The Bible

A study of the Bible and its origins.

Bible Facts

It’s not just one book but a collection of 66 smaller ones. Its name, in fact, comes from a Greek word that means “the little books.” This word

ultimately came to mean the book that is composed of many books—The Holy Bible. The Bible was written by 40 different authors.

And they were not all alike—certainly not just “men of the cloth.” There were politicians, shepherds, a medical doctor, military leaders, assorted tradesmen, and a theologian or two thrown in for good measure.

The writers were from all parts of the known world of their times. Not just different countries but from three different continents—Africa, Asia, and

Europe. “Their times” spanned nearly 16 centuries—from about 1500 B.C. to 95 A.D.

In fact, they lived so far apart in history that, if the Bible were just being completed for the first time today, it would already have been in the works for a thousand years by the time Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas!

Bible Facts

Bible Facts It was written in three different languages.

The various authors wrote in Hebrew, Aramaic (an ancient Hebrew-like language), and Greek.

The writing styles are as varied as the authors. Some wrote poetry, some history. There are letters, biographies, prophecies,

and the proverbial “wisdom literature.” After 1600 years in the making, it’s remained the same for even longer.

The “canon” of Scripture was settled in the 2nd -4th century, and Christians have generally accepted our collection of 66 “little books” to be The Bible ever since.

Uniqueness of the Bible in the Eyes of the World

The Bible Society of the United Kingdom calculates that the number of Bibles printed between 1816 and 1975 was 2,458,000,000.

By 1992 the estimated number rose to nearly six billion. Furthermore, worldwide sales of the Bible number more than a staggering 100 million each year, far outpacing any other book in history.

Without a doubt, the Bible is the bestselling book of all time.

As of 2007 approximately 7.5 billion Bibles have been distributed throughout world—with the vast majority still available for use! And these figures do not include the various digital versions of the Bible being used today by millions on computers, Blackberries and iPhones.

Currently, the complete Bible has been published in over 450 languages.

Average American Home Contains 4 Bibles.

The New Testament alone has been published in nearly 1,400 languages.

The Gospel of Mark in over 2,370 languages.

Although these figures represent less than half of the languages and dialects presently in use in the world, they nonetheless include the primary vehicles of communication of well over 90% of the world’s population.

What are the Different Translations?

Later in the 16th century, seven more

popular English versions were

produced, beginning with William

Tyndale’s work in 1525.

This English version of the New Testament was the first to be translated directly from

the Greek instead of Latin texts.

After Tyndale, several other famous Bibles

were produced in the 16th

century. The

Cloverdale Bible in 1535

The First complete printed English bible

Tavernier's Bible

First to be completely printed

in England

Matthew’s

Bible in 1537

Apocrypha was

placed in an

appendix.

The Great

Bible in 1539

The first “Authorized” English Bible. Called Great

because of its size (15X10)

The Geneva Bible in 1560

The first to use chapters, verses, and

the italicization

of added words

Italicized words in the Bible The italicized words in the Bible are words that

were added by the translators to help the reader. This is usually necessary when translating from one

language to another because word meanings and idioms change.

However, to make sure that everyone understood that these words were not in the available manuscripts they set them in italics.

This has carried through to the modern translations today.

In 1604, in an effort to resolve severe factions between Englishmen over Bible versions, King James I authorized the translation of another version that came to bear his name.

The King James Version was finally published in 1611, and together with its four revisions (in 1629, 1638, 1762, and 1769), it remains as the most widely circulated Bible in existence.

A few other translations were produced over the centuries, but the real revolution of new Bible versions began to erupt in the 20th century, largely due to the widening language barrier. Some of the more influential, recent translations have been:

Current Translations

• American Standard Bible(1901)• Revised Standard Version (NT 1946; complete Bible, 1952)• J. B. Phillips’ The New Testament in Modern English (1958)• Amplified Bible (1965)• Jerusalem Bible (1966)• New American Bible (1970)• New English Bible (1970)• New American Standard Bible (1971)• The Living Bible (1971)• New International Version (1973)• New King James (1982)• Contemporary English Version (1995)

Revisions There have even been revisions of these versions.

NASB was updated in 1995. The NIV has been recently updated with the TNIV, Today’s

New International Version. The RSV has been updated with the ESV. The Living Bible has been updated with the New Living

Translation, which itself has recently been revised. Jerusalem Bible updated to the New Jerusalem Bible.

(1985) Many new Translations are currently being worked

on.

Types of Translations Two Basic Styles

Formal Equivalence Dynamic Equivalence

Formal equivalence: word-for-word translation. The translation of one language into

another retaining as much as possible the original forms of the first language.

Formal equivalence, literal, or word-for-word translation.

Renders each word of the original language into English and seeks to preserve the original syntax and sentence structure as much as possible in translation.

Preserves aspects of the original text, including ancient idioms, term consistency, and original-language syntax--that are valuable for scholars and professional study.

Allows a reader to trace formal elements of the original-language text through the English translation.

Produces in English the closest natural equivalent of the message expressed by the original- language text, both in meaning and in style.

Examples are KJV, NKJV,NAS

Examples of Extremely Literal Translation

Matthew 1:18 tou de ihsou cristou h genesiv outwv hn

mnhsteuyeishv thv mhtrov autou mariav tw iwshf prin h sunelyein autouv eureyh en gastri ecousa ek pneumatov agiou

“Of the but Jesus Christ the birth thus was. Being betrothed the mother of him, Mary, to Joseph, before or to come together them she was found in belly having from Spirit Holy.”

Examples of Extremely Literal Translation

Matthew 1:18 “Of the but Jesus Christ the birth thus was. Being

betrothed the mother of him, Mary, to Joseph, before or to come together them she was found in belly having from Spirit Holy.”

Examples of Extremely Literal Translation

John 4:15 legei prov auton h gunh kurie dov moi touto to

udwr ina mh diqw mhde diercwmai enyade antlein

“Says to him the woman, ‘Sir, give to me this the water that not I thirst nor I come here to draw.”

Examples of Extremely Literal Translation

John 4:15 “Says to him the woman, ‘Sir, give to me this the water

that not I thirst nor I come here to draw.”

Dynamic equivalence:

The translation of one language into another with a goal of translating the meaning of the original without regard to the forms of the first language.

Dynamic-equivalence: thought-for-thought translation.

Focuses on translating the message of the original-language text.

It ensures that the meaning of the text is readily apparent to the contemporary reader.

Examples are NIV, NLT

Optimal Equivalence There is a third method that combines

contemporary wording and grammar with an emphasis on reflecting the original words as closely as possible.

This is seen in the Holman Standard Bible.

Comparisons of Functional and Dynamic Equivalence Translation

Romans 3:21NASB “But now apart from the Law the

righteousness of God has been manifested, being witnessed by the Law and the Prophets”

NLT “But now God has shown us a different way of being right in his sight-- not by obeying the law but by the way promised in the Scriptures long ago”

Comparisons of Functional and Dynamic Equivalence Translation

Ecclesiastes 11:4NASB “He who watches the wind will not

sow and he who looks at the clouds will not reap.”

NLT “If you wait for perfect conditions, you will never get anything done.”

Which is better?

There is a very heated battle about which is more appropriate for Bible translation. There is a place for both, though, and their advantages and disadvantages should be carefully understood.

What are the uses of the different methods of translation?

Dynamic equivalence translations are good for those who know little or nothing about the Gospel or the Bible.

Functional equivalence translations are good for those who understand biblical concepts and want to understand more carefully the exact wording of the text.

Grade Level for different translation.

King James Version (KJV)—11-12 New American Standard (NASB)—11-12 New Revised Standard Version (NRSV)—10-11 New King James Version (NKJV)—7-8 English Standard Version (ESV)—7-8 New Living Translation (NLT)—6-7 New Century Version (NCV)—5-6 Good News Translation (GNT)—5-6 Contemporary English Version (CEV)—5-6 The Message—5-10 (depending on the passage) New International Reader’s Version (NIrV)—2.

Why does this situation exist?

English is changing as all languages do. All languages are in a continuous state of flux. All translations will eventually be out of date. The advent of the internet and all its related applications

has created a greater state of flux than in the past. English Bible translations need to change as well.

How should we respond to this situation?

Our tendency is to exalt one translation over another. King-James-Only movement

Instead we should recognize our bounty of riches and use it accordingly.

Recognize that the multiplicity of translations can increase our confidence in the Scriptures.

Use this bounty of wealth to your advantage. Be gracious, but be educational.

Summary There is a sense in which every translation falls

short of perfectly communicating the original text underneath it.

More importantly, there is a sense in which every translation contains the word of God and accurately communicates its sense.

Be aware of what is out there and how the translations differ, but more than that trust the one you have and listen for God’s word to speak to you from its pages.

Forms of External Evidence for NT

NT Manuscripts Papyri

A plant grow in Egypt, Africa, Israel: Used to make a form of paper, Strips were laid crisscross and then pressed and dried

A Roll or scroll is several sheets of attached Papyrus up to 35 feet long

Revelation 5:1 Written on both sides to signify completion.

NT Manuscripts: Papyri

P75

175-225 CEImages from http://www.earlham.edu/~seidti/iam/interp_mss.html

NT Manuscripts: Papyri

P66

~200 CEImages from http://www.earlham.edu/~seidti/iam/interp_mss.html

Forms of External Evidence for NT

NT Manuscripts Papyri Uncials / Majuscules

Same as Papyri but written on parchment, called Uncials if lower case Greek and Majuscules if upper case Greek

Over 500 in existence today

Unical of Acts 4:40-43

Source:http://www.schoyencollection.com/Coptic_files/ms1365.jpg

NT Manuscripts: Uncials / Majuscules

Sinaiticus-01-א A-Alexandrinus-02

4th century 5th century

Images from http://www.csntm.org

NT Manuscripts: Uncials / Majuscules

Close-up of A

Forms of External Evidence for NT

NT Manuscripts Papyri Uncials / Majuscules

Same as Papyri but written on parchment, called Uncials if lower case Greek and Majuscules if upper case Greek

Palimpsests are uncials that gave been scraped and written on a second time. The recovered texts are call palimpsests meaning scraped in Greek. Of the 250 uncials today 52 of them are palimpsests.

Forms of External Evidence for NT

NT Manuscripts Papyri Uncials / Majuscules Minuscules

A New Testament Minuscules is a copy of a portion of the New Testament written in a small, cursive Greek script (developed from uncials). Most of the Minuscules are still written on parchment.

2,792 miniscule in existence today.

NT Manuscripts: Minuscules

669

10th centuryImage from http://www.csntm.org

NT Manuscripts: Minuscules

Close-up of 669

Miniscule of Mark 5:22-23

SOURCE:http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/images/exhibitions/month/H475/H475_scriptdetail.jpg&imgrefurl=http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/month/apr2006.html&usg=__z2ijKyOq5BqwsP6EC2KgWu12hAU=&h=369&w=856&sz=54&hl=en&start=35&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=Edjnqc4YOHMBGM:&tbnh=63&tbnw=145&prev=/images%3Fq%3DGreek%2Bminuscule%2BBible%26start%3D20%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26ndsp%3D20%26tbs%3Disch:1

Forms of External Evidence for NT

NT Manuscripts Papyri Uncials / Majuscules Minuscules

Versions (Latin, Syriac, Coptic, and so on) Patristic Citations( Church Fathers) Lectionaries

A Lectionary is a book or listing that contains a collection of Scripture readings appointed for worship on a given day or occasion.

Lectionary from 11th Century

Source http://www.schoyencollection.com/GreekNT_files/ms1982.jpg :

Evaluating External Evidence Overall quality of the sources Text Types / Location

Alexandrian- Most Reliable Alexandria Egypt

Caesarean Named for Caesarea in Palestine.

Byzantine Byzantium, another name for Constantinople About 95% of all known manuscripts

Western Least Reliable Rome

Determining the correct text

External evidence Date-Oldest is usually best Geographical origin- more widely

distributed is better Genealogical factor- sources must

be weighed, not merely counted

Determining the correct textInternal Evidence 1.Shorter text is preferred

Especially if shorter reading is difficult or ambiguous or grammatically incorrect or if longer text gives and explanation or agrees with a parallel passage

Longer reading is acceptable if item omitted could have seem harsh, offensive, erroneous or contradictory Mechanical means of omission can be demonstrated

2.The original reading will explain the existence of the variant text

3.Conflated( combined) reading are secondary 4.Quality is more important than quantity( Majority Text) 5.Wide geographical support is significant

What is Textual Criticism?

The process of evaluating different variants in a manuscript tradition, usually in the attempt to determine the most likely reading of the original text.

Why is Textual Criticism necessary?

Scribes make mistakes Scribes make changes 4000+ NT manuscripts, no 2 exactly the same

Section of the New Testament

Total Greek words

Total words in question

Percent accuracy Places with the number of words in question1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11+

Matthew 18,346 558 97.0 % 141 31 18 7 5 2 4 2 1 1 15,12,12,17,30,12,12,15,23,19,13Mark 11,270 575 96.4-1.5% 81 48 20 8 3 2 0 0 6 2 11,11,17,166Luke 19,482 501 97.4 % 101 39 19 11 12 4 2 2 2 1 20,26,21John 15,635 524 97.7-1.1% 135 38 8 4 5 2 1 0 0 2 12,168,29Acts 18,450 600 96.7 % 235 44 13 11 2 7 4 2 1 2 12,12,18,23,23

Paul’s writings 32,408 735 97.75 % 348 58 14 7 6 0 2 2 0 1 11,13,14,36,53

Romans 7,111 254 96.4 % 84 12 7 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 11,13,14,53

1 Corinthians 6,830 144 97.9 % 66 11 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 362 Corinthians 4,477 68 98.5 % 45 5 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 -

Galatians 2,230 43 98.1 % 28 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 -Ephesians 2,422 54 97.8 % 26 8 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 -Philippians 1,629 37 97.7 % 17 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Colossians 1,582 36 97.6 % 29 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

1 Thessalonians 1,481 24 98.4 % 10 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 -2 Thessalonians 823 13 98.4 % 11 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

1 Timothy 1,591 32 98.0 % 13 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 Timothy 1,238 17 98.6 % 12 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

Titus 659 8 98.8 % 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Philemon 335 6 98.2 % 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

Other NT 12,544 267 97.9 % 158 23 6 2 4 0 1 0 0 1 -Hebrews 4,953 86 98.3 % 41 8 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 -

James 1,742 28 98.4 % 22 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 Peter 1,684 61 96.1 % 30 8 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 Peter 1,099 40 96.6 % 20 3 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 -

1 John(excl. 1Jn5:8)

2,141 32 98.4 % 27 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 -

2 John 245 6 97.6 % 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -3 John 219 3 98.6 % 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Jude 461 11 97.6 % 9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

Revelation 9,851 135 98.6 % 94 8 3 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 -

Totals 137,986 3,905 97.2 % 1305 285 107 53 37 17 14 8 10 11 31 total

Inaccuracy - - 2.8 % .9% .2% .1% .04% .03%

.01% .01%

.01% .01% .01% .6%

% of inaccuracies - - 100% 33% 15% 8% 5% 4% 3% 3% 2% 2% 3% 22%

What kind of Variants are there?

Unintentional Changes Intentional changes

Unintentional Changes

From faulty eyesight or by careless inspection of the original

Faulty eyesight or careless inspection of the original

1) Substitution of similar letters and combinations of letters. 2 Peter 2:13 ΑΓΑΠΑΙΣ ("love feasts")

and ΑΠΑΤΑΙΣ ("deceptions"); 2:18 ΟΛΙΓΩΣ ("scarcely") and ΟΝΤΩΣ ("really").

Faulty eyesight or careless inspection of the original

1) Substitution of similar letters and combinations of letters. 2) Omission of words between repeated

phrases (homoeoteleuton). 1 John 2:23 "Whosoever denieth the Son, the same hath not [the Father; he that acknowledgeth the Son also hath] the Father.“

Faulty eyesight or careless inspection of the original

1) Substitution of similar letters and combinations of letters. 2) Omission of words between repeated phrases

(homoeoteleuton). 3) Addition of letters by repetition (dittography). 1

Thes. 2:7 εγενηθημεν ηπιοι ("we were gentle")

εγενηθημεν νηπιοι ("we were babes").

Unintentional Changes Faulty eyesight or by careless inspection of the original Likeness of pronunciation or by incorrect spelling

Likeness of pronunciation or incorrect spelling

1) ω confused with ο. Rom. 5:1 εχομεν ("we have peace") and εχωμεν ("let us have peace").

2) αι confused with ε. Mat. 11:16 ετεροις ("others") and εταιροις ("fellows").

3) ου confused with υ. Rev. 1:5 λουσαντι ("washed") and λυσαντι ("freed").

4) η, ι, υ, ει, οι, υι all confused with one another, because they are all pronounced "ee" in later Greek (itacism). I John 1:4 ημων ("our") and υμων ("your"). A frequent variation in later manuscripts.

5) λλ confused with λ, νν confused with ν, etc. Mat. 27:35 βαλλοντες ("casting") and βαλοντες ("having cast"); Mat. 1:18 γεννησις ("birth") and γενεσις ("generation").

Unintentional Changes From faulty eyesight or by careless inspection of the original From likeness of pronunciation or by incorrect spelling From errors of memory or anticipation

Unintentional Changes From faulty eyesight or by careless inspection of the original From likeness of pronunciation or by incorrect spelling From errors of memory or anticipation Faulty interpretation of corrections in the margin

Incorporation of marginal notes wrongly taken as corrections

Addition of notes giving brief explanations. Mat. 10:3 "Lebbaeus, whose surname was" added before

"Thaddaeus."

Incorporation of marginal notes wrongly taken as corrections

Addition of homiletic notes. Rom 8:1 "who walk not after the flesh, but after the

Spirit.“ Rom 11:6 "But if it be of works, then is it no more grace;

otherwise work is no more work.“ Mat. 27:35 "that it might be fulfilled which was spoken

by the prophet, They parted my garments among them, and upon my vesture did they cast lots."

Incorporation of marginal notes wrongly taken as corrections

Addition of notes giving lectionary and liturgical adaptations.

Luke 7:31 "And the Lord said" added at the beginning of the reading.

Mat. 6:13 "For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever, Amen" added to the Lord's prayer.

Mark 16:20 "Amen" added to the end of the book.

Incorporation of marginal notes wrongly taken as corrections

Addition of notes giving quotations from related Scripture passages.

Luke 23:38 "in letters of Greek and Latin and Hebrew" added from John 19:20; Heb. 12:20 "or thrust through with a dart" added from Exod. 19:13.

Faulty interpretation of corrections in the margin

Chiefly by treating substitutionary corrections as additions (conflation). Rom. 6:12 "[in] its lusts" added after "obey it" rather than substituted for "it."

What kind of Variants are there?

Unintentional Changes Intentional changes

Intentional Changes To make the meaning more plain

To make the meaning more plain

1) Additions, omissions, and substitutions designed to simplify or correct the grammar.

Mark 7:2 "they found fault" added to complete the sentence. 2 Cor. 12:7 "therefore" omitted from before "lest I should be exalted.“

To make the meaning more plain

1) Additions, omissions, and substitutions designed to simplify or correct the grammar

2) Addition of implied words.

Mat. 12:35 "of the heart" added after "treasure." Acts 25:16 "to die" added after "deliver any man up.“

To make the meaning more plain

1) Additions, omissions, and substitutions designed to simplify or correct the grammar

2) Addition of implied words. 3) Addition of natural supplements, often for the

sake of emphasis.

Mat. 6:4, 6 "openly" added after "will reward you.“

To make the meaning more plain

1) Additions, omissions, and substitutions designed to simplify or correct the grammar

2) Addition of implied words. 3) Addition of natural supplements, often for the

sake of emphasis 4) Substitution of more idiomatic expressions.

1 Cor. 3:4 "carnal" for "men." Phil. 2:30 "not regarding his life" for "hazarding his life.“

To make the meaning more plain

1) Additions, omissions, and substitutions designed to simplify or correct the grammar

2) Addition of implied words. 3) Addition of natural supplements, often for the

sake of emphasis. 4) Substitution of more idiomatic expressions. 5) Substitution of definitions.

Mat. 6:1 "alms" for "righteousness." Mark 7:5 "unwashed" for "defiled.”

To make the meaning more plain

1) Additions, omissions, and substitutions designed to simplify or correct the grammar

2) Addition of implied words. 3) Addition of natural supplements, often for the

sake of emphasis. 4) Substitution of more idiomatic expressions. 5) Substitution of definitions.

Intentional Changes To make the meaning more plain To harmonize related passages

To Harmonize related packages

Mat. 19:17 "Why do you ask me concerning what is good?" displaced by "Why do you call me good?" from Mark 10:18. --a very frequent kind of alteration.

Intentional Changes To make the meaning more plain To harmonize related passages To remove difficulties which would require tedious

explanation

To remove difficulties which would require tedious explanation

Mark 1:2 "in Isaiah the prophet" changed to "in the prophets."

John 1:28 "Bethany" changed to "Bethabara." John 7:8 "yet" added to "I go not up to this feast." Mat. 24:36 "nor the Son" omitted.

Intentional Changes To make the meaning more plain To harmonize related passages To remove difficulties which would require tedious

explanation To emphasize or safeguard important teachings

To emphasize or safeguard important teachings

Luke 2:33 "Joseph" substituted for "his father."

Luke 2:43 "Joseph and his mother" substituted for "his parents."

Intentional Changes To make the meaning more plain To harmonize related passages To remove difficulties which would require tedious

explanation To emphasize or safeguard important teachings To reflect or promote monastic customs

To reflect or promote Monastic customs

Mark 9:29 "and fasting" added after "prayer."

Similarly in Acts 10:30, 1 Cor. 7:5.

Determining the correct textInternal Evidence 1.Shorter text is preferred

Especially if shorter reading is difficult or ambiguous or grammatically incorrect or if longer text gives and explanation or agrees with a parallel passage

Longer reading is acceptable if item omitted could have seem harsh, offensive, erroneous or contradictory or Mechanical means of omission can be demonstrated

2.The original reading will explain the existence of the variant text

3.Conflated( combined) reading are secondary 4.Quality is more important than quantity( Majority Text) 5.Wide geographical support is significant

Conclusion It is important to remember that even though

variants exist manuscripts agree in most of their texts

Most variants do not affect the meaning of the text

Works Cited Achtemeier, Paul J. Harper's Bible Dictionary. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985. Print. Aland, Kurt, and Barbara Aland. The Greek New Testament. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft., 1994. Print. Archer, Gleason L. New International Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties: Based on the NIV and the NASB. Grand Rapids, MI:

Zondervan, 1998. Print. Benware, Paul N. Study Guide for Survey of the New Testament. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1995. Print. Benware, Paul N. Survey of the New Testament. Chicago: Moody, 1990. Print. Benware, Paul N. Survey of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody, 1993. Print. Benware, Paul N. Surveying the Old Testament. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1992. Print. Ewert, David. A General Introduction to the Bible: From Ancient Tablets to Modern Translations. Grand Rapids, MI: Academie

/Zondervan, 1990. Print. Gaebelein, Frank Ely. The Expositor's Bible Commentary: With the New Internat. Version of the Holy Bible ; in 12 Vol. Grand Rapids,

MI: Zondervan Publ. House, 1990. Print. Kaiser, Walter C. The Messiah in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Pub., 1995. Print. Mackie, G. M. Bible Manners and Customs. Old Tappan, NJ: Power, 1984. Print. Metzger, Bruce Manning. The Bible in Translation: Ancient and English Versions. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. Print. Metzger, Bruce Manning. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament 2nd Ed.: A Companion Volume ... . N.p.: Deutsche

Bibelgesellschaft, 1994. Print. Pache, René, and Helen I. Needham. The Inspiration and Authority of Scripture. Salen, Wisc.: Sheffield Pub., 1992. Print. Paul N Benware. Survey of the New Testament. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1995. Print. Ryrie, Charles Caldwell. Basic Theology. Wheaton, IL: Victor, 1986. Print. Smith, Marsha A. Ellis. Holman Book of Biblical Charts, Maps, and Reconstructions. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1993. Print. Walton, John H. Chronological and Background Charts of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994. Print. Wilkinson, Bruce, and Kenneth Boa. Talk Thru the Bible. Nashville: T. Nelson, 1983. Print. Young, Edward J. Thy Word Is Truth: Some Thoughts on the Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration. London: Banner of Truth Trust, 1972.

Print.