a barrier to work.

Figure: 6.2.1 Reasons for unemployment.

Do not like to work

10%

Insecurework place

2%

Healthbarriers

36%

No help4%

No capital28%

Not qualifiedfor jobs

4%

No need 5%

No Jobs in the Village3%

Family does not allow7%

Cultural barries1%

Source: Questionnaire survey 2014

The various reasons identified by FHHs for not being employed is giving a broader perspective on reasons for their unemployment. During informal discussions, it was revealed that FHHs with young children do not like to work. FHHs whose husbands work outside Sri Lanka were also of the same opinion.

Further, among the unemployed, 71% of the FHHs said, they do not have any plans to find employment in the future. Some FHHs have become discouraged and no longer seek to work. Many do not have the hope that they will be able to find work in the near future though they have the economic necessity to work. FHHs, who hoped to work in the near future, suggested a few areas in which they would like to work. These included sewing, poultry, handicrafts and goat rearing.

FoKUS Women 45

6.3 Type of employmentThe following figure (6.3.1) shows the distribution of employment among the FHHs representing sectors. In terms of sectoral distribution, the respondents were asked to state whether their employment can be categorized as government, private or self-employed. Among the employed a high percentage (212 FHH) was employed in various employment activities which are categorized under ‘other’. This includes seasonal labour work (agriculture), irregular labour work, seasonal self-employment (sewing jobs during festival seasons, preparing sweets during festival seasons, or pre-school concerts).

Figure: 6.3.1Types of employment among FHHs

Private

13%

Self employment

74%

Government

13%


Of those employed, 74% FHHs are supporting their families by engaging in self-employment activities. During the focus group discussion, FHHs mentioned that FHHs’ involvement in self-employment is a significant trend they observe in their villages. Many of the self-employed FHHs are engaged in micro and small scale enterprises. The self-employment activities included sewing, making and selling sweets, string hoppers and conducting tuition classes. 13% of the FHHs each are working in the private and government sector jobs.

Free choice of employment is another dimension of access to work. When asked whether they had the chance of choosing their employment, among the employed 95% of the respondents said, ‘yes’ and only 5%said they did not have the chance to select their employment. Here it is important to acknowledge that although a higher percentage of FHHs said that they selected their employment on their own, it doesn’t mean that the labor market conditions are favorable for FHHs and do not discriminate in choosing jobs. The higher percentage of freedom in choosing the job is because of the fact that these women are either employed in self-employment category or other employment activities. FHHs chose these categories of jobs as they can better be able to balance work and family responsibilities.


6.4 Nature of employment

Figure: 6.4.1 Nature of employment

Temporary67%

Permanent13%

Seasonal jobs19%


The above figure (6.4.1) shows the nature of employment that the WRRHs are engaged in. Although 56% of total FHHs interviewed were employed, it is important to highlight that majority of them are employed in temporary and seasonal jobs.

6.5 Working hours per day

Figure: 6.5.1 Distribution of working hours per day

6 - 8 hours34%

Less than 6 hours

35%

More than 8 hours

31%


Figure 6.5.1 shows the working hours per day of the employed FHHs. Although the categories of less than 6 hours (35%) and 6-8 hours (34%) dominate the distribution, it is important to note that 31 % of the FHHs claimed that their work exceeded 8 hours. These FHHs, due to the

FoKUS Women 47

the absence of helping hands at home, have to do the household chores alone, which makes their working hours long though the time they spend on unpaid household work are not included in statistics. As self-employed FHHs have flexible working hours, they work longer hours.

6.6 Income satisfactionWhen asked about the income satisfaction, among the 445 employed FHHs 61 %, mentioned that they are not satisfied with the income they receive, while 39% said they are satisfied their income (figure: 6.6.1).

Figure: 6.6.1 Income satisfaction of FHHs

No61%

Yes39%


6.7 Availability of holidays

Figure: 6.7.1 Availability of holidays

No35%

Yes65%


Among the employed FHHs, 7% of the FHHs worked in the private sector. When asked about the holidays, 35% of the FHHs said, they do not get holidays, while 65% said they get holidays


(figure: 6.7.1). Those who get holidays are paid. However, when they exceed the permitted days of holidays, they are not paid for extra days taken as holidays.

6.8 Gendered wage differences

Figure: 6.8.1 Wage difference

Yes11%

No24%Don’t Know

65%


Just remuneration is one of the important rights identified under the right to work. However, there is growing body of evidence that demonstrates gendered wage disparities. Gendered wage differences are a critical issue that has received considerable attention among the policy makers. Social norms regarding FHHs’ work can undermine FHHs’ potential. As a result FHHs are frequently discriminated during hiring and performance evaluation, which can lead to gaps in wages.

Although in the above figure (6.8.1) only 11% of the respondents have said ‘yes’ to the question regarding gendered differences in wage, majority of the FHHs said either they ‘do not know’ or ‘No’. FHHs who are self-employed may not know the answer to this question. Those who are employed in the government sector do not have the problem of wage disparities. Gendered wage disparities can be observed in the private sector and ‘other’ category FHHs identified. This may be related to the fact that these FHHs are concentrated in unskilled, less productive jobs, where they do not have any bargaining power. This is especially the case in the research villages, where available jobs for FHHs are limited. During the informal discussions with the research assistants it was revealed that wider gendered wage gaps exist in agriculture, especially in onion cultivation.

FoKUS Women 49

6.9 Reported monthly income

Figure: 6.9.1 Monthly incomes

Less than 10,000 SLR

29%

More than 20,000 SLR

3%

Betwen 10-15,000 SLR

61%

Between 15-20,000 SLR

7%


The above figure (6.9.1) shows the reported monthly income FHHs who work, earn from their jobs. Sixty one per cent of the employed FHHs earn an income from 10,000-15,000, SLR, while 29% earn less than 10,000 SLR. FHHs earning between 15,000-20,000 SLR from their jobs are 7%. It is important to note only 3% of the FHHs earn more than 20,000 SLR per month. It is important to point out here that, income related data are difficult to ascertain. People with irregular income have problem in giving an accurate amount as their monthly income. The other point is people may over or under estimate the income earned for various reasons. Next, people may make mistakes in giving the exact figure about the individual income and household income. However with the available statistics generated through the questionnaire, as evident in the above figure, 61% of the FHHs earn an income between 10-15,000 SLR. The dependent family members who are below the age of 20 years and above the age of 71 years are high numbers (1224 out of 1951) and they drain a larger share from the income earned. Among the dependent members as the number of children and youth are high, FHHs have to spend on their education, health and other needs. Expenditures related to young group are comparatively higher than the older dependent family members. The situation affects the FHHs as most of them do not have other sources of income. FHHs also find it difficult to save or have a low level of saving as their expenditure is high due to their dependents.


6.10 Work environment

Figure: 6.10.1 satisfactory work environment

Satisfied to a lesser extent

55%No6%

Yes39%


55% of the FHHs reported that they have a satisfied work environment to a lesser extent, while 39% claimed that they do have a satisfactory working environment. Only 6 % said that they do not have a satisfactory work environment.

6.11 Membership in labour unions or organization When asked about the membership in labour organizations, only 10 % of the FHHs mentioned that they are members of such organization. As majority of the FHHs (90% )were not involved in any labour unions, they were asked to identify the reasons for not joining labour unions or other labour welfare related organizations.. Their answers are given in figure 6.11.

Figure: 6.11. Reasons for not joining

No organizations25%

Don’t like to join26%

Don’t know about the organization

46%

Barriers from the family

2%

Barriers from employers1%


FoKUS Women 51

46% of the FHHs were not aware of any existing unions. 26% mentioned they do not like to become a member. 25% of FHHs mentioned that no labour unions exist relevant to their jobs in the village level. While 2% and 1% of the respondents mentioned barriers from the family and barriers from the employers are reasons for not joining labour unions or organizations.

6.12 Future income security in private or government sectorFuture income security is one of the other aspects people look at when they are looking for a job. However, in the cases of the FHHs surveyed, it was noted that they have less bargaining power to negotiate for a job, as the jobs require higher educational qualifications and experience which FHHs do not have. They have ended up in insecure jobs which do not guarantee any future income security.

Figure: 6.12 Future income security

No78%

Yes22%


In the above figure (6.12) 78% of the FHH mentioned that they do not have any future income security. Due to the lack of availability for jobs and poor educational attainment and lack of skill training, FHHs can’t negotiate with employment providers for highly paid job or any permanent jobs. They take up any job that comes to them even if they do not guarantee any future income security. 22% of the FHHs mentioned that they have future income security, in the forms of pensions and EPF.


6.13 ConclusionAccess to work is an essential component of ESCR. In the study it was found that majority of the FHHs are unemployed. Reasons for unemployment were connected to personal, social, economic and structural aspects. In terms of the nature of employment, most of them are working in temporary types of jobs. They work long hours though they do not get a sufficient income. As most of them are self-employed, they do not know the gendered wage differences. Majority of them do not have a satisfactory work environment. A very high number of FHHs are not members of any labour unions, due to various barriers at different levels. The jobs they engaged in do not guarantee any job securities in the future

FoKUS Women 53

CHAPTER VII

ACCESS TO ECONOMIC RESOURCES

7.1 IntroductionDue to prevailing social differentiations, which might be based on attributes such as economic status, social status, type of occupation, gender, ethnicity and / or religious differences, not all people have equal rights to resources. Worldwide, women and girls in particular suffer from access to various forms of economic rights. Lack of access to economic rights can affect the ability to access various other resources for a decent life. In the case of women and especially FHHs, access to economic rights is an essential pre condition for their empowerment and economic growth. Further, research evidence also proves women’s asset ownership not only improves their personal wellbeing, but also that of the family, community and economy as a whole (Agarwal 1994). It is also important to acknowledge, access to and control over assets is key determinants of individual agency. This chapter discusses the present situation of economic rights of the FHHs with relevant to land, house, livestock, jewelries, means of transport and savings.

7.2 Possession of assetsControl over assets in all societies is influenced by legal and social norms. In terms of social norms, socially specific marriage and inheritance rights have a great influence in asset possession of women in developing countries. Viewing asset possession from a gender perspective is essential to understand the economic rights of FHHs as assets are assigned for women in different societies using different systems. In countries where ‘pluralistic legal systems’ govern women’s property inheritance, women may face some disadvantages in terms of inheritance rights.

When discussing about asset possession in an Asian context, it is important to view it from a household context. Within a household some assets are held or used by women, some by men, and some jointly. During the initial individual and focus group discussion with FHHs, they reported joint ownership of assets. Respondents emphasised the joint ownership of assets as they are commonly used/accessed by all household members. FHHs mentioned individual ownership to assets, when they have bought that asset or when such assets were handed over to them by their parents in the dowry package. But the ownership claim varied when they have


more assets through dowry. For example, if a house and a parcel of land are given in the dowry package, FHHs mentioned they have joint ownership to house and individual ownership to land. As the husband’s family also resided in the dowry house, they did not want to claim individual ownership to the house given to them. In some cases, title of the dowry house has been changed to husband or to his family members. In terms of assessing the actual asset possession and rights of FHHs, similar situation can undermine the FHHs’ actual asset ownership. However, research ethics and unwillingness of FHHs to go further into this discussion did not allow the researchers to look in to this matter more deeply.

In this study FHHs asset possession is viewed mainly within the context of households. When individual ownerships are reported such cases were also considered. In study villages, where dowry system is still in practice, for both men and women, marriage is one of the ways to own and gain assets individually or jointly. Marital status of women is an important factor that influences the asset rights of women.

The questionnaire survey, intended to look at assets like land, house, livestock, jewelries, vehicles and savings. The following table (7.2.1) shows the asset distribution of the FHHs.

Table: 7.2.1 Asset possession of FHHs

Type of Assets Own Do not own TotalLand 408 592 1000House 436 564 1000Livestock 48 952 1000Jewelleries 114 886 1000Vehicles 33 967 1000Savings 396 604 1000


Land

Discussions on women’s property rights have given higher priority to ‘land’. Gender disparities in land rights, access and ownership in developing countries have caught wider attention (Agarwal, 1994, 1998, 2003)10. Women’s access to land can provide her with security against poverty; make her economically productive (as it provides access to other facilities like, technology and credit) and it can empower her as she gains equal access (Agarwal, 1994).

Laws regarding property rights within marriage are key to women’s property rights. In the study area among the Muslims, Muslim customary law is in practice in terms of marriage, divorce

10 Agarwal (2003) provides an interesting discussion on gendering land question, new possibilities to enhance women’s access to land and challenges associated with women’s land access through family and the market.

FoKUS Women 55

and property inheritance11. Although Islam permits Muslim women to inherit her property, it is not equal to their male counter parts due to religiously justified reasons. The logic behind this unequal distribution is due to the fact that Islam makes the maintenance of the family as male’s responsibility. So he has to take care of his wife and children. At the same time females do not have any such responsibilities when they are given the property12.

In terms of property inheritance, especially land, some Muslim families treat sons and daughters equally due to new challenges they have to face as a result of changing socio, economic and cultural context. In the study villages, though both practices exist, FHHs have lack of access to land in general. Nearly 41 % of the FHHs have their own land. However, surprisingly 80% of the FHHs have individual ownership to land13. Following figure (7.2.1) shows the ownership types of land. According to the statistics, only 18% of the FHHs have joint ownership and 2% of FHHs have other types of ownership.

Figure: 7.2.1 Type of ownership of land

Individual owner80%

Joint ownership18%

Other2%


Individual ownership of land is fundamental to FHHs income security and their own economic improvements. Islam has provided women the right to own buy or trade property. The control women have over properties give her the power to decision making. However, in practice these rights are not recognized and works negatively for FHHs.

11 This law is not seriously implemented in property inheritance.

12 Chapter four of Holy Quran which is solely about women explains about the property rights of women. http://www.aaiil.org/text/hq/trans/ch4.shtml Accessed on 20.02.2015.

13 It is important to consider that land ownership of women is highly related to marital status. Married and widowed women have higher rates of land ownership in the study areas.


Figure: 7.2.2 Different types of ownership

Inherited from parents

38%

Inherited from husband

9%

Gifted1%

Government grant8%

Dowry2%

Other (specify)11%

Bought31%


The above figure (7.2.2) shows different ways how FHHs became entitled to land. It is interesting note that 38% of the land is inherited from parents. Among the IDP group some FHHs had inherited land in their former villages in Mannar too. 31% of the FHHs have bought land. During the informal discussions it became clear that the size of the land bought in Puttalam is relatively small in size due to the increasing land prices and scarce buildable land. Few FHHs have bought agricultural land in Mannar. A question was also asked, on ‘if the land is given by the government, who owns the land?’ Answers given to the question is presented in the following figure (7.1.3).

Figure: 7.2.3 Title owners of state land

Respondent81% Husband

15%

Daughter4%


FoKUS Women 57

It is interesting to note that a vast majority of the respondents (81%) holds the title of the state lands given. Only 15% and 4% of the land titles are owned by other family members. FHHs who do not directly own the land had the access to their husband’s land. However some FHHs also reported that they cannot access, their husband’s land due to problems in their husband’s family, forced migration and other land related disputes.

Size of the land is also as important similar to access and ownership. The following figure (7.2.4) shows the, size of the land owned by FHHs.

Figure: 7.2.4 Size of the land

Less than 10 perches42%

11-20 perches31%

21-30 perches7%

More than 31 perches20%


Majority (42%) of the households own land which are less than 10 perches. 31% of the households own land which are 11-20 perches in size while 7% own land size between 21-30 perches. Only 20 % of the respondents own land over 31 perches. Among the IDPs when FHHs talked about the land ownership and size, they referred mainly to the land they own in their present villages. However, some older FHHs mentioned about the land they owned prior to forced migration. Most of the young FHHs in the survey expressed that they have given up the hope regarding the land their parents and grandparents owned in their former villages in Mannar district.

When asked about the legal documentation of the land they own, 80% of the FHHs who own land said ‘yes’. The legal documentation is the only legal source provides the right to land. FHHs reported various types of legal documentations that proved the ownership rights. Such documents basically included, swaranbhumi land titles, permits and land deeds. Those who do not have document legal documents to prove ownership to their lands accounted for 20%. They pointed out land disputes and loss of deeds during expulsion as reasons for not having proper legal documents. At the same time, some FHHs mentioned, they have not received the title documents from the government in the case of land given by government as a consequence, they cannot access the land.


House

Ownership of house is also an important dimension of property rights. In the study 436 FHHs said they own house. Some FHHs have not transferred the titles of their dowry house to husband or any other members in the husband’s family. Unlike in the case of land, FHHs referred only to the houses in which they live at present when asked about ownership of house. Although some of them had houses in their former villages before they were expelled, they did not have the legal documents to prove their ownership. Besides, some of the elderly women mentioned that they have their undivided ancestral homes back in their villages. However, they have not used their houses since they were expelled.

Livestock

Livestock is a key productive asset and are much more likely to be owned by men. In the study only 48 FHHs said they own livestock. They benefitted from the livestock as it provides for their household needs. Further, those who own livestock were the FHHs from the host communities.

Savings

FHHs also are less likely than men to hold financial savings. At the time of the survey 396 FHHs reported they have savings as their financial assets. While some FHHs have deposited their financial assets in banks and legal financial institutions, some FHHs had their money in informal saving programmes. FHHs with young unmarried FHHs save the money for dowry and wedding expenses. During the focus group discussions FHHs also mentioned, they save money in order to use in emergencies. The following figure (7.2.5) shows the amount of money FHHs could save during the last year.

Figure: 7.2.5 Savings from last one year.

Les than 5,00081% 5,000 - 10,000

14%

More than 10,0004%


FoKUS Women 59

81% of the FHHs said they have a saving of less than 5000 SLR. 14% of the respondents mentioned they have a saving between 5-10,000 SLR. Only 5% of the FHHs had a saving of more than 10,000 SLR. It should be pointed out information regarding savings is hard to obtain from the respondents. Hence the accuracy of the information is questionable.

Jewelries

Only 114 FHHs owned jewelries. IDP women mentioned that they lost and had to leave their jewelries and other properties, during their expulsion. Ownership of jewelries is individually claimed by FHHs. However, those who own jewelries mentioned that they have saved jewelries for dowries of unmarried female household members and to sell or pawn during a financial crisis in the family.

Vehicles

FHHs have a low ownership of vehicles. Only 33 FHHs reported ownership of vehicles in the study villages. With the rising transport costs, lack of ownership of vehicles may hinder the mobility of FHHs. The situation can affect FHHs who are self-employed in terms of marketing their products. Job accessibility for FHHs are also affected by lack of access to vehicles as the villages they presently live are very poorly connected with towns in terms of public transport. FHHs also mentioned the prevailing negative attitude of Muslim males in the society regarding women driving vehicles. Although some FHHs wanted to use motor cycles in order to avoid sexual harassments in public transport and independent mobility, they refrain from using such a mode of transport due to the prevailing negative attitudes in the society regarding this matter. Although this is a problem experienced by all women, FHHs are affected as they fear they can easily be caught in gossips.

Financial assistance

For women especially FHHs from IDPs obtained various forms of financial assistance from different sources. Among the respondents17% of the FHHs reported they obtain financial assistance. Among those who obtain financial assistance 52% obtain such helps from the government sources; 30% obtained from relatives and 9% obtained from religious and other organizations (Figure: 7.2.6)


Figure: 7.2.6 Sources of financial assistance

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Other Organizations

Religious Organization

RelativesGovenment


7.3 Land and its useOnce the respondents answered the questions related land ownership and size, few additional questions were asked to know how the land is used and the decision making power FHHs had over their individually owned or jointly owned land. During the focus group discussion it was understood that FHHs, even if they own land, frequently do not know what type of ownership they have and what rights they have over their lands.

Among those who own land, a question was asked about whether their land is suitable for agriculture. For this question, while 24% of the FHHs said that their land is suitable for agriculture the balance 76% mentioned that their land is not suitable for agriculture. It is important to note that among those who said that their land is suitable for agriculture, not all are using their lands for agriculture. Among the 99 FHHs who own suitable agricultural lands, only 35% of FHHs cultivate the land. It is also important to note that although they own land they are not directly involved in agriculture. They employ other male members, or hire others. Some of them are involved in selected activities in agriculture. For example they participate during the harvesting. The reasons why majority of the FHHs do not participate are related to their lack of knowledge, lack of experience and problem in accessing extension services. Among the FHHs 65% do not use their lands. They pointed out number of reasons pointed out for not using their land. Figure 7.3.1 shows various reasons put forward by FHHs.

Majority of the FHHs (56%) said a variety of reasons for not using their land for agriculture. Such reasons included for example; 1) lack of male labour to perform the cultivation activities 2) problem in marketing 3) cultural barriers 4) household duties 5) being cheated by males and middle men 6) no confidence 7) can’t attend extension advice meeting .etc. Apart from this category 21% of the FHHs pointed out lack of capital as the main problem to engage in agriculture. 14% of the FHHs mentioned lack of water for agriculture as the reason for not

FoKUS Women 61

using the land. 8% of FHHs claimed that they lack knowledge about agriculture, while 3 % mentioned that they do not have helps from government. The figure shows that the, available land owned by FHHs have become an unused asset and did not help the households to increase their income.

Figure: 7.3.1 Reasons for not using their land

Lack of knowledge about agriculture

8%

Others54%

No help from the govenment3%

No capitol21%

No water14%


Among those who own land 4% of FHHs have rented or leased their land. They have rented or leased their land on various categories.

Figure: 7.3.2 Reason for renting

Other14%

Long term lease43%

Yearly rent14%

Seasonal rent29%


According to the above figure (7.3.2) majority of the FHHs (43%) have leased their land on a long term basis. 29% of the FHHs have rented their lands on a seasonal basis, while 14% of the FHHs have rented their land on yearly rent and other types of arrangements. Among those who


owned the land only 1% has mortgaged their land. Such arrangements have been made with government banks, private mortgage companies and with relatives.

Among those who rented out either a shop or a house 71% received a rent below 10,000 SLR per month, while, 29% earned a rent between 10,000-20,000 SLR.

7.4 Knowledge about land related institutionsKnowledge about land issues related institution is one of the many other dimensions that FHHs need to know in terms of access and rights related to land. Among the respondents, 53% of the FHHs knew about the existence of such institutions. However, among the FHHs who have knowledge of the existence of the institutions, only 10% of the FHHs access the institutions to report their problems. The land problems they mentioned were mainly related to land titles. Some of them do not have a legal title to the land they use at present. They cannot sell the land or legally transfer the land. They approach the following institutions to make complaints or report their problems (figure: 7.4.1)

Figure: 7.4.1 Institutions approached for land issues

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

OthersPoliceProvincial Council

Distric Secretariat

Divisional Secretariat

Grama Niladari


Majority of the FHHs (39%) reported that they approach District Secretariat to report land related issues such as title and problem related to land transfer). 26% mentioned they approach GN offices while 15 % FHHs approach Divisional Secretariat to report their land issues. 14% of the FHHs have approached police in extreme cases to report their land disputes. 5% of the FHHs have approached other sources such as mosques, and village level informal organizations. Only 1% of the FHHs reported that they have approached the Provincial Council to report their land problems if such problems are not sorted out local levels or by immediately accessible institutions.

FoKUS Women 63

Access to these offices may also be problematic for FHHs. When asked, 96% of the FHHs mentioned that they do not face any problems in accessing the services of the above mentioned office while 4% mentioned the issues they face in the offices (figure: 7.4.2)

Figure: 7.4.2 Problems faced by FHHs in offices

Others31%

Language problems

3%

Bias26%

Neglected by the officers

40%


When FHHs go to government offices to discuss their problems 40% of the FHHs mentioned that they are neglected by the government officers. 31% provided various other reasons, such as bribery and harassment, while 26% reported the biased behaviour of officers. 3% of the FHHs identified language barriers they face in the offices. Most of the FHHs do not speak Sinhala language and they have to be accompanied by a person who speaks Sinhala. FHHs mentioned due to lack of knowledge of the Sinhala language they face lot of problems in government offices. As a result in order to get their work done they have to pay bribery mainly to low level officers in the government offices. They mentioned they are compelled to do so as they do not know the language and they want to get their work done without delay. Very few FHHs also mentioned they have to face the problem of bribery in the form of sexual interaction. In such situation FHHs have stopped visiting those offices though they wanted to seek assistance from government officers in order to solve their problems. Some FHHs also mentioned they were verbally abused /discriminated on the basis of their religious identity.

Lack of access to land is one of the problems experienced by FHHs. When asked about the possibility of approaching the District Secretariat to apply for land, among those who did not have land 59% of the FHHs said, they can’t approach the District Secretariat. The reasons were related to language problems and no one to accompany them to the office. Most of the FHHs felt scared to go out without being accompanied by a male relative or an elderly female relative due to their FHHs status.


7.5 Issue of debtsAlthough FHH themselves and other member of FHHs earn incomes through various possible ways, for many such incomes have to be used to re-pay their loans. Among the interviewed 1000 households, 40 % said they have to repay loans. Their loan amount is given the following figure (7.5.1).

Figure 7.5.1 Amount of loan to be re-paid.

More than 100,000 SLR31%

50,000-100,000 SLR10%

Less than 20,000 SLR55%

20,000-50,000 SLR24%


55 % of the FHHs have less than SLR to be paid as loan. 24% have a loan amount of 20,000-50,000 SLR, while 10% have a loan amount of 50,000-100,000 SLR. 11% of the FHHs reported they have a loan of more than 100,000 SLR. Those who have taken large sum of money as loan mentioned that they borrowed money for the purpose of buying a land, building a house, for dowries and weddings and to treat a health problem. They have borrowed the money from different sources. The following figure shows the different sources that they have borrowed money from. (Figure: 7.5.2)

FoKUS Women 65

Figure: 7.5.2 Different sources FHHs borrowed money

Others16%

Private lending companies

6%

Bank12%

From a relative51%

Friend15%


51% of the FHHs have borrowed money from their relatives, which according to them is an easily accessible source. 16% of the FHHs have borrowed money from various other sources. 15% of the FHHs have approached their friends to obtain loans while a 12 % of the FHHs have obtained loans from banks. 6% of the FHHs have borrowed money from private lending companies. Lending money from private lending companies or banks is not easy for FHHs. They obtain the loan through women’s organizations. Those who want to obtain loans are formed into groups each of which consists of five members. If one member obtains a loan all the other members are considered as guarantors for that loan obtained. The system is not favorable for FHHs as the women in the group want to align with other women who have the financial capacity to repay the loan. FHHs that have accessed banks had to pay high interest rates for their loans. Besides the high interest rates, this facility is only available for FHHs who could provide clear land title as collateral. As the formal ways to obtain loans are difficult to access, FHHs have sought informal ways. As most of them have borrowed money from relatives and friends they said they did not need any collateral. However, those who have borrowed money from formal lenders required collaterals to obtain loans. Few FHHs who have obtained loans from banks mentioned they used land, house and jewelries as collateral. The collateral was in conjunction with their close family members. Again FHHs are in a disadvantaged position if they do not have a male family member who could serve as collateral.

7.6 ConclusionFHHs have access to different types of assets including land, house and savings. They face problems in claiming the assets and using them especially in the case of land. They also reported about the debts they have to re-pay. According to the findings, access to economic rights is hindered by cultural barriers, discrimination in government offices, language barriers and their FHHs status.


CHAPTER VIII

ACCESS TO SERVICES

8.1 IntroductionWell-designed access to services is essential in any efforts to strengthen FHHs’ various roles and empower them in socio, economic and cultural spheres. Access to services is also crucial in achieving ESCR of FHHs. However, empirical evidence shows mixed results in terms of quality, constraints and availability of services for women who are FHHs. It is essential to understand how context specific gender norms, family responsibilities, knowledge, and FHHs’ access to and control over other resources shape their access to different services.

8.2 Available servicesIn the study villages various services essential for successful community life are available. Such services included, health service centres, educational and training institutes, women’s development centres, child health care centres, legal assistance centres, religious and cultural centres, counseling centres charity organizations and etc. Among the respondents 98 % are aware of the services available in their areas. However, only 77 % said either they have used or presently using services. When asked whether they are excluded from any of the services available in their area, while, 76% said ‘No’; 3% of the respondents said ‘Yes’. 21% of the respondents said they are not sure.

8.3 Access to educational services for children It is well documented that women, compared to their male counterparts in many parts of the world, are positioned in a lower hierarchy in their access and right to resources. It is also assumed that women who are responsible for their households are less able and likely to invest in their children’s education and health. However, it is pertinent to note the heterogeneity of women who are responsible for their households. Further, although with many constraints such women make an extra effort to educate their children to attain a better quality of life.

About 68% of the households have children under 18 years old. In FHHs which have children less than 18 years of old, 60% are attending school and 40 % are not attending school. Various reasons were reported by FHHs for this trend. Children who could not complete their GCE

FoKUS Women 67

(O/L) do not attend school. At the same time, opportunities for other types of education are not available in the villages for school drop outs. Even if they are available they are not within reach due to physical distance and financial capacity. Among such children, girls are high in number and face disadvantages. When girls are excluded from the educational opportunities they can be forced into early marriages. Due to financial difficulties, distance and safety also children, especially girls are dropping out from schools in the study area. However, it is interesting to note the attention FHHs pay to improve girls’ education. Such FHHs, who comparatively are in a disadvantaged position in the society, prefer to invest their resources in children’s education. FHHs, who have taken the responsibilities of the families for various reasons have higher decision making power in investing in children’s education and especially of girls. One divorced woman in the focus group mentioned:

I think I can take some strong and better decision than married women, who have their husbands. I strongly believe educating girls will liberate them from all problems. Girls should be able to get permanent job. I have problems in terms of money. But I am working hard to educate my daughters. One day it will be useful for them

A divorced FHH from, 27.09.2014 Focus Group Discussion

Although the research did not focus on the difference in decision making power among various types of FHHs, it is evident that divorced and widowed woman have more power in terms of decision making at household level. In the above quote the woman could easily take a decision to promote and support her daughters’ education. At the same time it is clear that attitudes in terms of girls’ education is undergoing a change in this community. Parents, especially mothers’ motivation for educating girls are higher compared to previous generations. Ensuring FHHs right to education and empowering them to prioritize girls’ education creates positive outcomes that could create and educated generation in the future.

8.4 Problems in accessing educationAlthough FHHs have a higher motivations to educate their children, in their day to day life they face several problems related to accessing educational services. 75% of FHHs said they have problems related to their children’s education. Problems they identified are mainly related to economic hardships they face in spending on their children’s education. The following figure (8.4.1) shows the monthly expenditure for children’s education.


Figure: 8.4.1 Monthly expenditure on children’s education

>SLR 3,00036%

SLR 2,001-3,00014%

< SLR 1,00020%

SLR 1,001-2,00030%


A high number of FHHs (36%) spend more than 3000 SLR monthly for their children’s education. 30% reported they spend 1000-2000 SLR. 14% of the FHHs spend 2001-3000 SLR monthly on their children’s education while 20% of the FHHs said they spend less than 1000 SLR for the same purpose. The lower amount spent can be related to number of school going children, distance to school and poverty.

Some of the families are already poor with high dependency ratios. Although Sri Lankan government is providing free education up to undergraduate level, admission to higher education and access to government jobs are extremely competitive. Parents can’t rely only on school education if they want to prepare their children for competitive labor markets and send their children to universities. They have to spend on tuition classes to make the students ready for the intense competition. Schools, in which their children study, do not have all the necessary resources for a good education. They are located in the peripheral areas, in terms of development and lack necessary physical and human resources to provide a good quality education. Along with the economic problems, FHHs also mentioned problems related to admission, transportation, safety and lack of teachers.

The following figure (8.4.2) shows the problem faced by children from FHHs in travelling to school.

FoKUS Women 69

Figure: 8.4.2 Distance to schools

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

< 1km 1 - 3 km 4 - 6 km >6 km

Numbers (%)

60%

27%

7% 6%


Majority (60%) resides within one kilometer from school. However, 27% lives within 1-3 kilometers from school while 7% live within 4-6 kilometer and 6% of the students have to travel more than 6 kilometers to school. Students who have to travel more than five kilometers to school have to do so either as they do not have schools in their villages or do not have advanced level classes. Even if they have advanced level classes, particular streams like science, math and commerce are not available in such schools.

Distance to school can increase school absenteeism and lateness, non-attendance to school. Further, when the distance travelled is too far, there is a tendency that the child may lose interest in schooling and dropout completely. Distance to school can particularly reduce the chance of girls to continue their education. FHHs who could not afford public or private transport for their daughters or girls in the family are compelled to pull them out of schools.

Children travelling to school, use different modes of transportation. As majority of the children are located within one kilometer, most of them walk to school. The following table (8.4.1) shows different modes children use to travel to school.


Table: 8.4.1 Mode of transport

Mode of transport NumbersWalk 310Bicycle 36Three wheelers 30School van 16Bus 12Private boarding 1Total 405


According to the above table, (8.4.1) majority of the students walk to school. 36 students use bicycles. Thirty students use three wheelers to go to school. Sixteen students are using school van service to go to school. Bus services is used by 12 students. Only one student is living in a private boarding place as the school due to distance.

8.5 Access to adult education or vocational training centresFHHs’ access to adult education or vocational training centres is important as they can provide them with necessary skills and opportunities for employment. When asked about whether they have such facilities in their villages, only 11% said they have and majority said they do not have. It is important to note only 9% of the FHHs have benefitted from the available adult education and vocational training centres. Those who have followed the training said that they want to improve their economic situation. Those who could not get any benefits from such services put forward various reasons which are given in the following figure (8.5.1)

Figure: 8.5.1 Reasons for not following adult education or vocational training courses

Other26%

Economic problem

7%

No time38%

No training centres7%

Not intrested15%

Family barrier4%

Houshold resposibilities

3%


FoKUS Women 71

38 % of the FHHs said they do not have time to follow such courses. 26 % of the FHHs reported multiple reasons that are grouped under the category ‘other’. 15% of the FHHs said they are not interested in engaging in such courses. 7% of the FHHs said they do not participate in vocational or adult education courses due to economic reasons and due to non-availability of adult education or vocational training centers in their villages. 4% of the FHHs are constrained by their family members, especially by males due to fear and protection concerns, while 3% agreed that they are barred by the household responsibilities.

8.6 Access to health servicesHealth is an outcome of economic, social, cultural and political contexts in which people live their lives. As FHHs lack full and equal participation in these spheres, they experience differential barriers to lead a health life. At the same time, access to health services and facilities are important to the right to health. Sri Lanka has made impressive progress in the Asian region in terms of health indicators. Free public health care system has made positive impacts of the health needs of Sri Lankans. However, accessibility to health services, whether it is public or private has been problematic for many Sri Lankans influence by physical access to various other factors.

46 % of the respondents mentioned either they or a family member in their household is suffering from a health related issue. Following figure (8.6.1) shows the health related issues of the FHHs members

Figure: 8.6.1 Health issues in the household

Other6%

Physical disorders

1%

Chronicaldiseases

34%

Non communicable

diseases55%

Communicablediseases

3%

Mentaldisorders

4%


According to the above figure (8.6.1) 55% have various types of non- communicable diseases. 34% of the members are suffering from chronic diseases. 4% reported mental disorders while 3% mentioned communicable and other diseases. Only 1 % reported physical disorders.


The FHHs who have health related problems have sought medical treatment in various places. The following figure (8.6.2) shows, the places they access to get medical treatments.

Figure: 8.6.2 Institutions accessed for treatment

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Governmenthospital

Private healthcentre

Using traditional medical centres

Others

474

58 3 6


According to the above figure a large number of FHHs have access to government hospitals for their treatments. 58 households mentioned that they access the private health centres. 6 FHHs visit various other places and 3 FHHs mentioned that they go for traditional medical centres.

Among the 541 FHHs who reported that they or a family member suffer from a health related issues, 24 FHHs reported that they do not access available health facilities to treat for their illnesses. They mentioned economic hardships, lack of knowledge about the needed treatment, fear and lack of support from the family as reasons for not getting treatment. Among the 541 FHHs only 13% of the households needed the assistance of a midwife. 30 % of the people who need treatment go to the health centre’s to meet the mid wife, and 70% said that they hardly go. When asked whether midwives visit their homes 38% said yes.

During the focus group discussion participants were asked to identify reasons for not using services. One FHH worriedly mentioned about the problem in accessing health services:

Language is a major problem to access hospitals. All the staff are Sinhalese and they do not speak Tamil. They do not understand what I speak. Recently we have got a Tamil speaking doctor. Tamil speaking patients will be given a yellow colour token number and then we can go Tamil speaking doctor. As he is the one speaking Tamil and almost 80% of the patients are Tamil speaking, that particular doctor has to handle a large number of patients and the patients have to spend a whole day in queue. We can’t go to work. Someone has to look after our children.

A widow: from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion

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Another woman told:

Although we have a Tamil speaking doctor recently, the pharmacist does not speak Tamil. It is important that we should know how we should take our medicine. He is trying to speak in Tamil. But we can’t understand what he is telling. It is not his fault. He is trying to help people. But government should do something about this.

A separated woman: from 27.09.2014 Puttalam focus group discussion

FHHs also mentioned lack of female staff members, language, distance to service centers, household responsibilities14, poor quality of services, discrimination based on religion as problems in accessing health services. Further, FHHs do not want go out alone when they can’t be accompanied by a male family member.

The MWDT has brought up the language related problems faced by Tamil speaking people to the higher level authorities. However nothing has been done so far to solve the problem. They too are worried about the silence of the officers responsible for appointing Tamil speaking officers in the service sector, especially in health.

8.7 Access to financial services to treat health related issuesMany of the FHHs reported that they lack the necessary financial assets to solve the health related problems of them or other household members. Financial costs are major barriers to diagnosis and treatment. As a result, FHHs experience barriers in completing health care.

In the sample 51% of the FHHs said they could not solve the health related problems of either them or other family members due to various problems. The reasons they identified are represented in the following figure (8.7.1).

14 For women who are self-employed and handling household responsibilities without any family support, finding time to go to service providers is difficult.


Figure: 8.7.1 Reasons for not being able to solve health related financial needs.

Do not know the sources of support

57%

Don’t have financial support

31%

Difficult to ask from others

12%


According to the above figure 57% of the FHHs do not know the support sources available and accessible to them. 31% mentioned about that they do not have any financial support from others. This included support from the government, relatives or any other organizations. 12% of the FHHs said they found it difficult to ask for support from others.

Despite the above situation, in the sample, 49% of the FHHs were able to get assistance from various sources to solve the financial needs related to health issues. This shows that although FHHs lack the financial ability to treat or diagnose a health related problem, they have managed to get access to different sources of assistance. It is evident that they can influence and prioritize the household decision on medical care. The following figure (8.7.2) shows the different sources they have obtained assistance.

Figure: 8.7.2 Different sources of help for health related issues

Through the neighbours

1%

Through the relations

89%

Through the friends

1%

Through the organizations

2%

Through the loan7%


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FHHs rely mainly on relatives (89%) to access financial assistance. FHHs negotiate with relatives to obtain financial assistance. They also have tried government loans (7%) to support the health related financial needs. While some of them have succeeded and getting help from different organization (2%), friends and neighbours (1%) each.

8.8 Awareness about health related programmesSimilar to access to health services, knowledge about existing health related awareness programmes is also essential for women to enjoy the full right of health. During the informal discussion with field research assistants, who are also actively engaged in community development programmes, it was told participation of women and especially FHHs are relatively low in health related awareness programmes. When FHHs were asked why they are not participating in such programmes, 70% of the women said they are not aware of those programmes. Another questions was asked from FHHs who said ‘yes’ to the above question whether they have participated in any such programmes. 55% said they have participated. Among those who did not participate in the program, majority mentioned that they are not interested in such programmes.

FHHs’ lack of interest and commitment to participate in health awareness programmes can lead to high prevalence of diseases and unhealthy living environment in their villages. During a training workshop with the research assistants and key informants, it was revealed that women regardless of FHHs, who are not employed or at home spend lot of time in watching large scale drama series. They pointed out women generally are neglecting other duties (helping in children’s education) or household responsibilities due to such regular TV programmes. Although this situation has been identified as a problem in many households at present in Sri Lanka, it can also be viewed from a different perspective especially in the case of Muslim FHHs. They hardly have any other entertainment activities outside home, due to cultural reasons. It is also less likely that FHHs will go in search of such entertainments in public spaces, such as cinemas, dramas or musical programmes especially if the FHH is a widow or a separated woman.

Besides being FHHs some women during the focus group discussion mentioned that they have to take care of the household duties single handedly and they hardly get support from other family members. Therefore, some FHHs in the study have ‘double days’. Some FHHs are not aware of their rights and continue to have the attitude of ‘household works are women’s work’.

8.9 Influence of culture on accessing servicesFHHs face many problems in accessing available services, which can in turn deny their rights to different services. The study wanted to find out whether, culture influences the access of services. 94% of the respondents said, culture is not a barrier to access available services. They do not face any restrictions from home to access services such as health and education.

The FHHs (6%) who mentioned culture is a barrier to access services, were asked to identify how culture influences access to services. Figure 8.9.1 shows their answers.


Figure: 8.9.1 Reasons identified under cultural barriers

Religious barriers

15%

Gender mixed35%

Civil status44%

Practices at home

6%


It is important to point out majority of the FHHs (44%) have identified their civil status as a widow, unmarried or separated woman and FHH identity are cultural barrier for accessing services. The FHHs can become the topics of gossips in villages if they are visiting service centres without any one to accompany. Some FHHs were also worried even if they get a benefit from a service centre, villages talk badly about them. An FHH during the focus group mentioned:

I can speak Sinhala though not fluently. I assisted some neighbours and relatives when they need my help to go to the bank or hospital. The same people gossiped about me. They have told others, it is because I am a separated woman, men in government offices come forward and help me. They indirectly tarnished my character. I did a help and it is because of my status as a separated woman they did this back to me. Now I stopped going for such offices even if I have any official matters on my own.

A separated woman from Puttalam focus group discussion 27.09.2014.

35% of the FHHs identified gender mix environment in the service centres as a barrier to access services. FHHs do not want access to service centres, in which men and women are jointly involved in service delivery. If males are present FHHs do not want to talk about their problems. They prefer to discuss their problems with a female officer. As a result they do not obtain certain services (ex: loans from financial service centres). 15 % FHHs identified religious reasons as barriers for accessing services while 6% mentioned, practices at home is a barrier to access services. These FHHs are not allowed to go out without a male partner. Their mobility is barred by other male members in the family.

It is worth noting that majority of the FHHs mentioned civil status as a barrier to access services. Their present civil status as unmarried women, divorced/separated women and widowed women advocates for a more private role in society. As such ideologies still prevail in societies, it has increasing repercussions for the participation of FHHs in the public sphere. For these FHHs the perception of the society about their civil status is not only a barrier to access health services but

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also influence access in other areas too. Except the civil status, all other three reasons, identified by FHHs have links or overlapping, which are all components of culture.

8.10 Satisfaction of available services FHHs were asked whether they are satisfied with the available services, 57% mentioned that they are not satisfied with the available services. However, among those who are not satisfied with the available services only 4% has made complaints. As 96% has not lodged any complaints regarding their dissatisfaction, a question was asked, why they did not complain. They provided the following answers (figure: 8.10.1).

Figure: 8.10.1 Reasons for not complaining

No need to complaint

31%

Don’t know how /where to complaint

37%

Scared to complaint

14%

Other18%


In the above figure (8.10.1), it is important to note that majority of the FHHs did not know how or where to complaint (37%). 31 % said they don’t feel the need to complaint. 18% of the FHHs mentioned other reasons such as language, lack of time, no one to accompany and etc. 14% of FHHs mentioned that they are scared to complaint as they fear harassment or discrimination in the future.

8.11 ConclusionThis section discussed about FHHs access to services. Majority of the FHHs reported access to various services. Education and health were discussed in detail in the context of other household members. When FHHs have access to better financial means, they invest it in the education and health of the family. However, these FHHs face problems in accessing services at various levels.


CHAPTER IX

ACCESS TO SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL RESOURCES

9. 1 IntroductionIn this chapter FHHs access and rights to social, cultural and political resources are analyzed.

9.2 Access to social support systemFHHs in their day to day life interact with their neighbours, relatives and friends through informal network systems. FHHs benefit from these informal systems in material and non-material ways. In terms of IDPs, in this study, such networks were fully damaged after their expulsion. As a result of forced eviction, Muslim community from the North not only lost their physical infrastructure and livelihoods but also their long established social fabrics too. During the initial years of living in displacement IDPs suffered a lot in terms of the disturbed social networks. The impact of the loss was different on different intersections of people. Women generally suffered from loss of social support system and FHHs suffered seriously from this loss. During the initial years of living in displacement FHHs from IDP community largely felt the impact of the disrupted social support system, from which they benefitted a lot in the past. They were mostly in need of the social support systems after expulsion and after they became FHHs. They needed the support of other members in their community (neighbours or relatives) to go out for various purposes. They needed emotional support in times of difficulties. Although FHHs felt the impact of loss of social support systems during early years of displacement, the protracted nature of their displacement has provided some of them with re-establishing the former networks, though not to a great extent15.

This study included both FHHs from IDPs and host population in Puttalam. Although the study did not aim at looking at the differences in terms of WRRHs access to ESCR, FHHs from the host community had relatively good position in accessing social networks. IDPs that had

15 Although Sri Lankan government could carry out massive physical infrastructural development programmes in the North and East, heavy criticism still continue as the government could not pay enough attention to build the destroyed social structures.

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the opportunity to have neighbours from their previous villages (or in some cases ancestral villages) in Mannar, were able to re-establish the broken or disturbed social networks.

In order to shed light on the existing social networks and how FHHs use such networks, a question was asked on the regular interaction patterns of FHHs. The following figure (9.1.1) shows the interaction patterns.

Figure: 9.2.1 Daily interaction patterns

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Neighbors Relatives Friends

74.2%

13.1% 10.7%

Source: Questionnaire Survey 2014.

FHHs interact mainly with neighbours (74.2%). 13.1% said that they interact with relatives and 10% interacts with friends. These interactions are mutually helpful for FHHs in their everyday life.

Among the FHHs who are originally from Puttalam 62% agreed that they interact with IDPs as well. The question was reversed to FHHs who are IDPs. 93% said that they interact with the host population,

9.3 Social interactionFHHs interaction outside their homes/ villages is also an important mean to access ESCR. Figure 9.3.1 shows the outside interaction of FHHs.


Figure: 9.3.1 Frequency of outside interaction of FHHs

Everyday19%

Few times a week45%

Rarely36%


45% FHHs go out from their homes for various purposes few times in a week. 36% of the FHHs rarely go out from their homes. 19% of the FHHs are away from home on a daily basis. These FHHs may possibly fall into the category of working women. The FHHs who mentioned they rarely go out were asked to explain the reasons for not going out (figure 9.3.2).

Figure: 9.3.2 Reasons for going out rarely

Fear5%

Feeling uneasy38%

Others30%

Not allowed5%

Do not have time due to work at

workplace4%

Do not have time due to

household work18%


Majority of the FHHs (38%) mentioned that they do not go out as they feel uneasy to move in the public spaces due to perceived and actual discrimination regarding their FHH status, especially if they are young. 30% cited various other reasons such as lack of money, no one to accompany,

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lack of transport, personal illness and etc. 18% of the FHHs admitted they do not have time to go out as they are busy with the daily household chores. 5 % of the FHHs reported they do not go out due to fear and another 5% indicated that they do not have permission from the families to go out. Only 4% of the FHHs reported that they do not have time due to the nature of their work to go out.

The next section explores whether FHHs are socially discriminated based on a given set of dimensions. Answers are given in figure 9.3.3 which is representing a very complex reality.

Figure: 9.3.3 Reasons for social discrimination

Religion12%

IDP status23%

Others4%

Ethnicity27%

FHH status34%


26 % of the FHHs said they are not socially discriminated on any basis, while 74% of the FHHs mentioned they are socially discriminated based on various reasons. Among those who are discriminated socially, 34% mentioned that they are discriminated due to their FHHs status. The situation is basically confined to their villages as most of the villagers know their FHH status. 27% cited ethnicity as a reason for social discrimination. FHHs experienced such types of discriminations in accessing services and public spaces. 23% of the FHHs felt discrimination due to their IDP status. Though the IDP, host binary created tensions among both groups during the initial years of displacement, it has decreased at present though not fully wiped out. FHHs felt the impacts of such discrimination even now. 12 % of the FHH mentioned they experienced religious based discrimination while 4% put forward various other reasons for discrimination. During a telephone interview a widow woman mentioned:

Although nearly thirty years have gone since we came here, the Puttalam people still treat us as ‘Akathi’ {Internally displaced person}. This attitude prevails high in older people than the young ones. When I went to hospital I heard one woman openly blame us for taking their share of benefits. Although this problem is experienced by all IDPs, it is difficult for women like me who can’t make a counter arguement as I am a widow.

A widow during a telephone interview.


Another FHH mentioned how she was discriminated due to her widow and FHH status:

Although widowhood is not a serious problem for Muslim women as the society is expected not to discriminate a widow, in practice we experience lot of problems due to our own society. Though, not openly stated, other women do not want us to participate in weddings or other social events. Islam also provides the right for us to remarry. But the chances for widows or divorced women to remarry are very limited.

A widow during a telephone interview.

Although a widow’s position is identified as marginal in Hindu communities due to the social stigma associated with widowhood, in practice, in Muslim communities too widows or separated women are marginalized and discriminated by the community itself. Although religion forms a unique identity among Muslims, certain cultural practices overlap with other communities. As such, Hindu practices of certain social, cultural and natural events (ex: weddings, puberty, death) have influenced the Muslim communities too though it has an ethnic geographic dimension. FHHs face the problem of discrimination based on their FHH status especially if they are widows or separated as mentioned in the above case.

The following section focuses on FHHs interaction with ethnic and religious ‘others’. When accessing social and cultural resources, interaction with members from other communities other than the FHHs is unavoidable. In order to understand the nature of such interactions, FHHs were asked whether they interact with people from other ethnicities or religion. 54% of the respondents said ‘yes’. They put forward the reasons for such interactions (figure: 9.3.4)

Figure: 9.3.4 Reasons for interaction with people from other religions

Neghbours30%

Others7%

Friends48%

Villagers15%


48% of the FHHs mentioned the interaction is due to friendship. 30% of the FHHs mentioned it is because they are neighbours. 15% admitted the interaction is taking place as they are their own villages. 7% of the FHHs identified other reasons.

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FHHs, which do not interact with people from other religion, were also asked to identify the reasons. Their answers are given in the following figure (9.3.5).

Figure: 9.3.5 Reasons for not interacting with people from other religions.

Muslim village35%

Language barrier15%

Others2%

Hesitate/afraid to speak

7%

Not necessary17%

Less Opportunities24%


35% of the FHHs mentioned that their villages are mono religious. 24% mentioned that they do not have the opportunity for interaction. This may be the case of FHHs who are not employed or who never go out of home. 17% mentioned they don’t have the need to maintain interaction with people from other religions. 15% identified language as a barrier. They like to interact with people from other religion, especially Buddhists. However, majority of the Muslim FHHs in the research villages do not speak Sinhala. 7% of the FHHs mentioned that they are afraid or hesitant to speak. Only 2% mentioned other reasons.

9.4 Participation in cultural eventsThe ability to participate in cultural events is also an essential pre-condition for FHHs to access socio, cultural rights. However, not all FHHs have the same opportunity to access the public space to participate in cultural events. While 50% of the FHHs participate in cultural events, the others said they do not participate in cultural events. The reasons FHHs identified for non-participation are given in the following figure (9.4.1)


Figure: 9.4.1 Reasons for not participating in cultural events

Civil status3%

Not approved by society

1%

Others35% Family

restrictions3%

Personal decision58%


Participation in cultural events is problematic for women from FHHs. 58% of the FHHs mentioned they do not take part in cultural events due to personal decisions. 35% reported various reasons which is presented under the category ‘other’. 3% mentioned family and civil status as barriers for participation. Only 1% mentioned social disapproval. Those who mentioned their civil status as a problem for participation in cultural events, pointed out participation in cultural events may give them unnecessary problems.

9.5 Access to political resourcesAccess to political rights is not clearly spelled out in the general framework of ESCR. However, it is important to look at the access to political resources of FHHs as it is an important component in people’s social and cultural lives. Further, access to political resources can enhance FHHs’ and other member of the FHHs upward mobility in socio, economic and political spaces. The following table (9.5.1) summarizes the political involvement of FHHs.

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Table: 9.5.1 Political involvement

Question Yes % No%

Do you support a political party 77 23

Are you supporting the same political party your parents supported? 38 62

If married are you supporting the same political party your husband supported? 36 64

Do you use media to know political news? 83 17

Do you discuss politics with your friends? 45 55

Have you ever attended a protest meeting? 04 96

Have you ever participated in a political campaign 03 97

Did you vote in elections? 96 04


The political involvement of FHHs provides a very interesting picture. In terms of actual political interest, FHHs are in a very good position. A Majority (77%) of them support a political party. It is interesting to note FHHs do not necessarily support the political party that either their husband or parents supported. They discuss politics with their friends. They do care about what is going on in the country’s political arena. The following figure (9.5.1) presents the different media FHHs use to get information regarding politics.

Figure: 9.5.1 Political information sources FHHs access

TV48%

Others (specify)35%

Radio49%Social media

0%

Friends1%

News papers1%



Still 49% of the FHHs use radios to access political information. Though it is considered as one of the traditional modes of information obtaining source in Sri Lanka, using radios for information has a gender, geographical and generational dimension. FHHs also use TV (48%) to get political information. Most of them watch news in TV. Other sources FHHs use to obtain political related information are very low.

What is striking in the above table (9.5.1) is FHHs’ political involvement is very limited to domestic spheres. In terms of open and actual political participation, a very low percentage of FHHs is present. The only time they participate publicly in politics is, voting during elections. 96% of the FHHs said they have voted in elections. When asked their views on Muslim FHH’s political participation, 67% of the respondents had positive views, 8% had a negative and 25% of the respondents said that they cannot present any opinion about it.

Participation of FHHs in development activities is also an indicator of how they are accessing the political space. When asked about participation of FHHs in village level development planning meetings, only 25% of the respondents said ‘yes’. Even among the participants not all are active participants who can influence decision making or express their views without fear. Only 26% of the participants said they are active participants. Reasons FHHs pointed out for not participating in such meetings are related to a lack of time, lack of awareness, lack of confidence to talk and express their ideas and marginalization / exclusion in such places and barriers from the family to participate.

9.6 Membership in organizationsMembership in different organizations not only provide FHHs with an improved access to socio, cultural and political spaces, but also give them an opportunity to actively participate in decision making processes in the public sphere, which can eventually lead to their empowerment. Among the respondents only 21% of the FHHs have membership in organizations. When asked about the type of organization they have membership in, FHHs identified the followings (figure 9.6.1.)

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Figure: 9.6.1 Membership in different organizations

Saving or credit group

19%

Others 7% Religious

organization13%

Self -help group4%

Women’s association

56%Business

organization1%


They are members of various organizations such as, women’s groups, self-help groups, credit or savings groups, business organizations and religious organizations. It is interesting to note that majority of the FHHs are members in women’s groups (56%) as they found it is a convenient space to move. 19% of the FHHs have membership in savings or credit organizations while 13% of the FHHs have membership in religious organizations. 7% of the FHHs claimed membership in various other organizations, while 4% of the FHHs are members in self- help organizations. Only 1% of the FHHs claimed membership in business organizations. In all these organization FHHs did not have an active role. 82% of the FHHs said that they are merely members. While 18 % of the FHHs held positions in the organizations in which they were members.

9.7 Conclusion The purpose of this section was to understand that FHHs have access to different types of social cultural and political resources. Social support systems are necessary for FHHs to access their ESCR. FHHs show greater interest in participating in accessing socio cultural and political resources. However, FHHs’ access to social, cultural and political public spaces is controlled by several factors, which put them in a marginal position.


CHAPTER X

PHYSICAL SECURITY AND VIOLENCE

10.1 IntroductionDespite Sri Lanka’s high performance in achieving a good human development rank compared to other countries in the region, it experiences severe domestic violence and sexual harassments, which is threating the physical security of women and children. A study conducted on domestic violence intervention service in Sri Lanka by Kodikara and Piyadasa (2012), highlights how micro level studies conducted tries to show the prevalence of domestic violence amidst the unavailability of large scale national statistics on the subject in Sri Lanka. Potential victims of domestic violence and sexual harassment in private spaces include children, wives, female household members, domestic aides and neighbours. Women and girls are more prone to sexual violence in their work places and when they are using public transport16.

10.2 Awareness of violenceThe following figure (10.2.1) shows the level of awareness about the violence taking place in their villages.

Figure: 10.2.1 Awareness level of violence

Yes55%

Not sure12%

No33%

Source: Questionnaire Survey, 2014

16 For a detail discussion on gender based violence in Sri Lanka refer to :Perera, J., Gunawardane, N. and Jayasuriya, V. (2011) Review of Research Evidence in Gender Based Violence in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Medical Association: Colombo

FoKUS Women 89

Among the FHH, 55 % reported that they are aware of the violence taking place in their villages. 33% informed they were unaware and 12 % reported that they are not sure whether violence is taking place or not. Another question followed regarding the type of violence taking place. The following figure (10.2.2) shows the different types of violence taking place as identified by the FHHs reported that they know about the violence.

Figure: 10.2.2 Type of violence taking place

Domestic violence88%Sexual

harassments9%

Any other3%


88 % reported domestic violence, 9 % reported sexual harassments taking place in various places. 3% reported other types of violence. In. the other category it was pertinent to note FHHs reported about the ‘emotional violence’ taking place at various places, which has not received due attention yet in the Sri Lankan scholarship on violence. A young separated woman in the group mentioned:

When we are talking about violence, we talk only about or mainly about the physical violence. Women like us are dying daily due to emotional violence. If we go to a public place, our villages speak bad of us as we are separated. They are teasing our emotions. We can’t tell this to others. Even our children face problems in schools due to our broken family life. They too are suffering silently.

A separated woman from Puttalam focus group discussion, 27.09.2015

This is an important but rather under focussed dimensions of violence which can be termed as emotional violence.


Figure: 10.2.3 Places violence/harassment is prevalent

At school1%

Others 8%

At home80%

Public transport6%

At work5%


In terms of places identified by FHHs which violence heavily take place, majority of the respondents mentioned about the domestic space (80%), while 8% identified various other places. 6% of the informants mentioned that sexual violence mostly take place in public transport. 5% of the respondents stated it is taking place in work places and only 1% mentioned that it is taking place in schools. During the focus group discussion mentioned.

Private medical centres are expensive for poor people to approach. We have to go to the government hospital for treatment. I know some male doctors are harassing the patients. Not all. It is so very difficult to report these types of problems.

A young widow, Puttalam focus group discussion, 27.09.2015

10.3 Perpetrators of ViolenceWhen addressing the issue of violence and it is important to know the knowldege about the perpatrators of violence as it has an impact on protection and prevention.

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Figure: 10.3.1 Perpetrators of violence/harassement

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

FamilyMembers

Armedforces

Police Communitymembers

other

443

9 2

140

14


The above figure (10.3.1) shows the perpetrators of violence/harassment. Majority of the respondents (443) pointed out that family members are the main perpetrators of violence. 140 FHHs mentioned that community members (neighbours) are the perpetrators of violence. Though not high in numbers, FHHs also mentioned armed forces, police and others are also identified as perpetrators of violence.

10.4 Awareness and action about reporting violenceAmong the respondents majority of the FHHs claimed that they know where to go and report issues or incidents related to violence. When asked about the actions they have taken if they have witnessed/suffer/undergone violence, majority of the FHHs (49%) said that they kept silent. 39% of the FHHs have complained about the problem to mosques, police stations or women’s organizations. 12% of the FHHs said they directly confronted the perpetrator.


Figure: 10.4.1 Actions taken regarding violence

Complained39%

Keep silent49%

Confront directly12%


As the number of FHHs who have kept silent over this matter is high (49%), the reasons for their decision to keep silent was asked. Their answers are given in figure 10.4.2.

Figure: 10.4.2 Reasons for remaining silent

Any other23%

Afraid to complain

33%

Do not like to interfere in the matters of others

19%Civil status

2%

Can not talk openly about

2%

Don’t know where to lodge

complaints19%

Language barrier2%


In the respondents, majority of the FHHs (33%) mentioned that they were afraid to complain. 23% put forward various other reasons, such as do not have time to make complaints, family members do not allow them to as it may create other problems and do not have any support from

FoKUS Women 93

the society. 19% of the respondents said they do not like to be involved in the matters of others. A similar percentage of FHHs mentioned that they don’t know where to lodge complaints. 2% of the FHHs informed about language barriers they face if they are to make complaints to the police and the issue of dealing with the matter openly.

Although Sri Lanka has signed CEDAW, in practice, generally Sri Lankan society which has a strong cultural norm do not speak openly about the issue of sexual or domestic violence. However, actions and awareness taken with the help of media and activists have already created an attitude change towards this matter among the FHHs who are the potential victims of sexual and domestic violence. Still, in certain communities like that of the present study context, FHHs feel extremely uncomfortable to talk about issues related to sexual harassment. The information and data provided here is very important in terms of actions that should be taken with relevance to awareness programmes and mechanisms that should be placed in the system regarding eliminating or eradicating sexual and domestic violence.

Among the FHHs, who have complained about any types of domestic violence or sexual harassment, 50% mentioned that no action was taken even after reporting the incidents. 44% of the FHHs said proper actions were taken to handle the matter and another 6% of the FHHs said they could not follow the matter to the end. Although 44% of the FHHs mentioned actions were taken, majority of the FHHs have mentioned that either actions were not taken or they could not follow up the case. During the focus group discussion, FHHs were worried about the young generation, especially teenage boys who are using mobile phones for sexual harassment.

10.5 ConclusionThe issues of physical security and violence FHHs observe and face in the society is discussed in this section. Though FHHs in the society encounter such problems, they are hesitant to talk about the problems in public. Many FHHs are unaware as to where to report the problems and remain silent for various reasons. .


CHAPTER XI

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

11.1 IntroductionThis section summarizes the findings of the research and puts forward possible recommendations to solve problems faced by FHHs.

11.2 Formation of FHHs

FHHs are a growing phenomenon in Sri Lanka. Reasons for the rise of FHHs vary and are related to socio, economic and demographic factors. They have become de jure (widows, divorced/separated and unmarried) or de facto (spouse physically absent) FHHS who have to shoulder the responsibility of the family. In the study areas too all these categories of FHHs were identified. From the FHHs included in the study, the selected FHHs are the major income earners and are responsible for the maintenance of the whole family. The study also documented different routes of the formation of FHHs. Further, it is evident that regardless of the routes of FHHs, women in the study villages, do not form single independent households. Rather they come from a dependent household structure in which they are under the surveillance of others which in some cases supports or hinders their independent lives and decision making power. The extent to which FHHs are connected to the larger family or living in an extended family situation was high. The extended family in some cases contained multi-generational members depending on these FHHs economic situation. One of the interesting things which came out of this study is that few FHH challenged the conventional understanding of the ‘head of the household’ concept in Sri Lanka. They questioned the society for not accepting women as heads of the households even though women are contributing solely to the wellbeing of the family. Such attitudinal changes are currently underway among the Muslim FHHs, challenging the patriarchal structure of the society. Therefore, the official discourse on household headship should employ a broader and a deeper categorization of women who are responsible for households.

FoKUS Women 95

11.3 Socio economic background of the informantsWith regard to personal socio economic backgrounds of the informants, the FHHs were in the age range of 18 to above 80s. However, women over the age of 40 years were the majority. Moreover, a large number of FHHs had at least received primary education. Level of tertiary education and beyond was low making them excluded from the formal labor markets. Education correlated negatively with the increasing age. Under age marriage has been common in the villages though the trend is changing at present, 42% of the respondents got married before the age of 18. Those who married before the age of 18 had less opportunities to continue their education. At present they encounter the impacts of the missed opportunity as many of them find the difficult to access ESCR. FHHs over 65 years have been responsible for their families for longer period. Their experiences and challenges of accessing ESCR have been different from the FHHs who were responsible for the families for a shorter period. FHHs suffer negative social and economic effects throughout their adult years.

11.4 Access to economic resourcesThough the FHHs’ ability to engage in income earning activities was limited to non-availability of economic activities suitable for FHHs in the area, among the employed FHHs, majority has chosen self-employment activities (74%). In the study FHHs have selected nonprofessional self-employment activities to balance work and family. This keeps their earnings low.

Such activities, which are done at a micro level, do not give the FHHs a good and stable income. Access to capital, markets, good production techniques and technical know-hows and lack of transport make the situation worse for FHHs to earn a good income out of their business. The possibilities of getting a good government sector or private sector jobs for these FHHs were very low. A low percentage of FHHs were engaged in private or government sector jobs. Majority of them are employed in temporary types of employment activities, which pose a risk to their access to economic resources. They are not satisfied with the income they earn as it is hardly enough to cover their expenditures.

Large numbers of FHHs (56%) are not employed. The reasons FHHs put forward are various, in which health related issues took a larger share. Though the research did not intend to focus further on this issue, it needs careful attention in the future. Generally in all villages employed FHHs have a ‘double day’ as they have to combine household chores and income earning activities. FHHs did not report gendered wage gaps as most of them are engaged in self-employment. However, one can expect a gendered profit disparity as the chances of FHHs to access a good market remains a challenge for many. They sell their products within their villages. It is also important to note that majority of the FHHs are not members of any labour unions. Many of them do not know about such organization or do not know the benefits of joining such organization. The FHHs’ social status and the disorganized nature of is a major barrier to involve in or form labour unions. As labour unions are mainly confined to the formal sector employment, during a crisis situation FHHs’ rights and interests cannot be protected. It is important to create and connect FHHs with labour organizations.


Land is an important economic asset for FHHs. It is not only a productive resource but also collateral for accessing loan. Lack of security in land tenure may reduce interest to invest in using the land. In the study villages, majority of the FHHs do not own land (59%). Even among those who own land, FHH reported joint or family ownership which makes access complicated. Further, for majority of FHH, the land they own or have access to is not good for agriculture. Number of FHHs using the land for agriculture is also comparatively low. But it was interesting to note more FHHs have the power to decide on what to cultivate. At the same time FHHs who are engaged in agriculture reported they have problems involving in agriculture though they want to engage in it. Related problems they identified were: lack of capital, lack of knowledge, lack of government assistance and lack of water. It is important to note that access to and ownership of land does not automatically help FHHs to increase their income. The barriers to utilize the land productively should be paid proper attention. It is also pertinent to note land as a productive agricultural resource is decreasing in the villages, due to increasing land prices and to increasing population.

11.5 Access to socio cultural and political resourcesAccess to socio, cultural and political resources is important for FHHs to achieve their ESCR. In the study it was found FHHs rely on such networks for various purposes on daily basis. Their perceived or assigned lower social status sometimes acts as a barrier to access socio cultural resources. This has restricted their mobility. When FHHs identified reasons for lack of outside mobility, their answers highlighted their fear about society. They still find it difficult to move around in the public sphere. However, some FHHs could navigate difficult economic terrains with the help of social networks.

FHHs interacted mainly with their relatives and friends and neighbours. However, FHHs’ social interaction with non-Muslim people is very much limited due to lack of opportunities for interaction, mono ethnic village structure, language and family barriers. FHHs showed less interest in participating in cultural events taking place in their villages, reasons varying from personal to restrictions by the other family members. One of the interesting findings of this research is the FHH’s hidden interest in the political resources. Though they are not actively and openly participating in the political space, their views on political affairs is interesting.

11. 6 Domestic and physical violenceAlthough the government of Sri Lanka in 2005 passed the Prevention of Domestic Violence Act (PDVA), such violence and various forms of harassment are taking place at homes and public places. They go under and unreported due to the existing socio cultural norms. In the study villages, among the community such values are very strong. Domestic violence and physical harassment are taking place largely at homes by male relatives. FHHs are scared and ashamed to report the incidents to the police or other places. The situation gives an opportunity for the perpetrators of violence to continue it silently. When the victims can’t talk or complain about the harassments and violence they face, they become depressed and eventually end up with mental disorders. Apart from victim’s or witnesses’ inability to complain about the incidents,

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non-availability of an accessible help desk in the villages is also a problem. The new trend FHHs identified in the research areas is the usage of mobile phones by young men to engage in sexual harassments.

11.7 RecommendationsThe findings of this empirical research analysis provides a fairly clear picture about Muslim FHHs in the district of Puttalam and their access to ESCR. As for assisting FHHs who have taken the responsibilities of their families, government and other responsible parties should help them to enhance their access to ESCR in effective ways in order to increase their rights towards these resources. A proper approach to handle this problem can lead to women’s empowerment. Following recommendations are suggested:

• Creating opportunities and suitable spaces for the full economic participation of Muslim FHH who are available and willing to participate in economic activities, which would maximize the use of human resources that could contribute to the access of ECSR and route to their own identity and dignity. As majority of the FHHs do not have necessary skills for employment opportunities, attentions should be paid to tailor-made vocational and skills training programme

• Interventions that help reduce FHHs’ access to production and labour markets are essential.

• FHHs expressed and showed tremendous ability to seek livelihood opportunities on their own. A large number of FHHs who are self-employed expressed a strong desire to access outside markets. This is especially challenging for FHHs due to their religious identity. Any future livelihood improvement programme should take care of their desires.

• Access to land was not identified as a serious problem among the FHHs included in the survey, however proper utilization of land is a problem for FHHs who are interested in being involved in agriculture. Proper actions should be taken considering the problems identified by FHHs in order to help them obtain an income out of the land resources they have.

• FHHs often face discrimination and inequalities, with some FHHs experiencing multiple discrimination and social exclusion due to factors like, ethnicity, caste, class and marital status. Taking action to reduce discrimination and exclusion based on FHHs’ marital status which they find as a barrier to participate in social and cultural lives is highlighted in this study as an essential step in ensuring their ESCR. Prevailing socio cultural norms related to FHH should be changed.

• Problems related to land should be attended to with a broad perspective involving all the potential stake holders. FHHs are in a severe disadvantaged position in


accessing, claiming and controlling property. Their social position should be considered in handling other related problems.

• Access to service is limited by language barriers and discriminatory behaviours of some government officers seriously impact FHHs compared to other women. To rectify these issues, a mechanism to report problems in their mother tongue should be put in to practice in the government offices considering the language/ethnic composition of the villages.

• Awareness programs related to domestic violence and physical harassments are important in the villages. A confidential place to report such incidents should be created in the villages, which should include FHHs. There is need to decentralize the existing reporting mechanisms regarding the matters pertaining to domestic violence and physical harassments. Accessing special units in police for reporting such incidents is always a problem for women and especially to FHHs included in this study.

• There should also be new initiatives to support existing women’s associations to enhance the social position of FHHs. These groups have the potential to voice the discrimination faced by FHHs.

• Being Muslim, the FHHs in the study faced considerable problems in accessing the public space and mobility. The persistence of constraints on FHHs mobility in public domain explains why many of them are self-employed. Careful attention should be paid to the cultural aspects FHHs highlighted as problems for their free mobility and their access to public space. As they do not want to challenge any religious principles, any future actions to improve their status should keep their priority in mind. However, certain cultural aspects they want to change (ex; riding motorcycle than using public transport) should be encouraged in consultation with the public in order to empower them.

• A large role should be played by mosques in the villages to improve the status of FHHs and the challenges they face in accessing ESCR. Mosques can facilitate change the patricidal attitudes of the society which hinders FHHs access to ESCRs. Mosque can mediate through women’s organizations in the area.

• Being Muslim FHHs, the new roles taken by them is really challenging as they have to negotiate their new roles in public places, where the male dominant gender ideologies are strong. Some FHHs do not want to challenge any structures and they remain silent. However, some FHHs want to challenge the unfavourable gender norms which inhibit their progress. Women’s organizations in the villages can work for the benefit of FHHs by providing them the platform to carry out their struggles.

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LIST OF REFERENCES

Agarwal, B. (1994) A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Agarwal, B. (1998) Widows Vs Daughters or Widows as Daughters: Property, Land and Economic Security in Rural India. Modern Asian Studies, 1 (1) :1-48.’

Agarwal, B. (2003) Gender and Land Rights Revisited: Exploring New Perspectives via the State, Family and Market. Journal of Agrarian Change. 3(1&2): 184-224.

Azmi, F. (2012) To go or not to go: Struggle for belonging among second generation Muslim IDPs in Kalpitiya in Puttalam district in the context of post war resettlement. In Herath, D. and Silva, K.T (eds.) Healing the wounds of war. ICES: Kandy , Sri Lanka.pp.167-192.

Brun, C. (2000), “Making young displaced men visible”. Forced Migration Review, Vol.9, pp. 10-12.

Brun, C. (2008) Finding a Place: Local integration and Protracted Displacement in Sri Lanka. Colombo, Social Scientists’ Association.

Buvinic, M. & Gupta, G.R. (1997) Female Headed Households and Female Maintained Families: Are They Worth Targeting to Reduce Poverty in Developing Countries?, Economic Development & Cultural Change 45(2): 259-280.

Chant, S. (1997) Women-Headed Households: Poorest of the Poor? : Perspectives from Mexico, Costa Rica and the Philippines. IDS Bulletin, : 26-48.

Chant, S. 1999. Women-headed households: Global orthodoxies and grassroots realities. In: Afshar, H. & Barrientos, S. (eds.) Women, Globalization and Fragmentation in the Developing World, 91–130. Houndmills, Basingstoke.

Department of Census and Statistics (2001) Census of population and housing 2001: Concepts and definitions. Sri Lanka: Department of Census and Statistics. Colombo. http://www.statistics.gov.lk Accessed on 12.12.2014.

Department of Census and Statistics. (2011) Household income and expenditure survey 2009/10: Preliminary report. Sri Lanka: Department of Census and Statistics. Colombo. http://www.statistics.govt.lk Accessed on 12.12.2014

Fuwa, N. (2000) The Poverty and Heterogeneity among Female Headed Households Revisited: The Case of Panama, World Development 28(8): 1515-1542.

Goonesekere, S. (2000) Muslim Personal Law in Sri Lanka: Muslim Women’s Research and Action Forum, Colombo.


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3661540/pdf/pone.0064742.pdf Accessed on 23.01.2015.

Hasbullah, S.H. (2001) “Muslim Refugees: The Forgotten People in Sri Lanka’s Ethnic Conflict”, Research and Action Forum For Social Development, Nuraichcholai.

Herath, D. (2010) Social reconstruction amidst Material Reconstruction. In Herath, Dhammika, Hoglund, Kristine, Schulz, Michael and Silva, K.T. (eds.) Post War Reconstruction in Sri Lanka. Prospects and Challenges. ICES: Kandy, Sri Lanka.49-80.

Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka, (2011) Puttalam Phase out report 2002-2011. National Protection and Durable Solutions for Internally Displaced Persons Project.

Perera, J., Gunawardane, N. and Jayasuriya, V. (2011) Review of Research Evidence in Gender Based Violence in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Medical Association: Colombo

Ruwanpura, K.N. (2003) The Survival Strategies of Sinhala Female-Heads in Conflict Affected Eastern Sri Lanka. ILO Working Paper No. 11. ILO, Geneva.

Ruwanpura, K. N., & Humphries, J. (2004). Mundane heroines: Conflict, ethnicity, gender, and female headship in Eastern Sri Lanka. Feminist Economics, 10(2), 173-205.

Shanmugaratnam, N. (2001), Forced migration and changing local political economies. A study from North Western Sri Lanka, Social Scientists’ Association, Colombo.

Siriwardhana C, Adikari A, Pannala G, Siribaddana S, & Abas M, et al. (2013) Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka:

The COMRAID Study. PLoS ONE 8(5): e64742. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064742 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3661540/pdf/pone.0064742.pdf Accessed on 23.01.2015

UN (2005) Economic Social and Cultural Rights: Handbook for National Human Rights Institutions, United Nations, New York and Geneva.

United Nations. (1991). The world’s women 1970-1990: Trends and statistics. New York, NY: United Nations.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

OFFICE USE No:1 Name of the interviewer :------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 Date of interview : DD----------- MM-------------. YY-------------.

3 Address of the household :----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4 AGA and GN Divisions :-----------------------------------------------------------------------

5 Signature of the interviewer :------------------------------------------

6 Type of FHHs:

Type Code

Unmarried (single) FHHs 1

Widow FHHs 2

Grandmother FHHs 3

Unmarried cohabiting FHHs 4

Others (Specify) 5

_________________________________________________________________________

SECTION ONE: BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE

INFORMANT

1.1 Name (optional):1.2 Age1.3 Whether displaced or not: Yes No

1.4 If yes, why?Answer CodeWar 1Education 2Marriage 3Employment 4Other reasons 5

1.5 Level of Education.Answer CodeNever attended school 1Grades 1-5 2

Grades 6-10 3GCE (O/L) 4GCE (A/L) 5University Education 6Any Others 7

1.6 If married what was your age when you married?

1.7 If you were under 18 when you married, what was/were the reasons for you to get married? Answer CodeFamily tradition/customs 1Economic reasons 2Protection 3Religious reasons 4War 5Others specify 6


1.8 After marriage did you move to different house? Yes No

1.9 How long have you been living in the current location? Answer Code1-5 yrs. 16-10 yrs. 2More than 10 years. 3

1.10 How long is your household headed by a woman? (year/s) Answer CodeLess than one year 12-5 years 26-10 years 311-15 years 4More than 16 years 5

1.11 Why did you become responsible for your HH? Answer CodeDeath of spouse 1Spouse missing 2Spouse disappeared 3Migration of spouse 4Divorce/ separation 5Spouse unemployed 6Spouse sick 7Others specify 8

1.12 Do you use hand phone? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

SECTION TWO: INFORMATION ON EMPLOYMENT

2.1 Do you Work? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.2 If yes, where are / were you employed by? Answer CodeGovernment 1Private 2Self-employed (what type) 3Retired 4Other (Specify) 5

2.3 If you are/were employed did you have the opportunity to choose your employment? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.4 If you are employed, is your employment permanent or temporary? Answer CodePermanent 1Temporary 2Seasonal 3

2.5 If you are employed, do you get a good and satisfactory pay for what you do? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.6. How long do your work for a day? Answer CodeLess than 6 hours 16-8 hours 2More than 8 hours 3

FoKUS Women 103

2.7 If you are working in the private sector, do you get any holidays? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.8 Do you see any wage difference between men and women in the place where you work?Answer CodeYes 1No 2Do not Know 3

2.9 Do you have a good/satisfactory working environment? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.10 Are you a member of any labour union/organization? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.11 If not, can you please specifyl the reason/s?

2.12 If you are employed in the government or private sector, do you have future income security? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.13 If yes please specify the type?Answer Codepension 1EPF/ETF 2Others (specify) 3

2.14 What is the monthly income you get from your job/source of income? Answer CodeLess than 10,000 SLR 1Between 10-15,000 SLR 2Between 15-20, 000 SLR 3More than 20,000 SLR 4

2.15. Do you receive income from any other source/s? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.16 If yes, please specify?

2.17 Are you a member of any health insurance programme? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

2.18 If you are not employed, Can you please specify the reasons?

2.19 Do you have any plans to seek get an employment in the future?Answer CodeYes 1No 2


SECTION THREE:

INFORMATION OF CURRENT MEMBERS OF THE HOUSEHOLD

CODE 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

No.

Relat

ions

hip

to F

HH

sex

Age

Mar

ital

statu

s

Educ

atio

n

Empl

oym

ent

If em

ploy

ed

what

is th

e jo

b?

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.

10.11.12.13.14.15.

3.1. 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.71. Husband Male 0-10 Unmarried Never attended

schoolEmployed Government

servant2. Son Female 11-20 Married 1-5th grade Uunemployed Private sector 3. Daughter 21-30 Widowed 6th- GCE (O/L) Student Agriculture4. Mother 31-40 Divorced GCE (A/L) Fishing5. Father 41-50 Separated Degree Business6. Brother 51-60 Whereabouts of

spouse not known/disappeared

Any other (specify)

Construction

7. Sister 61-70 Hotels8. Grandson 71-80 Self-employed

(specify)9. Grand

daughterAbove 80

Others (specify

10. Others

3.8. Do you have any family member married under the age of 18 ? Yes 1 No 2

3.9. If yes, specify the number of family members married under the age of 18? 1-2 1 2-3 2 More than 4 3

FoKUS Women 105

SECTION FOUR: HOUSING CONDITIONS

No. Questions Code4.1 Who owns the house?4.2 Type of material used to construct the walls4.3 Type of material used to construct theroof4.4 Type of material used to constructthe floor4.5 Do you have electricity?4.6 What kind of toilet facilities does your household use?4.7 What is the source of energy used for cooking?

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.71 Self Brick Tile Cement Yes Flush

toiletWood

2 Husband Cement blocks Asbestos Tile No Pit latrine (private)

Kerosene

3 Household member

Mud Concrete Mud Pit latrine (shared)

Gas

4 Rented Cadjan Tin sheets Others (specify) Electricity5 Illegal Tin Cadjan Others

(specify)6 Others Wood Others

(Specify)7 Other (specify)

4.8 What is your main source of water? Answer Code Answer CodePiped water (private) 1 Public 4Well water (private) 2 Others (specify) 5Tube well (private) 3

4.9 If you are getting piped water, do you have regular supply? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

4.10 What do you think about the quality of water you get? (safe?)

4.11 Do you face problem in accessing water? Explain please.


SECTION FIVE: ECONOMIC ASSETS BELONGING TO

THE INFORMANT/HOUSEHOLD

No. Type of assets Have Don’t have5.1 Land5.2 House5.3 Livestock5.4 Jewelries 5.5 Transport5.6 Savings5.7 Any others (specify)

5.8 If you own land, what type of title do you hold?Answers CodeIndividual owner 1Joint ownership 2Leased 3Other 3

5.9 If you own land, what is the Size of your land? Size CodeLess than 5 perches 15-10 210-15 3More than 15 4

5.10 Is your land suitable for agriculture? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.11 If yes do you utilize it for agriculture? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.12 Do you have the autonomy to decide how to utlise the land ? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.13 Do you have any problems in getting involving in agricultural activities ? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.14 If yes, can you explain?

5.15 If you have land have you rented your land? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.16 Have you mortgaged your land? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.17 How did you receive the land? Answers CodeInherited from parents 1Bought 2Government grant 3Gifted 4Dowry 5Inherited from husband 6Encroached 7Others (specify) 8

5.18 If your land was given by the government, who holds the land title? Answers CodeRespondent 1Husband 2Son 3Daughter 4Others (specify) 5

5.19 What type of documentation do you have to prove your land ownership?

FoKUS Women 107

5.20 If your land is under the name of your husband’s, can you access land?Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.21 Do you know any institutions that work in your areas to handle land issues? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.22 If you have problems land related issues do you report? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.23 Do you face any problems in accessing to those offices? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.24 Can you please explain what type of problems you face?

5.25 Can you go to Kachcheri / DS office to apply or obtain land?Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.26 If you have gone, have you faced any problems there? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.27 Can you please explain what kind of problems faced?

5.28 Were you able to save any money last year? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.29 How much were you able to save? Answers CodeLess than 5,000 SLR 15,000-10,000 SLR 2More than10,000 3

5.30 Have you rented out a house or shop? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.31 If yes how much did you obtain as rent? Answers CodeLess than 10,000 SLR 110,000-20,000 SLR 2More than 20,000 3

5.32 Have you taken any loans? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.33 If yes, what is the amount ? Answers CodeLess than 20,000 SLR 120,000-50,000 SLR 2

50,000-100,000 3More than 100,000 4

5.34 From whom did you receive the loan? Answers CodeFrom a relative 1Friend 2Bank 3Private lending companies 4Others (specify) 5


5.35 Did the loan/credit require any kind of collateral? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.36 If yes, from what source ? Answers CodeLand 1House 2Others (specify) 3

5.37 Do you receive any financial support? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

5.38 If yes, from whom did you receive this support ? Answer Codegovernment 1Relatives 2Religious organizations 3Other organizations (specify) 4

5.39 Do you get any remittances from any of your relatives?Answer CodeYes 1No 2

SECTION SIX: ACCESS TO SERVICES

6.1 What are the type of services are you aware of in your place of residence?Service Code MarkHealth 1Education 2Women’s centers 3Children’s centers 4Legal aid 5Religious/ cultural 6Charities 7Others (Specify) 8Do not know any services

9

6.2 If you are aware of the services, are you using/have you used them? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

6.3 In your opinion do you think that you have ever been deprived of any of the above mentioned services? Answer CodeYes 1No 2Not sure 3

6.4 State the reason why you don’t use these services ?

6.5 If you have children under the age of 18 do you have problems in accessing educational services for them? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.6 How many school going children do you have? Answers Code1-3 14-6 2

FoKUS Women 109

6.7 What is the distance between your home and your children’s school? Answer CodeLess than 1 KM 11-3 KM 24-6 KM 3More than 6KM 4

6.8 What is the mode of transport they use? Answer CodeWalk 1Bicycles 2Trishaws 3Bus 4School bus 5

6.9 Do your children face any problem in accessing education?Answer CodeYes 1No 2

6.10 If yes, what type of problems do you encounter Please Explain?

6.11 Do you have problems in getting your children enrolled to schools? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.12 How much money you spend on your children’s education (monthly)? Answers CodeLess than 1000 SLR 11000-2000 SLR 32001-3000 SLR 4More than 3000 SLR 5

6.13 If you have children under 18years and if they are not going to school can you please tell the reason ?

6.14 Do you have any adult education centers or vocational training centers in your village?Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.15 If yes do you use/attend these training centers? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.16 If yes or no can you explain why?

6.17 Do you or any of your family members have health related problems? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.18 If yes explain?

6.19 If yes, where do you get treatments from?

Answer Code

Government hospital 1Private health centers 2Using traditional medicine 3others 4

6.20 If you are not getting treatments what are the reasons?

6.21 If you have or had financial problems to treat any health related problems in your family, was it solved? Answers CodeYes 1No 2


6.22 If no/ yes please explain (how/why)?

6.23 Do you have any health awareness programmes in your village? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.24 If you have such programmes have you participated in any of them? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.25 If not can you please explain?

6.26 Have you ever felt that your culture is a barrier to obtain any of the services? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.27 If yes/no can you explain please?

6.28 If you are not satisfied with any of the above services, have you made any complaints?

FOOD6.29 Can you please mention the amount food

your family consume in a month Food item Amount Food item Amount

Rice Beef/chickenFlour Dry fishBread MilkGrains EggsCoconut SugarFruits

6.30 How much money do you spend on food expenditure monthly?Amount CodeLess than 10,000 SLR 110000-15000 SLR 215001-20,000 SLR 320,001- 25,000 SLR 4More than 25,000 SLR 5

6.31 Is your income enough to cover your food expenditure? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.32 If not, how do you manage?

6.33 Do you get support to manage your food related expenditures? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

6.34 If you get support to manage your food related expenditures, from whom do you get the support? Answers Code Answers CodeNeighbours 1 Government 5Relatives 2 NGOs 6Friends 3 Others 7Religious organizations

4

6.35 What type of assistance you receive?

6.36 To what extend does your family face problem related to rising food prices?Answers CodeNot affected 1Moderately affected 2Highly affected 3Extremely affected 4

FoKUS Women 111

SECTION 7: COMMUNITY/ SOCIAL PARTICIPATION

7.1 With whom do you interact regularly? Answer CodeFamily members 1Neighbors 2Relatives 3Friends 4Women’s organizations

5

Self- help groups 6Others (specify) 7

7.2 If you are from Puttalam do you interact with IDP families? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

7.3 If you are not from Puttalam, do you interact with Puttalam people? Answer CodeYes 1 No 2

7.4 How often do you go outside?Answer CodeEveryday 1Few times a week 2Rarely 3Never 4

7.5 If the answer is rare/never, why?Answer CodeFear 1Not allowed 2Not feeling comfortable 3Do not have time due to works at home

4

Do not have time due to work at workplace

5

Others (specify) 6

7.6 Do you face any of the following type of social discrimination? Answer CodeReligion 1Ethnicity 2Language 3IDP status 4Marital status 5Female Headed household status

6

Any other (specify) 7

SECTION EIGHT: CULTURAL DIMENSIONS

8.1 Do you interact with people from other religion/ethnicity? Answers CodeYes 1No 2

8.2 If yes/no can you explain why?

8.3 Do you participate in any cultural events in your village? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

8.4 If not, can you please explain the reasons?

8.5 Have you ever felt that your marital status is problem for participating in cultural events? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

8.6 If yes or no please explain?


SECTION NINE: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

9.1 Are you affiliated with a political party? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.2 Is your political party affiliation same as your parents? Answer CodeYesNo

9.3 If married is your political party affiliation same as your husband’? Answer CodeYesNo

9.4 Do you watch, listen or read about politics in the media? Answer CodeYesNo

9.5 If yes, whats the media? Answer CodeRadio 1TV 2News papers 3Friends 4Social media 4Others (Specify) 5

9.6 Do you discuss political issues with your friends? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.7 If yes whats the frequency ?Answer CodeOften 1Incidentally

9.8 Have you ever participated in a protest meeting or demonstration? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.10 Have you ever worked in a political campaign? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.11 Have you ever voted in elections? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.12 What is your opinion about Muslim women’s participation in politics? Answer CodeGood 1Bad 2Can’t say anything 3Others (Specify) 4

9.13 Are you a member of any organization? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.14 If yes specify the organization ? Answer CodeReligions organization 1Savings or credit group 2Trade organization 3Women’s association 4Self-help group 5Others (Specify) 6

9.15 What is your role in nthe above mentioned organization ? Answer Codemember 1An office bearer 2Any other (specify) 3

FoKUS Women 113

9.16 Who can you rely on for support during a difficult situation (financial/personal)? Answer CodeExtended family members 1neighbors 2Self-help groups 3Savings or credit groups 4Women’s groups 5Others (Specify) 6

9.17 Do you participate at village development /planning meeting held and GS/AGA offices or in any other places? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.18 If yes, are you an active participant? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

9.19 If not, can you please tell the reasons?

SECTION TEN: PHYSICAL SECURITY AND VIOLENCE

10.1 Do you know /think women in your village face violence? Answer CodeYes 1No 2Not sure 3

10.2 If yes, what are the types of violence (against women) isprevalent in your area? Answers CodeDomestic violence 1Sexual harassments at workplace 2Sexual harassments when using public transport

3

Sexual harassments by male officers

4

Any other (specify) 5

10.3 What are the locations in which these these violence is prevalent? Answer CodeAt home 1At school 2At work 3In the bus 4Other (specify) 5

10.4 Who are the perpetrators of violence? Answer CodeFamily members 1Armed forces 2Police 3Community members 4Others (specify) 5

10.5 Are you aware of any available village level service in to address this issue? Answer CodeYes 1No 2Any other (specify) 3


10.6 What action have you taken if you have seen or heard of sexual harassment in your community? Answer CodeKept silent 1Confronted directly 2Complained 3Any other (specify) 4

10.7 If you have complained, were any actions taken? Answer codeYes 1No 2Any other (specify) 3

10.8 If not what’s the you haven’t complained, ? Specify the reason?

10.9 Do you know where to complain? Answer CodeYes 1No 2

Interviewer’s Notes:

FOKUS WOMEN34 A, Sulaiman AvenueColombo 5Sri LankaTel/Fax: +94112055404Web: http://www.fokuskvinner.no

Sri Lanka has witnessed a rise in the numbers of female-headed households (FHH) after the war. This includes those FHH in the North and East and also the ‘military widows’ in the South. Ad hoc interventions by the state and by civil society have resulted in their concerns not being addressed meaningfully. A welfarist ‘hand outs’, ‘one size fits all’ approach to interventions has meant that their basic human rights to physical security and right to be free from violence, socio economic, civil and political rights and their psycho social needs have not been addressed.

FHH from different communities face various challenges. The FHH in the former border villages struggle with young widows who have married at a young age and now have to provide for their households while FHH in the North face militarization and threats to their physical safety due to their physical vulnerability in addition to unsafe housing. Further, FHH in the North are discriminated against by the Tesawalamai law, which curtails their rights of ownership to land in the absence of a spouse. FHH also face several obstacles when they access government services such as health facilities. They also have to bear the brunt of being main provider to the household and to take on the responsibilities that come with this role. The stigma and cultural ostracism they face also needs to be tackled. The tracing of missing or disappeared spouses during the war and those in detention is another concern that needs urgent attention.

The state also needs to address the needs of very young women who have been widowed at an early age and the high numbers of elderly FHH in the North. In addition, economic and social security for these FHH, their social welfare are concerns that need state intervention. These concerns of FHH need to be addressed with their participation. A platform that provides them with a space to take decisions and gives them the opportunity to participate in decision-making on their issues needs to be created.

A lack of clarity on who a FHH is has hampered these interventions at every level. Eg. single women providing for their household should also be included as FHH but are at times not included. Human rights organizations and others working in related fields in Sri Lanka tend to use the term ‘widow’ to include many types of female heads of households. This misrepresentation results in many FHH falling through the cracks and not receiving state and other benefits and being unable to access their rights.

FOKUS WOMEN seeks to bring clarity to the term ‘female head of household’ and also to give visibility to the socio economic and other issues faced by FHH through its research and advocacy with the state. Providing solutions to the problems faced by FHH will contribute to building peace and ensure that women’s voices from the grassroots are heard at national level.

SURVEY ON THE STATUS OF MUSLIM FEMALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC,

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS PUTTALAM DISTRICT

A study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and...

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Transcript of A study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and...