A STfDY OP THE CHIEF CHARACTERS OF NIHE

OF BEKAVEHTE'S EARLY PLAYS IN THE

LIGHT OP THE TYPICAL HERO OF THE

GENERATION OF 1898

THESIS

Approved:

Thesis Committee

Approved:

Dean of Division of Graduate Studies

"r

. • ; • • ' • • • • • /

I

A_ STUDY OP THE CHIEF CHARACTERS OF NINE

OF BENAVENTE'S EARLY PLAYS IN THE

LIGHT OP THE TYPICAL HERO OF THE

GENERATION OF 1898

THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate Division of the Texas Technological

College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OP ARTS

By

Lucy Norman Miller, B. A.

Lubbock, Texas

July, 1950

TEXAS TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE LUBBOCK, TEXAS LIBRARY

..... . . . . . '•••\ i jww-.

Pre

^^f * TABLE OP CONTENTS

o I.

CO

o

CHAPTER PAGE

' t'-A0 PREFACE

I . BENAVENTE AS A DRAMATIST OP THE

GENERATION OP 1898 1

I I . AN ANALYSIS OP REPRESENTATIVE

BENAVEITIAN HEROES IN THE LIGHT OP

THE FICTIONAL HERO OP 1898 19

I I I . WOMAN'S ROLE IN SPAIN'S REGENERATION

AS SEEN BY BENAVENTE . . / 58

CONCLUSION 84

BIBLIOGRAPHY 89

W'"

PREFACE

In the follfwlng study the writer proposes to

exasiine Benavente's position as a dramatist of the

"Generation of 1898," and: to adduce internal^evidence

from certain plays tO;substantiate the fact thot Benavente*

characters are typical of the fictional hero of the liter­

ature of 1898.

The nine plays chosen for this study date from 1894

to 1916: El nido ajeno, 1894; La far^dula, 1897; Lo

Cursi, 1901; Sacrlficios, 1901; La gobernadora, 1901;

El prime Roman, 1901; Alma triunfante, 1902; Rosas de

otogp, 1905; La cludad alegre y confiada, 1916. This

group of plays was selected for two reasons: they were

presented during the early years of the author's career,

when he was definitely identified with the Generation of

1898, and they deal with the "Problema de Espana." These

plays thus offer satisfactory material for the study of

Benavente's characters in relation to what has come to be

recognized as the typical literary hero of the Generation.

Furthermore, they supply the evidence needed to ascertain

to what degree the author shared the aims and ideals of

the Generation of 1898.

' .s. ' . K I

APFHlcilATION

I Odsii t o thank Dr. C- B. Qualia, net only for

b i s valuable suggestions in direct ing t h i s the sis»

feut a lso for the inspirat ion that I received from h i s

loetures em the "Generation of '93.*' I am sure that

la. many of i ^ statements I.have repeated hira^ verbatim:*

I wish tiO; express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Eunice

Gates for her heIpfml suggestions in writing t h i s t h e s i s

and to Dr. T. W. Camp for h i s careful reading of the

teaBuscrlpt* - <

f?-'V

BSIAVSNTE Aft 4^DRAMATIST OF THE GENERATfON OF 1898

Meat modern crlties cite Benavente among the writers

ofv tho €^neratlon of 1898• Since it is the purpose of

th ls study to iaterprot seme of the.chief oharaeters of

Bonavonto's early plays in the light of the flotienal

hero of the Generation of 1898 and to determine whether the 'ft ">*W '

\&^''if->'i lOnaventian hero is typioal of the protagonists of the

literature of that period, it has seemed necessary to the

writer to define the Generation of 1898 and present a

brief aceount of its origin, aims and characteristics.

Then evidence will be presented to show that Benavente

really belongs to the Seneration by (la) common agreement

of contemporary critics and literary historians and (b)

by adducing internal evidence that the fictional heroes

of the dramas in question follow in major phases the out­

line of the fictional hero of the Generation.

Among the groups which have appeared on the liter­

ary, political, or social horizons of modern Spanish

history, one of the most controversial has been the so-

called Generation of 1898, a "number of young writers

who, breaking sharply with the traditions of the nine­

teenth century, distinguished themselves by their desire

toti«Onovato Spanish l fongbt, define the Spanish essence,

and rovltallso the language.^^ These men grew up during

an M*a of superflelal happiness and peace from 1880 to

1895, the period whleh followed the Restoration and the

last Carl 1st war. B!*ee from cares the people devoted

themselves to their favorite pastimes and amusements.

Good humor prevailed everywhere, but in spite of this

apparent calm and satisfaction, Spain was a body without

historical or social consequence. No common ideals

united the government, the clergy, and the people.

Spaniards lacked a consciousness ef a possible histori­

cal destiny and a firm will to acquire a significant

pesition-among world powers. Most of them were not-even

aware of the-situation, but there were those who per­

ceived it and they felt as if they were living in a

vacuum. These were the **men of 98" who describe this

mental state of their compatriots in different terms,

but all of whom agree that the condition is deplorable.

Angel Ganivet, one of the yoimg modernists, diagnoses

this thing that is so difficult to define as abulia, a

lack of will; it is the marasmo, a consumption or wasting

that grieves Miguel de Unamuno. Azorlii is disturbed by

1 Katharine P. Reding, "The Generation of 1898 in Spain as seen through its Fictional Hero," Smith College Studies in Modern Languages, XVII, 12 (April-July, 19361, p. vll.

tli# sadiieio and eBOipmeus depression that he observes

amomgkls people. Uen^des y Pelayo deneunces the

liiiNlil y dxd alow suicide. The poet Antonio Machado

is ]baunted ¥y a vlaleB of Spain that is "vieja y

tahur, zagatera y triste.**^

Azorm, chief spokesman for the group, points out

in his treatment of the "Generaci^** that

The rebellion of its young leaders did not burst spontaneously upon the world: rather had it been painstakingly elaborated by the preceding generation. The poet Campoamor had criticized traditienal ideas; the novelist Gald<5a had opened their eyes to a new vision of reality; the "passionate cry** of Echegaray, the dramatist, had given impetus to their revolt. Politicians like Joaqufn Costa had lamented con­ditions of life in Spain. And so it was "in that vast and acrid spirit ef social criticism that the mentality of the generation of 1898 was formed.** 3

And so the impressions of Spain which were stamped in

the minds and hearts of these men were the same—

emptiness, discord, jienace, inconsistency and a lack

of inspiring ideals among Spaniards.

The loss of her colonies and the defeat of Spain

by the United States in 1898 mark a crisis in the soul

and mind of Spain, and although this hiamiliation was

2 Poesfas completas, p. 20Z>, quoted by La^n Entralgo in La generaci(5n del noventa y ocho (Madrid, 1945), p. 100.

3 Jos^ Martiiiez Ruiz, Clasicos y modernos, quoted by Reding, op. cit., p. 1.

net 1 a» iiatise of the rebelliOB of the writers of '98,

It jpao siu*oXy a deelslve factor. It awakened them to

the torirlblo realisation of the situation and shocked

them late a desire for action, so they devoted them-

seXvos wholeheartedly to the regeneration of Spain

by recalllBg the great deeds, epochs and men of old

Spain as well as the existing grandetirl of contempor­

ary Spain. They sought to arouse their fellow-men

and^shake them out of that lethargic state, abulia,

marasmo, or whatever one chooses to call it, in order

that Spain might regain a portion of respect in Europe.

Because their active work springs specifically from

the year of Spain's defeat, these writers have become

known as the Generation of 1898. One of these young

men, AzorlB, portrays in his book. La voluntad, the

typical Spaniard who knows where he is going geograph­

ically, but not intellectually or ethically. The

author seeks to show that his hero characterizes and

symbolizes these young enthusiasts and himself, that

his perplexities, anxieties and despair are character­

istic of a generation without will and energy, a

vacillating and irresolute generation. The protago­

nist, Azorlii, marks the appearance of a Generation

character, a generation that is made up of perplexOd.,

midiiojm,' weak-willed and analytical people who study

and analyze themselves, who would like to plan a course

of aotl Mi and carry it to completion by sheer force of

intelligence and will, but are defeated by inherent

weaknesses.

Although the men of '98 criticize Spanish tradi­

tions and seek to Europeanize Spain, they do not

intend that their country should lose its native

espanolismo-"far from it. These men are devoted to

the history of Spain, even though they strongly oppose

its terrible inconsistency. Their love for the real

Spain and their hostility toward this superficial Spain

make them search for another "possible" Spain which

they envisage in their hearts—a Spain that is made up

of her past glory, a brilliant future and the reality

itself of the country. Although each one has sought

his ideal in a different manner, their language, their

hopes and their ideals for Spain's regeneration are

analogous.

The importance of the so-called Generation of '98

has added to the general controversy concerning the

movement. Rafael Cansinos Assens, Salvador de Madarlaga

and Melchor Pern^dez Almagro agree in emphasizing the

value of its critical position. The writers are esteemed

for their renovation of the language and the litera­

ture, but each of the critics cited above expresses

,\

6

a dlffore«ilr opinion as to who eonstltuO#d this famous

Goner at loB.^

A particularly hostile judgment of the value of

the Generation Is that of the literary historian.

Den Jmlio COjador y Frauea, who declares that the aim

of the group was te **de*hispanize and de-ChristianiEe"^

Spain. He holds the Institucidn llbre de enseSanza,

their edueatienal center, responsible for the mis­

guided youth who deserted the faith of thete» fathers

and took the enemy Nietssche to their bosom. These

young men rose up with fire in their eyes and hurled

anathema against all tradition, swearing to raao his­

torical Spain to her foundations in true Iconoclastic

style. They declared loudly that Spaniards were of

inferior race, incapable of culture and that their

only hope of salvation as a nation was in becoming

completely Europeanlzed. In spite of the vitupera­

tions which Cejador y Prauca heaps upon this Genera­

tion he almost sells his case through a frank admissicn

of the benefits conferred upon Spanish literature by

4 Rafael Cansinos Assens, La nueva literatura; Salvador de Madariaga, Espana; Melchor Fernandez Almagro, Vida y obra de Angel Ganivet, quoted by Reding, op. cit., p. Ikj. ~~

5 "Entrada del modernismo en America y Espana y la llamada generacion del 98," Historia de la lengua y de la literatura castellana X, (Madrid, 1915-192ki), Prlmera parte, pp. 48-50.

-the generation he is combating. Generally the hostile

c»ltloi think the Generation a^destructive forco and

only grudgingly concede its ameliorating effect upon

artistic language, while ffaverable critics believe

that the movement is significant for I Its new critical

attitude^ and for its regeneration of aesthetic ideals

in Spanish art and letters.

Another point of controversy concerning.the

Generation of '98, as has been previously mentioned, is

the membership of the group. Who are the writers of the

5 Generation? That there is a wide variance of opinion

is shown by lists prepared by leading critics and his­

torians of "men"'or "the men" who really belong to the

Generation. For example, Azori!n's6 list is limited to

seven members as follows: Valle-Inclan, Unamuno,

Benavente, Bueno, Maeztu, Ruben Darlo, and it is assumed

that he includes himself in the group. The German critic 7

Hans Jeschke, declares that there are only five who,

properly speaking, belong to the Generation, namely,

Baroja, Antonio Machado, Benavente, Valle-incl^ and

Azorili. Then there is the tendency to include

6 Jos/ Martinez Ruiz (Azorin), op. cit., (Madrid, 1919), p. 251.

7 Cited by Reding, ££. cit., p. 14.

8

|ii4ctlel^y all the slgnlf leant names in the literary

kiotery ef Spain during the transitional years from

the nimoteenth to the twentieth century. This tend-

eney' ls%hat we see in Rieardo BaezaS whose list is

more than twice as long as that of Azorfn, including

the names of the novelist, Gabriel Mir^; the philos­

opher, Jos^Ortega y Gasset; the poets, Antonio, and

Manuel Machado, Juan Ram(& Jimenez, and Enrique Dfez-

Canedo; the dramatists, Eduardo Marqulna and Jacinto

Grau, in addition to those that Azorfn includes in his

list. In her excellent study of the literature of the

Generation, Miss Reding^ adds the name of the novelist.

Angel Ganivet, to the list of writers whom coma»n

opinien places in the group.

€feie leading critic, C^ar Barja,XO believes that

the question will probably never be satisfactorily

answered because of the double aspect of the movement,

the literary and the social-spiritual. In Hispanic

America, Spain, and in other European countries, in

open revolt against the realistr'cand nat\iralisticforms

8 "Azorin y la generaci(5n del 98," Gompren3i(5n de Dostoiewesky y otros ensayos (Barcelona, 1935, pp. 170-imT' ^

9 0£. cit., p. viii.

10 "Who are the Writers of the Spanish Generation of 1898," Modern Language Forum, XXX, 4(Dec. 1945), pp. 83-92.

v'. ,

9

ef l|tov^iu*o« a new kind of literature known as

^fKoAernlsm" marks the dissolution of the nineteenth

oontory and manifests Itself in arts, religion, poli­

ties and every aspect of human life. The writers of

the Generation are directly connected with the Modern­

ist movement, which each one illustrates in his own

field. And this is the literary label under which

they appear to us.

The social-spiritual phase is likewise a revolt

against the traditional order of things, social and

polltleal, but whether literary or social, the purpose

in both cases was to break away from the past and to

create something better than had ever existed before.

As a result of the double aspect of the movement

some critics will think of the whole generation of

1898 as a literary school; others will think of it as

a social-spiritual movement vitally related to the

social and spiritual realities of Spanish life at the

end of the nineteenth century.

The aims of the generation are social-religious,

political, and literary. Generally, an individual may

represent a different phase of the movement. Some are

concerned with practical reforms, others solely with

art. But their ultimate aim is to improve national

life, though the means to that end be various.

10

In the seclal-rellgleus life the writers of '98

sought to awaken the people of Spain to their laek of

reality, to arouse a spirit of patriotism, sadly lack­

ing among their people. They would change living con­

ditions and eventually change the Spaniard. They

sought tolerance in religion; they believed that Spain's

regeneration must be of a spiritual order. As most of

the evils of Spain were a result of ignorance, the

group was keenly interested in education and favored

sweeping reforms both in primary and secondary educa-

t ion.

In the political life of Spain the men of 1898

sought to abolish corrupt, vicious and illegal govern­

mental practices, the incompetence in administrative

offices, false elections, "convenient politics,"11

nepotism and caciquismo, the boss system.

The literary endeavor of the 98-ers has been

called "the movement of good writing." They sought to

clarify the Spanish language, to purify it of its care­

less improvisation, its pompous and bombastic infla­

tion. They sought simplicity in their writing and strove

to be modern while retaining the aesthetic values of the t

past.

11 Azorfii, 0£. cit., p. 235

11

So then we si»o that one of the chief character­

istics of the famous Generation** is their critical

attitude toward social, political and literary ideals

of Spain. Moved by a desire and a necessity to free

themselves from the traditional and to create a new art

in accord with the new age, they protested the accepted

forms of national art, many of which were decadent and

needed to be renovated.

The writers of *98 have a keener intellectual

curiosity and are better informed than their prede­

cessors because of their wider and more Intimate contact

with foreign literatures. They all want to be literary

men, to do something important in the life of apaln.

They all dream of a new era when Spain will be faithful

to herself and to her former glory, and thoy^all have

the idea that they are the ones who will initiate the

new epoch.

The men of ''98 want Europeanization, but without

de-Hispanization. Their patriotism and love for Spain

are expressed in a sincere desire for her development

and prosperity.

The enthusiastic desire to reform is common to all

the Generation. They all agree that change is the

solution to Spain's problem of regeneration, though

they differ in their methods and suggestions as to how

12

It Should, or might, be done. Some of them reflect the

spirit of their time by their hesitation, their uncer­

tainty and Inability to offer a satisfactory solution.

They all agree that the vital shock that is needed for

her regeneration must be spiritual and religious.

In short, these writers of "98 dream of a pure,

original and exemplary Spain, and a literature that is

filled with the best and most worthy of the memory of

the past, that is rich with hope and promise for a

glorious Spain.

In order to interpret the protagonists of certain

BOnaventian dramas in the light of the fictional hero

of 1898 and to determine whether they are typical of

that literature, it is necessary to present the major

characteristics of the fictional hero of the literature

of that period.

Entralgo states in his study of the ' Generacion*'

that the Spaniard as a ''peculiar human type" is one of

the fundamental themes of the writers of 1898. The

authors combine the real Spaniard, whom they see on the

streets and roads of Spain, with their ideal Spaniard

patterned after the immortal Don (;iuijote. The new

Spaniard will be uncomplaining; he will be a serious and

melancholy fighter; he will resign himself to his fate.

He will not be very optimistic; neither will he be

*"-:'-'

13

pessimistic. He will not be afraid of ridicule; rather

he will look for it, like his hero and model. He will

have a zest for study, comparison, and criticism; he

wilLliave a curiosity fdr spiritual things. His wisdom

Will be of faith and immortality; his life will be a

"fountain of energy, thought, and action."^2

In her brilliant study, "The Generation of 1898

in Spain as seen through its Fiction«IHero," based on

the novels of Azorfn, P^o Baroja, Unamuno, Valle-Inclan

and Angel Ganivet, Miss Reding^^ analyzes and outlines

the essential Characteristics of the typical hero of the

literature of 1898. She finds that he is intensely

aware of himself, that he feels the weight and impor­

tance of his own ego. He has a complex personality; he

is often torn by some conflict between discordant ele­

ments in his emotional or intellectual life. He has no

well-defined aim.

There is a "lack of balance"!^ in the protagonist

of the Generation of 1898. He is hypersensitive or

super-intellectual; he is at the mercy of one of his

passions; he is sex-mad or is driven by his lust for

12 0£. cit., pp. 372-394

13 , pp. 102-117.

14 Ibid., p. 104.

14

adventure. In any case there is not the balance between

thesO qmalitiea which makes them function more or less

harmoniously in the average man.

The typical hero of '98 lacks a ^normal power of

volition to direct his own course."^^ it is submerged

by stronger passions, or functions in an exaggerated

manner*

"The romantic hero who kneels in adoration before

his beloved is not to be found among the heroes of

1898.**^^ Since the interest usually centers upon the

self-fulfillment of the protagonist, his marriage is

treated as incidental to that. Stress is laid upon the

functional significance of sex rather than upon the

more dazzling super-structure df romantic love. Men

turn to women and marriage as a means of escape from

their spiritual problems; women seek men as fathers of

their children because they feel an intense need for

love and companionship.

The type protagonist of 1898 is an eccentric^17

he is a rebel who expresses himself in various ways

against the existing order. His attitude toward Spain

is hostile and his criticism becomes more acute when it

refers to actual contemporary life.

15 Ibid., p. 107.

16 Ibid., p. 107.

17 Ibid., p. 109.

15

The fictional hero of the liter at tire of 1898 is a

tot«Ll skeptic; his lack of faith in God and the immor-

taXlty of the soul Is the cause of much spiritual

anguish. IS

The present writer finds no variance of opinion

among contemporary eritlas and literary historians

regarding Benavente'8rposition among the writers of

1898. AzorJCn, ensign and trumpeter of the group, in­

cludes Benavente in his list of "men**! of the Genera­

tion. (Jejador y Frauea cites Benavente as '"one of the

young writers who were influenced by Prencn modern is ts."*^^

A detailed study of tne prevailing conception of

life of the autnors of 1898 leads Jeschke to conclude

that only Benavente in the theatre, Valle-Inclwi,

Baroja and. Azorin in prose and Antonio Machado in

poetry belong to the Generation of 1898.^1

In his discussion of **Phe Generation of '98 '

Isaac Goldberg writes as follows:

Benavente, as one of the eager 98-ers became a participant in the intellectual life of Europe; his prose—even apart from his dramas--shows a sensitiveness to shades of tnougnt and an exquisite

18 I b i d . , p . 1 1 7 .

19 Azor in , op . c i t . , p . i i51.

iiO £ p . c i t . , pp. 5 6 - 8 .

kil C i t e d by Reding, £ £ . c i t . , p . 1 4 .

16

aesthetic judgment that are the chief contri­butions of the restless youths among which he grew to maturity.2^

In his article "The 1898 MoveMent," Walter Starkle,

English critic and literary historian, declares that

Amidst all those new writers there moved the slender figure of a young man CBenavent^ who was to be not only the master builder of modern Spanish drama, but also the mirror of the society of his time.^^

Federico de Onis, distinguished Spanish scholar,

reminds us that from the beginning Benavente was "imo

de los decididos propulsores de lo que entonces se llamo

'modernismo' y que su obra responde por complete a las

tendencias m ^ modernas del teatro universal."^4

Another literary historian,, Andres Gonzales-

Blanco^^ finds the carainal principles of the "famous

Generation" in Benavente's works. He believes that

Benavente is of his time and race, that his work con­

sists of a series of essays designed to show how social

life may be reformed in order that it might be more

just, more sincere, and more human.

22 Drama of Transition, (Cincinnati, 1922), p. 96.

23 Walter Starkle, Jacinto Benavente (London, 1924), p. 19.

24 Jacinto Benavente (l ew lork, 1923), p. 15.

25 Los dramaturgos espai oles contemporsmeos l.a serle (Valencia, 1917), p. 168.

17

A more recent study is that of Lain Entralgo,^^

published in 1945* Entralgo designates Benavente as

the chief dramatist of the writers of '98. Thus it is

seen that Benavente belongs to the Generation of 1898 by

common agreement of leading contemporary critics and

historians.

In the following pages the writer proposes to pro-

Vide internal evidence that Benavente belongs to the

Generation of '98 by showing how the Benaventian hero

follows in major phases the typical outline of the

fictional hero of the writers of 1898 and how other

important characters reflect the spirit and ideas of

the Generation.

The plays chosen for this study fall into two

distinct categories, those dealing with social problems

and those pertaining to the political problems of

Spain. El nido ajeno, Lo cursi, Sacrlficios, Alma

triunfante, and Rosas de otoiio belong to the first

group. In these plays Benavente portrays the sham and

hypocrisy in the social life of Spain among the upper

middle class and the aristocracy. He satirizes the

nobility, the corrupt Madrilenian society, the "unfaith­

ful husband," and encourages education for women. He

26 0£. £it. (Madrid, 1945), p. 69.

18

portrays the womsn of great virtue whose responsi­

bility it is to regenerate Spain, the ultimate aim of

the writers ef '98.

In La far&dula. La gobernadora. El prime Roman

and La cludad alegre y confiada, the aithor lays bare

the evils of the political system in Spain, the evils

protested by the writers of '98, caciquismo, nepotism

"convenient politics," incompetence in government

administrators and false elections.

Let us turn first to a study of the male

characters.

,^ I lilillllWIII H II . Jp-

CHAPTER I I

AN ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATIVE BENAVENTIAN HEROES IN THE LIGHT

OF THE FICTIONAL HERO OF 1898

In the fo l lowing pages I s h a l l attempt t o i n t e r ­

pret the Benaventian heroes in t h e l i g h t of the

ffieneration hero and show how and why they are t y p i c a l

of the hero of 1898, and how other important characters

revea l s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and l i t e r a r y tendencies and

i d e a l s of the age. I s h a l l use Entralgo's i n t e r p r e t a ­

t i o n of the idea l Spaniard and Miss Reding's a n a l y s i s

of the f i c t i o n a l hero as the b a s i s for my own i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n of the Benaventian hero .

The type protagonist of 1898 i s an eccentr ic who

i s engrossed in the workings of h i s own mind and sou l .^

This i s the hero that we meet in El nido ajeno^ (1894) ,

Benavente's f i r s t drama. B r i e f l y the s tory i s as

f o l l o w s :

Emilia comes t o i n v i t e Maria and her husband t o

a f i r s t night at the t h e a t r e . J o s ^ L u i s has had i n d i ­

g e s t i o n and re fuses the i n v i t a t i o n . His brother,

Manuel, just returned from America where he made a

for tune , i s s tay ing with Jose^ Luis and Maria.

1 Reding, op. cit., p. 109.

2 Cuarta edicion (Librerjfa de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), VdU 1.

20

jOO^Lmls lo a dyspeptic. He is melancholy by

mm%imm- and derives voXuptuous enjoyment from his sad­

ness. He never goes out with his wife. Marfa, and his

brother. He is either too busy or too ill. So Manuel

and Mar fa are thrown together constantly. Jose Luis

finds nothing but displeasure in their easy comrade­

ship. His melancholy nature engenders suspicion. He

believes that they are in love. So suspicious has he

grown that he goes out frequently at night, then comes

in unannownced to see if he can "catch" them in a love

affair.

Manuel and Maria realize that Jos^Luis is jeal­

ous. Both are embarrassed and humiliated. Manuel

prepares to leave his brother's house, and a quarrel

ensues. Jose Luis tells him that he is not his full

brother. Manuel disillusions him, and tells him the

story of his father's unfounded suspicions. They are

all happy again.

As Manuel leaves, Maria kisses him on the fore­

head, in the presence of Jose Luis, to prove their

innocence. Manuel realizes now that he has loved

Maria without knowing it, but he keeps his secret and

leaves. He confesses that he will come back when they

both shall be very old and can cause no suspicion.

As a true Generation hero, Jose Luis is an egoist;

he falls into moods of lethargy and melancholy which

21

Oihaoo hlfflto be anheyed by his pleasant environment.

Ifeiable to dismiss this evil state of mind, he becomes

reatXess and indecisive; he never finds the peace of

spirit that he seeks. Jos^Luis knows that he is

being unfair with Maria, that he has no right to doubt

her- He even realizes that this tendency to suspect

her is an inherent weakness, one that he is unable to

overcome. He admits that it is madness.^ Jose Luis

would like to express his love for Maria and exchange

confidences with her. He would like to change his

egotistical habits, but he lacks a normal power of

volition to set up and maintain an intelligent course

of actien. As a result, he suffers an unconquerable

weariness. Jose Luis, then, is afflicted with abulia,

the disease or mental illness that all the writers of

'98 deplore and which they have so frequently depicted

in fiction. It is also to be noted that Jose Luis is

the drab, colorless type of husband often depicted by

the writers of the Generation.

Maria is the traditional Spanish woman, devoted

to her husband and her home. Emilia, the neighbor,

tells us that Maria is a model wife, that no one else

would contend with such a husband. She even warns

Jos/ Luis that life is short, that he should enjoy

3 Ibid., II, xii, 61.

22

himself and spend more time with Maria. But Jose Luis

never has time for anything except his illness and his

business. Absorbed in himself, he has no regard for

the activities and illnesses of others. When Maria

urges him to rest for the day, he shows us just hew

important the condition and interests of others are to

him as he answers her with the following questions:

d Creeras tu que mi enfermedad es come tus jaquecas . . • Estoy muy male^ . . Tu crees que mis asuntos son como los vuostros? Visitas y compras que a cualquier hora y cualquier dia da lo misme . . # v

Typical of the Spanish wife, Maria exercises the

greatest patience with her husband. She understands

why Jose Luis is such a negative character and the

reason is significant. She explains to Manuel that

Jose' Luis is an introvert, that it is difficult for

him to receive just anybody into his heart.

Manuel, educated outside of Spain--in America—

is not poisoned by the melancholia, abulia, and egoism

which are so characteristic of his people. Manuel

diagnoses his brother in a less kindly manner, but

more objectively and more accurately, thus:

. . . porque vuestro amor no es amor, es apetito; impulse devorador, absorbente, que no tolera voluntad ni vida propias en el ser

4 Ibid., I, iii, 22.

23

afetfcide, que ahoga y tritura el impulse ajeno . . . Es tan grande vuestro egofsmo, que no cab/ls en vosotros. Sols como esos tiranos conquistadores, ansiosos de poderib, a quienes no les basta con sua dominies y rompen fronteras para avasallar al mundo entero, si pudieran . . .5

Manuel represents an ideal type of husband of the

Generation. In direct contrast to his brother, Manuel

is amiable, affectionate, and attractive, a scrupulous

and honest business man, appreciative of kindness and

integrity in ethers. He is gifted with a love that is

more spiritual than mere desire. He is devoted to the

memory of his mother and is repelled by his father's

lack of respect for her. He tries to show Jose Luis

that he sheuld realize the true value of the treasiire

that he possesses in Maria, that he should spend more

time with her, that they should make trips together.

Foremost in the minds of the writers of 1898 is

the regeneration of Spain. Although they hesitate to

offer a specific solution to the problem, they do agree

that the man must be changed. It seems that Jose Luis

is the man that Benavente actually sees, that Manuel is

the man that he dreams of in his vision of a better

Spain. By keeping Maria and her husband together and

by convincing him that he does hold some mistaken ideas,

Benavente implies that the Spaniard can be changed and

that it must begin in the home.

5 Ibid., Ill, V, 78

24

Ixk Lo oural^ (1901), a drama which seeks to prove

that truth and goodness pay the greatest dividends,

Benavente satirizes bitterly the spirit of abandon and

giddiness which was undermining the cardinal virtues of

Spain. This desire for pleasxare and show has been

described as escapist by Spanish critics. The people

drowned their feeling of shame and disgrace by attend­

ing gawdy diversions or by "showing off" in other ways.

Benavente detests the hypocrisy and the subetitution

of that so-called cursi for the real and significant

values of life.

The hero, Agustin, a native of Madrid^ is imbued

with the modern spirit. He desires to experience every

new sensation and thus symbolizes the literary and

social tendencies of the new century. Rosario,^reared

in the ceimtry, strives in vain to keep pace with her

husband and his "modern" friends. In order not to be,

or appear cursi, Rosario stifles her jealousy when her

husband neglects her and pays attention to the flighty

Lola. To arouse Agustdi's jealousy Rosario pretends to

be attracted to Carlos, the traditional Don Juan.

Agustin is aroused, but it is cursi to be concerned

about one's wife; so he apparently ignores the situa­

tion and really does so far as Rosario knows.

6 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), Vol. 4.

• W^.

25 I

Ifecelt, pretense, and flattery soon take their

toll* Rosario believes that separation is the only

aolmtlen. Finally her aunt, tia Flora, and Agustin's

father show her and Agustin how ridiculous they have

made themselves by trying to be distinguished. They

prove t3D them that goodness, kindness, and distinction

of the soul are never common.

Agustui represents the yoimg moderns themselves.

Per him there is no good or evil; a thing is either

cursi or distinguished. One is cursi unless he ques­

tions and opposes the usual thing'. It is a mark of

distinction to be bored and vexed with current ideals,

to be idle, t© lie in bed until noon, to be up all

night. Agustim thinks that he wants his wife to be the

self-sufficient, modern woman who keeps to herself and

does not trouble her husband.

Rosario is from the country, born and bred in the

dignified silence of an ancestral palace; so it is very

difficult for this quiet, unassuming person to keep up

with the pretentious life of her husband and his friends.

She tries to select the newest fashions in order to

please him, but in trying to be distinctive she makes

herself ridiculous. She lives in a state of constant

confusion.

26

Preoccupied with his own interests Agustin never

exchanges confidences with his wife; he never helps

her with a word of encouragement; he is not even con­

cerned about her, or at least he does not want to give

the impression that he is—that would be cursi. Agustin

is, then, a typical "Generation" husband—one who does

not let himself find companionship and idealized love

in his home. Though not induced by the type of egoism

superinduced by introspection, as was Jose Luis, he is

that type of egoist that wants to show off.

Although Benavente is a modern^ he is still a con­

servative in many of his ideas. Thus, we find that he

gazes sardonically at the new ideas which were grad­

ually changing the life of Spain. He frowns on the

Madrilenians who stay out until morning, ignoring their

health, deriding the Constitution, and he castigates

Catholics who give no thought to the catechism, and

who discredit all economic laws. In Lo cursi, Benavente

has revealed the bourgeoisie and>the aristocratic

Madrilenian as they were in the moment of their evolu­

tion in which they were transforming themselves to

European molds, losing many of their traditional vir­

tues without acquiring new ones, and at the same time

conserving many old vices which were being augmented by

new ones, a product of the modernization which was a

growth of the movement of 1898. We find embodied in

27

the protagonist the moral and InteXlaBotual anarchy

idtloh is typical of the decadent spirit at the end of

the century.

In almost every drama there are some important

ideas not expressed by the protagonist, but by other

chjoracters seeking better social conditions for Spain.

In Lo cursi, Benavente allows the old Marquis t© set

forth his ideas on marriage. He dreams of a day when

husbands and wives can speak and act freely and natu­

rally, when marriages are based on love, respect and

consideration rather than social convenience. He and

tia Flora both express Benavente's opposition to the

current fashion of "separate homes" for married people.

Flora is horrified by the thought or suggestion of

divorce. When Rosario remarks that a separation is

the only way out of the difficulty, tia Flora exclaims:

En nuestra familia nunca se han visto estas

cosasl'7

Unhappy marriages form one of the chief problems

of Spain. Here again Benavente implies that regenera­

tion of Spain must begin in the home by allowing the

Marquis and Flora to help the young couple find their

real love. They show them that distinctiveness of the

7 Ibid., Ill, vii, 169.

28

soul is worth more than all the distinctions of

fashion, t&at In their fanatic desire to be distin­

guished they have made themselves very ordinary.

Characteristically of the ideals ef the writers

of >98, Benavente implies that the Spaniard must and

can be ehanged. The egotistical hero, Agust:^, agrees

at last with tfa Flora, as she and the Marquis con­

vince him that goodness and kindness are never common

or cursi.

In the psychological drama Sacrlficios^ (1901),

there is no trace of disdainful social satire: rather

do we sense a certain pessimism. Benavente seems to

say that love and happiness are the primary essentials

in life; money and renown are secondary. If we allow

our chance for love and happiness to pass by, we may

never be able to regain it.

Sacrlficios is the story of two sisters. Alma and

Doll, who have been adopted by the singing-master,

Esteban. His chief desire is to make Alma a famous

singer. She wins world acclaim, but she is not happy.

Influenced by Esteban, Alma has disregarded emotional

security, in favor of financial security for her sister

and herself.

8 Segunda edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), Vol. 4.

29

^ Alaa and RlcardO love each other. Believing that

IM» irt is;«ire Important thin Xove, Alma persuades

him to transfer his love te hoY sister. Doll listens

to Alma in everything and readily consents to the mar­

riage. ••l|iif - '/

When DoXI realizes that Alma and Rieardo are in

love, she is brokenhearted. She commits suicide by'

drewnlng because she is convinced of the initial terror

ef her marriage. She has sacrificed herself in order

te make happiness possible for Alma and Rieardo, but

her renunciation has the effect of driving them apart.

Benavente spares no touch to bring out the mean

egoism that animates the majority of his heroes.

Esteban, protagonist in Sacrlficios, is so absorbed in

his own interests that he completely destroys whatever

chance for happiness the other three characters in the

play might have. It is his overweening desire to make

Alma a famous singer and thus gain renown as her

singing-master, which makes him a typical protagonist

of 1898. He not only has abandoned his family in

order to carry out his selfisn purpose, but he can

also speak of his desertion in the most calloused man­

ner. There is a lack of balance in his essential

qualities; he is not interested in the things which

ordinarily make up a maa's life. He has aevoted all

30

of his energy te this one ideal—to the development of

Alma^S career. In his ofinlen he Is the only one who

has made a saerlfloe; he is too selfish to recognize

that it has been for his own pleasure and satisfaction

that he has relentlessly exploited his protegee. Alma,

with no thought for her emotional security. Ho has

deliberately discouraged the younger sister's toUent

for music, whleh, admittedly, is not so unusual as

Alma's; nevertheless, he emphasizes his one-sided

nature as he says:

Para el maestro, todo el que no es artista es un

ser inutil y per judicial.*^

Esteban regards Alma's career as his life's work

and he hates Rieardo with the natred of a man who sees

a stronger one coming to seize his treasure. The

older he grows the more Esteban acts like a spoiled

and selfish child. He is afraid that Alma will not

return to the theatre and tie will be left to his own

resources, which are just as limited and narrow as his

conscience. He is at the mercy of his own passions and

so he goes on blindly, insensitive to the pain that he

inflicts on his family and nis friends, until he suc­

ceeds in wrecking and even destroying the lives of

Alma, Rieardo, and Doll.

9 Ibid., I, 11, 221.

31

RlcardO .Oigl»ees to marry Deli, the pale and fragile

yeunger sister« but he is in love with Alma. As is

eharaeteristic of the Generatien hero, Rieardo knows

what he wants, but he is unable to obtain it; he has

no well-defined aim. He admires Alma for the very

qualities that he lacks, strength of will and spirit,

dignity and self-assurance. His inability to cope with

conflicting elements in his own nature impresses us

with a sense of failure that is typical of the fic­

tional hero of 1898*

In Alma triunfante-^^ (1902), Madrilenian society

continues to be the prime subject matter, but in this

psychological drama, as in Sacrlficios, Benavente has

compassionately revealed the weak and sorrowful trag­

edies that are hidden under the surface of his giddy,

contemporary society. He never makes those who stiff er

the object of laughter.

While Isabel is being cared for in a mental hos­

pital, her husband, Andr^, has fallen in love with

Emilia. As a result of their love, a little girl is

born. Unexpectedly, Isabel regains her nealth' and

returns home.

Andres is torn between two conflicting ideas of

duty and morality. Padre victor tells him that his

10 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1918), Vol. 7.

32

sin must be expiated, but he is not strong enough to

carry out the Padre's decree.

Ferceiving her husband's anxiety, Isabel deter­

mines the reason in her own mind. She decides to

feign a relapse of her former madness in order to re­

turn to the hospital, thus freeing Andr/s from his

Christian duty. The Padre will not permit this sacri­

fice; so she resigns herself to the situation. She

forgives Andres; she will help rear hi a. child aid she

accepts Boilla as her "sister in suffering."

Andres is the typically weak Generation hero who

knows where he is going geographically, but not intel­

lectually nor ethically. He lacks the ability to think

clearly and to make decisions. He is torn between two

ideas of morality. One is the morality of life, which

demands that he yield to his instinctive love for

Emilia, mother of his little daughter; the other, the

morality of duty, his Christian duty which demands

that he sacrifice those two for the peace and happiness

of his lawful home. This conflict in his emotional

life tends to consume him to the extent that he has

no spirit or vitality left with which to conduct his

daily life. He seeks counsel from Padre Victor. When

the priest decrees that he must forget Emilia, Andres

33

finds that he is Incapable of the sacrifice.- - Accord­

ing te the priest, he lacks "the serene courage of a

strong man*"

Andres has stifled the love that he feels for

Emilia. He wants to pay for his sin, but he is irre­

solute and helpless before the situation. He shrinks

from making up his mind to any decisive course of

action. He would like to share his secret with Isabel;

it would be so much easier, but he believes that her

mental condition forbids his telling her. In the end,

it is Isabel who makes the sacrifice; Andres can not,

because he is defeated by his weakness of will. Thus,

he is typical of the fictional hero of 1898.

Benavente's increased interest in moral questions

of hiffiian relationship, especially in problems of mar­

ried life, is seen in Rosas de otono- ^ (1905). Love

and faithfulness in the virtuous wife are idealized

and the theme of compassion and true love is forcefully

developed. The drama is a study of a loving, resigned

woman who forgives all her husband's infidelities, is

content to be a sort of mother to him, and is happy to

11 . . . Qu^ facil sacrificar a los que nos quieren, que dificll sacrificar a lo que se quierel (Ibid., I, iii, 22).

12 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917), Vol. 2.

34

be-first In his heart, no matter how many others there

may be, or may have been.

A lust for adventure causes Gonzalo, the worth­

less rake to whom Isabel is married, to behave like

Don Juan. Engaging in numerous intrigues, he almost

wrecks his home before he realizes that the example

that he sets before his son-in-law is going to wreck

his daughter's life. Isabel suffers many humiliations

and indignities, but when she sees that Maria Antonia's

happiness is at stake, she speaks out. The effect of

this speaking is immediate. Gonzalo softens and lets

himself be led back to virtue by his wife. Isabel's

long years of waiting for a return of her husband's

affections come to a happy end and bring her "autumn

roses."

Gonzalo is the typical, "busy," middle class

Spaniard of the early 1900's who has no time to spend

with his wife. Preoccupied with his own interests, he

conveniently forgets a little thing like guests for

dinner, but Isabel is patient and solicitous. He is

selfish, compromising, vain, deceitful, and otherwise

irresponsible. His haughtiness is insufferable, but

Isabel bears it with Christian fortitude.

Knowing that he will receive the same protection,

Gonzalo defends and approves of Pepe, his son-in-law.

35

who is modeling his life on that ef his father-in-law.

SoBzalo is bound by no moral scruples, or respect for

convention. He recognizes a code of honor, although

he does not live by it. He tells Pepe that

. • . fuera del matrimonio de la familia no hay^verdadero cariffo, no hay nada; est a es la «nlca, la verdadera felicidad . . .- ^

And immediately Gonzalo begins to inquire about a new

source ef intrigueMr:;<^ '

. . . Oye, h en que piececilla trabaja^sa muchacha de que me hablaste? Porque fuf al teatro la otra noche, por casualidad, y no vf nada que valiera la penat.14

Gonzalo selfishly continues in-his pursuit of

idle pleasures, never taking cognizance of the fact

that Isabel is entitled to a certain degree of love,

confidence, sympathy, and respect. He feels no obli­

gation to provide more than financial security for

his family and he is completely oblivious to his

moral obligations. We find the fundamental traits

of the protagonists of the literature of 1898 In

Gonzalo.

The writers of '98 can not see how Spain can be

regenerated as long as greed, envy, hate, and "don-

juanism" prevail. Unamuno has expressed it in terms

13 Ibid., I, ii, p. 24.

14 Ibid.

36

that seem to apply directly to the situation analyzed

above. He says:

Don Juan vive y se agita, mientras Don Quijote duerme y suena, y de aquf muchas de nuestras desgracias.13

In.the works of all the members of the Generation

the theme of a possible and ideal Spaniard appears as

a sparkle of hope behind a theme of the present and

past Spain. The writers attempt to characterize the

men whom they see on the streets and roads of Spain.

These men are not the men they see in their visionary

Spain; so they combine the real Spaniard with their

ideal Spaniard who will fulfill their hopes for Spain's

regeneration. By allowing Gonzalo, the man that is

seen on the streets of Madrid, to be led back to virtue,

he becomes the ideal man that the writers of '98 dream

of in their vision of Spain.

In Rosas de otono Benavente seeks to make men

know that their wives are entitled to love and confi-

dence, sympathy and respect. He would awaken them to

a sense of their obligation as parents. He would show

them that the financial security of their families is

not their only responsibility, that tenderness, love,

and affection, rather than egoism and "donjuanism,"

15 Miguel de Unamuno, "Sabre Don Juan Tenorio," Ensayos, II, 404.

37

wtXl form the b a s i s of Spain's regenerat ion . Moral

( Ibl lgat lens and r e s p e n s l b l l l t y are far more important

In Spain 's regenOratlon than i s f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y .

Here again Benavente impl ies that Spain's regenerat ion

must begin in t h e home, where the Spanish woman w i l l

asstzme a major r d l e , a top ic that w i l l be d i scussed at

greater l ength in t h e fo l lowing chapter .

I sabe l symbolizes t h e idea l of resignati<Ma and

s a c r i f i c e . She knows that i t i s u s e l e s s t o speak t o

Gonzalo about h i s manner of l i v i n g ; in f a c t , she would

not dare quest ion him about his^conduct. She res igns

h e r s e l f t o awaiting the time and opportunity to s t r i k e

and win back h i s a f f e c t i o n . Roman, a f r i end of t h e

fami ly , suggests t o Isabel that she warn her husband

of impending g o s s i p . Her reply i s short , but i t speaks

volumes revea l ing the preva i l ing a t t i t u d e of men toward

t h e i r w ives . I sabel says that

. . . Nunca me permito aconsejar le y menos oponerme a su voluntad. Nada f i b n i espero de sus palabras , por carinbsas y bien intencionadas que sean. Para conseguir algo ma's que promesas de enmienda, . . . hay que hacer algo m s que hablar .16

I t w i l l take more than words to regenerate the

Spanish husband, but Isabel proves that i t can be done.

How? She proves that the Spaniard can be changed by

the redeeming Influence of women. Although the Spanish

16 Rosas de otono, I , v l i i , 65 .

38

woman has no political or civil rights, Benavente

believes she irules the world by her sheer moral power,

which he terms virtud. She rules the world because she

males men and rules them by tears, love, persuasion,

and care. In short, she rules them by force of virtue.

In this drama Benavente seeks to show men and women

that the work of Spain's regeneration lies in their

hands, and that unless they accept their responsibil­

ities, then they are failing to fulfill their obliga­

tion to Spain.

The plays which have been studied thus far deal

chiefly with secial problems at the turn of the cen­

tury. Benavente satirizes the bloated, complacent

society which had evolved in the years of Spain's mis­

fortunes. At first he attacks Madrilenian society, ard

then he turns his attention to the towns in the prov­

inces, which became the lawful prey of Madrid officials

La farandula^*^ (1897), is the first in a series

of three plays in which Benavente scourges the politi­

cians, and lays bare the evils of caciquismo.

Gonzalo, an aspiring politician campaigning at

Moraleda, is staying at the home of Juan Manuel, a

wealthy land-owner. The entire household is busily

17 Tercera edicion (Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1916), Vol. 2.

39

engaged in preparations and activities for Gonzalo's

entertainment and his campaign.

Gonzalo'8 secretary, Aurelio, does not share this

enthusiasm for politics. After one season of elec­

tioneering, he is completely disillusioned, for every­

where he finds the same comedy being enacted, the same

speeches, the same political intrigue. The same trite

performance goes from place to place like the ancient

farandula, a traveling theatrical company.

While at the home of Juan Manuel, Aurelio meets

his former wife, Guadalupe, from ?feom he has been

separated for many years because Aurelio could not earn

a livelihood from his literary efforts.

Aurelio embarks upon a political career, but he is

so dismayed by the deceit and graft #iich are the com­

mon practices among his friends that he renounces his

profession.

Now that Aurelio and Guadalupe are together again,

they are happy in their newly found love, peace, and

freedom from financial cares.

Benavente implies that one can only be happy when

he engages in scrupulous conduct, and when his life is

founded on love and truth, rather than on the hypocrisy

and Intrigue of contemporary Spain.

40

Aurelio represents Benavente, himself. He is the

"amiable cynic, that product of modern c iv i l i za t ion

whose cynicism Is an armour v^lch conceals a sensi t ive

hear t . "^^

Although Aurelio has sold his intel l igence to the

f i r s t man who wishes to u t i l i z e i t , yet he ra tes h i s

heart at a higher price.^^ Gonzalo thinks that Aurelio

has t a l en t for a po l i t i c a l career; he would l ike to

have him for a son-in-law. But Aurelio sees that the

body p o l i t i c of contemporary Spain is corrupt and de­

moralized. Social in jus t ice outrages him; po l i t i c s

seem to him a business for "graf te rs . " By having him

renounce p o l i t i c s , ^ ^ Benavente seems to imply tha t if

one is to be happy, he must be governed by his con­

science, t r u t h and love, not by the sham and hypocrisy

that make up current society. Typical of the principles

of the wri ters of '98, Benavente's hero scourges the

hypocrisy, greed, graf t , corrupt ion--social and p o l i t i -

ca l - - tha t prevail in the province.

18 Starkle, op. c i t . , p. 60.

19 . . . sin escrupulo vendi mi inteligencla al primero que quiso utilizarla; el corazon lo he t sado un poco m^s alto. (La farandula, I, xii, 130).

20 Yo, por mi", renuncio a la farandula. (Ibid., II, vii, 175).

41

The frivolity, idleness, and marasmo or abulia,

whleh grlovo the enthusiastic young writers of 1898,

are reflected in Guadalupe's speech. She describes

the young men of the upper class society who spend their

time in the Casino, gambling away their opportunity to

do anything creative or beneficial toward Spain"s

regenerat ion. -

The minor characters criticize the political

system. They believe that "politics la good, for vaga­

bonds." .< (I, vi, 103). We find in these characters, as

well as in Guadalupe and Aurelio, an attitude of mind

and a conception of life which are fxmdamental in the

idealogy of the Generation of '98—a generation which

protested against the incompetence and corruption in

administrative offices, false elections, nepotism, and

many other illegal governmental practices. •

In La gobernadora^^ (1901), Benavente immasks the

sham and hypocrisy of a society that is calm and con­

ventional on the surface, but immoral underneath. He

21 fOhl Los elegantes de Madrid son muy atentos con las damas^ Se pasan la vida en el Casino, no se ocupan en polp.tica; pero murmuran de toda el m\mdo, no hay reputacion para ellos, se juegan los olivares y las dehesas muy bonitamente. (Ibid., I, v, 104).

22 Segunda edicion (Libreri'a de Los Sue de Hernanao, Madria, 1916), Vol. 5.

42

continues to denounce political ideals and the evils

of caciquismo, as he presents a live and animated pic­

ture of provincial customs.

The big square in Moraleda is the center of the

town's social life. As Damian serves coffee to his

customers who throng the square, we are introduced to

many characters and learn bits of gossip concerning the

celebrities of the town. We hear that Santiago, the

Governor, is completely dominated by his wife, Josefina

She is fascinated by the charm, ambition and strong

will-power of Santiago's secretary, Manolo.

Everyone is talking about the coming production.

ObscurantIsmo. The people want to see the play, but

the upper classes, dominated by the dignitaries of the

church, wish to prevent its production because of its

liberal tendencies. They seek help from Josefina.

She persuades the weak governor to forbid its produc­

tion, although it is not contrary to law.

Santiago exercises no authority in his home or in

his office. Joseflna constantly reminds him that he

has no ambition and that she is responsible for what­

ever degree of success he has attained.

Manolo is an ambitious young man who has gone to

the capital to seek his fortune. He is employed by

Santiago, and he promptly ingratiates himself with the

43

Governor's wife. Joseflna admires his strength of

will and spirit; she decides that he will marry

Esperanza, daughter of Don Baldomero, the rich cacique

of Moraleda.

Manolo and Baldomero quarrel. The rich capitalist

threatens to disclose a letter compromising Joseflna

and Manolo unless he leaves Moraleda. Manolo will not

be subdued by such threats; he determines to fight the

capitalist and the principles for which he stands. He

decides now that Joseflna should persuade the Governor

to allow the production of Obscurantismo in order to

win the people over to the side of the government.

The play concludes with Manolo's triumph. The

weak Governor never realizes why his people have

hissed, applauded, cheered and acclaimed him Adthin

one afternoon. 'Ye hear him ask himself: "How is one

going to govern his people?" Prom all these experi­

ences he still has not learned to think for himself;

so he insists that Manolo stay in I..oraleda to help him

perform his duties.

The outcome of the well-known triangle is left to

the imagination of the spectators.

We are in difficulty if we try to determine who

is the biggest scoundrel: Santiago, the weak and vacil­

lating Governor, his wife Joseflna, the gobernadora.

44

or his secretary, Manolo. Each one is strictly for

himself and "let the one fall who falls I" (III, i,

141). Benavente implies that all politicians are

selfish, envious and intolerant. Santiago thinks only

of maintaining his position; Joseflna desires a better

position for him, thus gaining a higher social stand­

ing for herself. Manolo thinks only of his people,

the working class.

Santiago is the typically weak Generation hero.

He has no ambition, no will, or strength of character.

He is completely under the power of his wife, who

frequently reminds him that all of his mistakes are

due to lack of character. (II, iii, 99).

Santiago is the subject of ridicule because he is

unable to keep Joseflna under control; so his people

naturally conclude that he is unable to govern their

province. They realize that Joseflna is really the

governor; they know that she directs and influences

every decision that Santiago makes. Santiago would

like to follow the dictates of his own conscience, but

he lacks a normal power of volition to airect his course

of procedure. It is impossible for him to ignore

Joseflna's pleas. JVhen she threatens to leave Santiago

and go to Madrid if he does not forbid the production

of Obscurant ismo, v/e see him hesitate and finally yield

as he asks her the following questions:

45

d Pero tu crees que si no fuera por ti' dudaria yo un memento? Solo por ti vacilo todaviia y deseo, si deseo que haya un medio legal de faltar a la ley . . . Pero no me hables de marcharte a Madrid, ni llores, ni me recrimines . . .23

'JVhen Santiago sees that the peace of his home is

being disrupted, he yields completely to Joseflna's

will. His love for her is more Important than all the

governments. And thus, once more Benavente shows how,

even though a Spanish woman does not have political and

social rights, she may rule "her man" by her persuasion.

But Benavente does not approve of the manner in which

Joseflna uses her persuasion; he implies that women

must have better and more practical training (I, ix,

65) in order that they may use their "persuasion" to a

better advantage. Husbands and wives must work together,

share confidences and encouragement; they must develop

common interests; the Spaniard must accept his wife as

his equal. If men and women fall, or refuse to accept

their respective obligations, then they are falling to

fulfill their responsibility toward the regeneration of

Spain.

All the minor characters in La gobernadora illus­

trate the modern tendencies of the new century; they

condemn caciquismo and the political practices, and

23 Ibid., II, ii, 85.

46

participation of women In civic affairs has led them

to the conclusion that "it is a woman's world."24

El prime Roman25 (1901) is the third in this

series of dramas in which Benavente satirizes the

political system, but El prime Roman differs from La

farandula and La gobernadora in that this drama ap­

proaches the sentimental type of comedy.

El prime Roman is the story of a young man who

sacrifices love in order to fulfill his ambition to be

a politician.

The cOTjntry folk near Madrid are making last

minute preparations for the arrival of Roman, their

"city cousin," an aspiring politician who is coming

to the rural district seeking votes for the approach­

ing election.

Cristeta, fruit of an unfortunate love affair,

lives in the country with Doiia Sglome, the wealthy

widow of her father. Cristeta's entire life has been

colored by sadness because of the circumstances of her

own life and the misfortunes that she sees in the rural

24 . . . Ya sabe que en este mimdo, y yo creo en el otro, todo es cuestic5n de faldas . . . (Ibid., I, vi, 44).

25 Segunda edicion (Libreria de Los Sue de iiernando, Madrid, 1916), Vol. 5.

47

vicinity. She believes that the election of her

cousin, Roman, will make everything right--the graft,

poverty and all other social and political evils will

be corrected.

When Roman arrives, Cristeta does everything to

make him comfortable; he never notices her efforts; he

scenes to expect them. He does observe that she is

like a cool drink of water here in Dona Salome's house

where gloom, pessimism, envy, and egoism prevail.

Unfortunately Cristeta falls in love with Roman.

She knows that she is out of his class, but it Is diffi­

cult for her to realize how very hopeless the situa­

tion is. Roman's presence in the house has changed '

the entire atmosphere. Por the first time there is

laughter at mealtime.

Nothing is important to Roman except the fulfill­

ment of his ambition. Love is an obstacle to ambition.

7/hy be Antony v/hen one might be Caesar? By devious and

questionable means Roman wins the election. He pre­

pares to leave. y

A day in the hot sun securing votes for Ror,:an has

made Cristeta very ill. A severe headache, aggravated

by disappointment, makes her delirious. Her confidant,

Iviajin, delays Roman's departure because his leaving is

the chief cause of Cristeta's illness.

48

Roman hears Cristeta talking in her delirium. He

learns that she loves him. He tells her he is inter­

ested in a political career, which does not permit one

to be involved in love affairs. But he tells her that

he will remember her. Llajin consoles Cristeta; he

tells her that Rom^ is leaving because he is ambitious,

but that some day he will remember her when it shall

be too late.

A lack of balance in essential qualities drives

Roman to employ every artifice within his power to ful­

fill his desire to be a politiciin. He does not want

to be inconvenienced in any way; he wants complete

freedom in order to devote all of his time to the pur­

suit of his ambition. He will beg or deceive, buy or

sell to further his purpose.

It is characteristic of the spirit of the age

which engendered him that Roman feels no pride in the

history of Spain. Those stories of Isabel la Cato-

lica, and the conquest of Granada are pure "nonsense."

(Ill, 1, 276).

Roir.an is not interested in anything which wil l

not promote him social ly or p o l i t i c a l l y . I t is d i f f i ­

cult for him to remain in the ri^ral areas long enough

to take care of h i s dut ies ; he is not Interested in

49

the people or their problem.s. He is interested only

in securing their votes for his elect ion.^^

Preoccupied with his own interests, Ro an feels

no need for love and companionship. He believes that

love is a disturbing force in one's life. It seems

that Roman really loves Cristeta, a lovely young girl,

uneducated, but beautiful in her childlike and unso­

phisticated manner. But Roman's love is not sufficient

to compete with his ambition. He lacks the balance

between his capacity for love and his desire for poli­

tical glory which makes these qualities function more

or less harmoniously in the average man.

If this little world in which Cristeta lives were

all there is to be gained, Roman might be satisfied,

but he knows there is more and he wants it. There are

moments when he almost wins our admiration, but the

thought soon vanishes when he expresses a thought like

this because we know that it does not ring true:

iDichoso yo, si fuera tan egoista que no me

27 importaria hacerte desgraciadal

Roman is the archetype of the Generation hero. He

not only is selfish, but also is made cruel and sarcastic

26 Las espaldas en cuanto cojo yo mi acta . (Ibid., II, vi, 239).

27 Ibid., Ill, V, 291.

TEXAS TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE

LUBBOCK, TEXAS

LIBRARY •IW

50

by his egoism. Roman assures Majin that "time and

absence are very powerful remedies," but Majin knows

that Cristeta will never forget Roman. It is really

quite unimportant to Roman whether she does, as is

seen in his reply to Majin:

En fin si usted la quiere tanto, used la consolarsf.SB

Cristeta reflects the spirit of other heroines of the

literatTire of '98 vi en she perceives the hopelessness

of her love. There is nothing that she can do. Roman

is going away and "the house will be sad as it was

before."

The pessimism of the writers of '98 is reflected

throughout the drama. Through his characters Benavente

makes us behold the evils of society: graft, unbal­

anced marriage, inordinate love of money, and many

other faults. He seems to conclude that the more we

realize how deep the evils are, the less capable we

are of remedying them.

La cludad alegre y conflada^^ (1916) is the last

and most recent of the nine plays which have formed ths

basis of this study. In this drama of the city that

is "gay and confident" Benavente has sought to mirror

28 Ibid., Ill, 1, 279.

29 Te rce r a e d i c i o n ( L i b r e r i a de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1916) , Vol . 2 3 .

51

the vacillating policy of Spain before the first world

war. Newspaper articles*^^ published in Spain in 1916

show that many of the foremost intellectuals of Spain

were pro-German. Most of the business men v;ere pro-

Ally, and some literary men enthusiastically espoused

the cause of the Allies. But among many there was

vacillation, and it is this fluctuation of mind that

the author seeks to portray.

El Desterrado (The Exile), a great popular leader,

returns to his native land to find a confused spirit

of social unrest, superficial gaiety, and impending

disaster. He presents the author's views on the poli­

tics of Spain. El Desterrado tries to arouse a spirit

of patriotism and loyalty to the City-state. He has

difficulty convincing his compatriots that they have

anything to defend.

Public, the demagogue, would like to obtain El

Desterrado for his friend so that they might work to­

gether against Crispin, the ruler. El Desterrado

aligns himself with Crispin, el Magnifico, because he

understands Public's ulterior motives. El Desterrado's

son, Lauro, is engaged to Julia, Crispin's daughter.

The Venet:ians are going to declare v/ar on the City,

using as a pretext the City's friendship with the

30 Starkle, op. cit., pp. 40-41.

52

Genoese, unless they submit to the strictest and most

humiliating peace terms* El Desterrado knows that the

real reason is greed and a lust for power.

While Pantaldn, a rich capitalist, and Public

worry over the loss of their property if there is war.

El Desterrado tries to convince his fellow-men that they

must fight for their country, or they will become slaves

of the Venetians.

Crispin knows there is no chance for victory

because his people are unprepared and they have no will

to fight. They feel no sense of patriotism toward the

City. He makes peace with the enemy, knowing that he

will be branded as a traitor. The people revolt and

he allows himself to be killed. He believes that his

death will reawaken their spirit of patriotism.

As the curtain falls on the ruins of the city we

see Pantaldn, who has gone mad, shouting for his ducats,

while El Desterrado mourns for his son, and all the other

sons who have fought and lost the battle.

The attitude of the fictional heroes is uniformly

hostile. They .criticize civilized society in general,

but their caustic remarks become more bitter when they

refer to actual contemporary Spanish life. In his early

dramas, and particularly in Lo cursi. La faraidula, and

La gobernadora, Benavente satirizes and laments the

prevailing political and social structure, but his

53

first real, outspoken criticism of official Spain

appears in La cludad alegre y confiada.

The author portrays these gay and confident men

and women with equal disdain; the women are shallow

and too compromising; the husbands are conceited and

unfaithful; the young men are idlers; they are not

interested in serious matters; war is disagreeable, so

they refuse to discuss its possibility. Their con­

versation consists chiefly of discussions of amuse­

ments or other personal Issues. In contrast to these

characters and to other Benaventian heroes in this

group of plays. El Desterrado is a great popular leader

who represents honesty and good sense. He is the

"real man" spoken of in the prologue.

The solemn words of El Desterrgdo have a peculiar

ring in this city where the young men of the upper

classes are momentarily engaged in celebrating the

advent of a famous dancer, Girasol. El Desterrado is

the apostle of bitter truths, the one who reveals the

deceit and disguise that make up their dally lives.

He represents common sense among this array of indi­

viduals who are inexorably bringing about the destruc­

tion of their city and themselves by their selfishness,

greed and ignorance.

As a true son of the Generation of 1898, Benavente

has a vision of a regenerated Spain that is vigorous.

54

courageous, and energetic. Benavente's hero has that

vision too. El Desterrado is the one character in the

play who can see what is wrong with Spain, the only

one who is impelled to do something about it. He can

view his country objectively, for he has just returned

from exile. While he was away from his native land,

he has learned the full meaning of patriotism and his

speeches are filled with noble and stirring sentiments.

Away from home, one learns that:

. . . no hay rosas como sus rosas; que no hay puestas del sol como las de su cielo; que lejos de la patria al recordarla, una flor, un celaje, bastan para encender el corazc^ en amor patrio.31

El Desterrado's experiences are the same as Unamuno's,

who was banished from Spain for his outspoken cry against

tyranny. The vision of a glorious Spain was forever

before him and gave him consolation while he was away

from his native land.

El Desterrado would have his fellow-men seek strength

and idealism in their own traditions and in their own

literature, but he finds difficulty in influencing men

who are filled with the pessimism of the Generation of

1898. They have no pride in their country, no intia-

tlve nor will; they have no confidence in a government

which they believe "elevates only those who have no

31 La cludad alegre y confiada, I, v, 43

55

talent." (I, 111, 136). They do not believe that

there Is a need for ships and soldiers—there is

nothing to defend. What difference would it make if

it were lost? Spain has nothing to be proud of except

her "dancing girls, ?her horse trainers, and her

beggers." (I, ill, 136).

The people are indifferent and afraid. El Des­

terrado would show them that in a democracy people

should speak up, that it is not the leaders who are to

blame; it is the people. El Desterrado criticizes

their lack of will. He knows that his people should

be strengthened and drawn closer together as a result

of their humiliation and defeat, but in his heart he

understands why they are not, ^j they could not have

won the contest and why they never will. We hear him

say to himself that

La vida fuerte y vigorosa, la plenltud de vida, lo que era necesario para triunfar. . ., no podia ser ... . ya desespero que pueda ser nunca . . .32

It is not difficult to find a profound relationship

between El Desterrado's attitude and conception of life

and those of the fictional hero of 1898. It is a

"defeatist" psychology that is typical of the litera­

ture of that period. The characters have no faith in

32 Ibid., II, ix, 248.

56

action, because they have no faith in the ultimate

reality of the world.

The desire to reform is common to all the Genera­

tion. All the writers dream of a consistent and united

Spain made'up of the Spanish soil, of the past, and

the future. They all agree that change is the solu­

tion to the "Problema de Espana." The writers of '98

reflect the spirit of their time by their hesitation,

uncertainty, and inability to set up a constructive

program. Benavente poses a problem and leaves the

solution to his readers. Azorin would like to do some­

thing important in the life of Spain, but he admits

that he is powerless to achieve his goal because he is

"a man of his time. "33

Thus it is seen that the heroes studied in this

series of plays are poisoned by the melancholia,

abulia, and egoism which characterize the protagonist

of the literature of 1898. In nany cases external

action is reduced to a minimum, and the drama consists

of the inner conflict in the mind of the hero between

tv70 lines of conduct, as is illustrated through Andres

(Alma triunfante). The Benaventian hero is a "man of

his time," for as I have tried to demonstrate, he is

33 "Soy un hombre de mi tiempo." La Voluntad, cited by Entralgo, £p. cit., p. 310.

57

unable to achieve the things of which he is easily

capable because of inherent weaknesses. Forever

analyzing his motives, he dissipates all his generous

energies to the extent that he has nothing left with

which to conduct the ordinary business of life.

In the following chapter I shall attempt to

present Benavente's ideas regarding the r^le of women

in the regeneration of Spain.

CHAPTER III

WOMAN'S ROLE IN SPAIN'S REGENERATION AS SEEN BY BENAVENTE

One of the chief alms of the writers of 1898 is

to regenerate Spain. They all agree that the Spaniard

must be changed, but they vary in their suggestions

and implications as to how it may be done. Benavente

believes that the responsibility of the revival of

Spain lies in the women, and further, that they are

the only ones who are capable of achieving the desired

goal.

He, therefore, seeks to make women his most

original and most intense characters, and those of

greatest moral strength. In many of his plays and

certainly in all those studied here, he has given the

noble parts to women and he has portrayed the man as

egotistical and unfaithful. His feminine characters

are not candid, emotional or depraved types; they are

women of the general average, whose vices and virtues

make out an even balance. Their originality probably

lies in Benavente's effort to see them as they see

themselves, and as they see each other. He has no

illusions about his heroines; he analyzes them with

strict impartiality and reveals their complex char­

acters with a deep psychological knowledge and power.

His wide range of topics may include anything from the

59

prattle incident to choosing a cost\ime for the opera

to a conversation full of tragic foreboding between

peasant women.

As a child, Benavente, with his mother, made

frequent visits in the homes of women of the upper

middle class, never realizing that these visits were

to give him the basis for a deep understanding of

feminine psychology. He is able to expose the feminine

soul just as it reveals itself under the most intimate

circumstances, as wife, mother, mistress, or sister.

In El nido ajeno Benavente develops the idea that

no intruder has the right to share "another's nest."

Behind this theme he implies that the women are capable

of regenerating Spain by their love, kindness, patience,

persuasion, and tears.

Karia is a typical heroine of the literature of

1898; she is patient, self-sacrificing, and resigned.

Sadness is the key-note of her existence. She is kind,

affectionate, and tender; her life revolves around her

home and her husband, who is egotistical, melancholy,

and unco-operative. Maria understands and expects to

give herself completely to the duties and obligations

imposed by Spanish traditions, regarding the wife's

place in the home. Every personal desire and pleasure

is subjected to that of her husband. When Emilia

invites her to go to the theatre, it is necessary that

60

Jose Luis decide the issue. Maria is resigned to

living a retired, secluded life, but in her heart she

is a typical woman. 'JlHien Jose^Luis decides that they

will go to the theatre, we can see just how feminine

she is, as she anticipates the pleasure that is in

store for her. Her excitement and delight over the

new jewels that she will wear for the first time, and

the eternal question, "What shall I wear?"^ make her

forget the earlier fear of her husband's refusal.

This little moment of feminine vanity is soon

changed to one of humiliation. Jose Luis suffers an

attack of indigestion and he refuses to accompany her

to the theatre. Maria is accustomed to this kind of

treatment. Patience and resignation are traditional

characteristics in the Spanish woman, so Maria complains

very little. Benavente believes that the patience and

resignation, kindness and love of the wife can change

her husband. Benavente holds that she is the "angel"

of the household, and that through her the husbands

and fathers of Spain will be, or at least can be,

cured of their moral illness. Maria's innocence and

patience will ultimately cure Jose Luis and "save" her

marriage.

I

1 . . . Vamos de nocne y al teatro RealI . . . no se que vestido ponerme . . . (El nido ajeno, II, 11, 43).

61

Jose Luis never egresses his love for Maria; he

never shares confiaences with her, nor does he discuss

his business with her. The men of Spain require much

patience on the part of their wives, and Maria makes

constant sacrifices. The difficulty is that with all

her self-denial she has not succeeaed in making ner

husband happy. Benavente implies that Jose Luis's

love, based on desire, does not bring happiness, but

that Maria's patient, faithful, and sane love is that

which endures, and has the power to restore peace of

mind and spirit. Benavente seeks to show women in

Spain that they should become interested in their hus­

bands' affairs and other Interests outside the home,

in order that they may be better companions, because

he believes that Spain's regeneration must begin in

the home, and that their country's regeneration depends

upon them.

•^ Lo cursi Benavente presents his ideas of the

role of Spanish women through tia Flora and the old

Marquis and, in a lesser degree, through the heroine,

Rosario, and through other minor characters. Althou^

Benavente is consi'v ered by many as a leader of mod­

erns, he is not a passionate inodernist. In spite of

v,is assimilation of modern, literary, and social

theories, he is basically conservative. Through tia

Flora, Benavente expresses disapproval of the espiritu

62

moderno, which al lows a new s t andard of conduct for

young p e o p l e . In o rde r t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , t ne g i r l s

must have a f r e e and bold manner with men and e v e r y ­

body. They engage in s p o r t s t h a t convent ion a s s i g n s

on ly t o men.

Rosar io t r i e s t o d i s r e g a r d t i a F l o r a ' s remarks ,

bu t she i s r e a l l y q u i t e d i s t u r b e d . Pear of be ing

c u r s i p r e v e n t s he r from conf ron t ing Agustin wi th he r

problems; so she and h e r husband go on offending and

worrying each o t h e r , f a i l i n g t o face t h e t r u t h and d i s ­

g u i s i n g t h e i r r e a l s e n t i m e n t s . Rosar io defends he r

husband by saying t h a t t h e yoimg l a d i e s who v i s i t him

a r e only "good f r i e n d s " and t h a t t h e y a re very " e n t e r ­

t a i n i n g . " When t i 'a F l o r a exp l a in s t h a t men never

marry " e n t e r t a i n i n g " women, Agust in d e c l a r e s t h a t

Se casan con l a s que a b u r r e n . 2

Here aga in Benavente impl ies t h a t t h e Spanish woman

should broaden h e r l i f e and should develop common in te r -

e s t s w i t h h e r husband so t h a t she can make he r mar r iage

more e n d u r i n g .

The Marquis i s a f r a i d t h a t h i s s o n ' s marr iage

w i l l not l a s t , so he t r i e s t o show Agust in and Rosar io

t h e e v i l s of t he c u r r e n t fash ion of s e p a r a t i o n due t o

" i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y . " A g u s t i n ' s aunt Vq len t lna and imcle

2 Lo c u r s i , I , 11 , 74 .

63

Caspar are "amicably separated." Benavente spares no

device to show that he does not sanction such an

arrangement. A woman should stay with her husband and

rear a family. Her children should have a chance to

know their father, and not simply to visit with him

occasionally. She and her husband should set the proper

example by their own habits and manner of living. They

should provide proper reading materials for their

daughters. Through tia Flora and the Marquis, Bena­

vente endeavors to show Rosario that she has no right

to go out alone, that she is doing the wrong thing

when she apparently condones her husband's conduct, that

in trying to be distinctive, she is being very common.

Benavente frowns on these young people who seek com­

panionship away from home. It is all "very modern, very

English, and very chic," but it is too modern for Bena­

vente. He allovjs other characters to make disapprov­

ing comments. Flora, for example, voices the author's

objection, as she questions Rosario when she returns

from a ride vith Carlos.'^ Benavente again urges that

husbands and wives build up more companionship, for he

is aware that emotional security is far more important

that financial security.

3 c' y Lola? 4 Coipo no ha venido contigo? (Ibid., II, iv, 113).

64

Rosario's life is typical of the Spanish woman of

1898. Her husband never encourages her; he never ex­

presses his love for her, and she has nothing except

financial security. She longs for someone in whom she

can confide, so she resorts to intrigue. This is dis­

tasteful to her; she has been reared to love and respect

Spanish traditions, but her husband tells her that it

is cursi to be governed by old ideals. True to the

generation in which she lives, Rosario is perplexed,

anxious, and torn by doubts. She is incapable of mak­

ing decisions."^ Rosario is not, and can not be the

"modern" woman that her husband wants her to be. \Vh.en

she decides that separation is the only answer to her

problem., tia Flora shows her that divorce is not the

solution. She shows her that by being herself, the

kind, patient woman that she really is, she will tri­

umph in the end. In Lo cursi and in El nido ajeno,

both heroines, Rosario and Maria respectively, save

their marriages and consequently their homes because

of their moral goodness and strength of character.

Benavente believes that in virtue there is strength,

and he makes his women powerful in their virtue. These

4 No se'; no tengo plan. Espero el ultimo fii^ur^. Porque hay figurines tambie'n para el alm a, querida tia, y mi m.arido quiere que seamos distinguidos a todo trance. (Ibid., II, v, 122).

65

heroines are strong in their duty, purity, and womanly

qualities; thus, they are able to triumph over their

husbands and bring them back to rectitude.

Benavente believes that women are capable of mak­

ing greater sacrifices than men. The thought is devel­

oped especially in the two plays Sacrlficios and Alma

triunfante. So charmed are we by the evolution of the

heroines in these plays that we often forget the

existence of the m ale characters.

Sacrlficios demonstrates the spirit of sacrifice

of two women, both supremely Spanish, for their ability

to renounce and sublimate human instincts. The drama

is a delicate presentation of the feminine soul in

which the author has attempted to observe the subcon­

scious minds of his characters. To a greater extent

even than in Lo cursi Benavente reveals the need for

emotional security in Spain. He strives to show in

this play that the Spanish woman, in her desire to

achieve financial security for herself, may lose her

em.otional security. She must not allo". ambition to

keep her from love, for only in love is her life ful­

filled.

Alma is one of Benavente's strong heroines; her

masterful mind dominates the entire play. But even

she reflects the spirit of the protagonists of the lit­

erature of 1898. Her love for the theatre and her

66

desire to obtain financial security for her sister and

herself have repressed and smothered her natural desire

for emotional security so long that now she is unable

to obtain it.

Alma is a talented singer; she has won world

acclaim, but she is not happy. When the play opens,

we find her at the country home of her singing-master,

the egotistical Esteban. Alma is in love with Rieardo,

who tries to show Esteban that even though Alma is a

great artist, she is first of all a woman with a soul—

a woman who needs love and companionship. Benavente

believes that every woman has the right to love and

happiness derived from normal instincts.

Alma had longed for the quietude of the country,

but she has become restless; she misses the excite­

ment of the theatre. The jealousies, applauses, and

triumphs of an artist's life have left an indelible

impression in her mind and heart. She enjoys the love

and admiration of the audience. She says that there

is no other love like it,^ so she sacrifices her love

for Rieardo in favor of her art. She determines that

he shall marry her sister, and she returns to the

theatre. But Alma does not find happiness there. She

5 . . . Es un completo amor que a ningun otro se parece. (Sacrlficios, I, iii, 226).

67

had believed that her plan would be a pleasant arrange­

ment, but now she finds that she is.jealous of her

sister. She realizes that she has made a dreadful mis­

take. She tells us that reality

. . . es no pedir a la vida lo que no puede dar . . .La realidad es no creernos mas grandes, ni mas generosos, ni mejores de lo que somos; es conocernos y aceptarnos como somos, buenos o males, vlvir nuestra vida, seguir nuestro camino, que es el unico mode de no ser un obstaculo en la vida de los demas.6

Alma has worked and sacrificed all her life; now she

realizes that her sacrifices have been made in vain.

She has never really lived. Por the first time, her

own desires have become paramount in her mind. She

sees that she has lied to her heart.' The glories of

being an artist can never compensate for the emptiness

in Alma's heart.

'•Jhlle visiting in her sister's home. Alma observes

that Doll and Rieardo are not happy together; she is

more undecided than ever, as the following conversation

with Rieardo will show:

Rieardo: . . . dHas hallado por fin tu camino? Alma: No lo se''. Cuando se huye, no se elige el

camino.Q

6 Ibid., II, iii, 240.

7 fOhl Las ^entiras de nuestro corazon I Los grandes sacrlficiosI . . . Pretender no querer . . . cuando se quiere con toda la energia de nuestra voluntadl (Ibid., II, iv, 247).

8 Ibid., II, iii, 241.

68

Rieardo tries to persuade her that they can still

enjoy their love, but Alma knows too well that they

have lost their opportunity to find hap-oiness. She

says that

La dlcha no nos espera; cuando volvemos creyendo encontrarla, solo hallamos su espectro, el espectro de la dlcha que asesinamos.^

Alma and Rieardo have played a cruel game -dth their

hearts, and the innocent as well as they must suffer

for it.

Benavente believes that love, life, and duty are

the sa:e for us all; the artist does not belong to

another category. He believes that any woman must

build up emotional security for herself by seeking ani

accepting love and happiness when they come her way.

As a true son of the Generation of 1898, Benavente

also desires independence and better education for the

masses; he is especially interested in better educa­

tion and more independence for women. Doll, for exam­

ple, wants to teach music so that she will not be

forced to depend on her sister. Alma, for financial

assistance. It seems that Benavente wants the Spanish

woman to remain patient, resigned, and submissive, but,

at the sam.e time, he sees that she needs the ability to

9 Ibid., Ill, vi, 264.

69

earn a livelihood if the occasion should arise.

Benavente wants her to be resourceful without being

masculine.

In Alma triunfante Andr^ agrees to the Padre's

austere terms that he renounce his love for Emilia,

mother of his little daughter. He lacks the moral

strength, however, to carry out the Padre's decree.

It is necessary then for his wife to make the sacri­

fice. Isabel is the traditional Spanish woman, strong

in her faith, willing to sacrifice herself, or to make

the most superhuman sacrifices in order to preserve

her home. Benavente believes it is a woman's duty to

stay with her husband, even though he has offended her

and given cause for jealousy. Realizing that she is

an obstacle to her husband's love for E nilia, Isabel

would like to feign a relapse of her former Illness

and return to the mental hospital. But Padre Victor

assures her that her duty is to stay at home. He

tells her

No, tu deber esta aqui; no puedes destruir •un Sacramento santo, no puedes ser ocasion de nuevo pec ado; . . .-'•

Because she is kind, compassionate and forgiving, Isabel

agrees to remain with her husband and help re- r his

daughter as if the child were her own.

10 Alma triunfante. III, iv, 60.

70

In these two plays, Sacrlficios and Alma triun­

fante, Benavente seems to sum up his philosophy regard­

ing women's sacrifice. He believes that women draw

strength and courage from their virtue; thus, they are

capable of making greater sacrifices than men. They

are not afraid because they are strong in their sense

of duty, purity, and womanly qualities. They will sac­

rifice their love for the happiness of others; they

accept the doctrine of resignation and renunciation.

The Benaventian woman will number among her many

virtues that of intelligence and clear thinking. Isa­

bel sees, understands, and forgives the precautions

that her family observes in order to conceal Andres's

sin from. her. ""(inien she begs them to accept her as one

of the fam.lly and as one of the same level of intelli­

gence, she is not merely thinking of her own desire to

be comfortable and well adjusted, she is also being the

new woman that Benavente envisages for Spain. That

woman is entitled to love, confidence, respect and sym­

pathy from her husband.

The role of women in the regeneration of Spain is

evident in all of Benavente's dranas, but particularly

in Rosas de otono. The author symbolizes in Isabel's

virtuous character the redeeming power of woman, and

no play shows more completely her mission of purifica­

tion. In Isabel, Benavente again portrays the lovinr.

71

patient, and resigned woman who forgives all her

husband's infidelities and waits patiently for a return

of his affection. She knows better than to advise her

husband or to oppose him, but Benavente shows that she

is the one person capable of "making over" her man.

Although she and Gonzalo's daughter, Maria Antonia,

Inwardly rebel against a society which permits and

accepts such unequal standards for men and women, Isabel

v:ill not allow reprisals against the indignities that

they they suffer. The only thing to do is to wait until,

by sheer personal and moral strength, she can influence

and persuade her husband that her way is better. And that

is just what Isabel does. She carries on a revolution

in her home and Gonzalo, the traditional Don Juan, is

redeemed. In this drama Benavente attributes to strong

and virtuous women, especially the mothers of families,

the r6le of family regulator or director.

Rosas de otono is a poignant satire on the position

of Spanish women in m.atrimony. As has been previously

noted, Benavente desires that the Spanish woman keep

her traditional qualities, but he resents any infringe­

ment on her kindness and patience. He implies that men

are what they are because their wives are too good.

Women must no longer allow their men the freedom to

transgress as they have in the past. They must demand

a change. .Spaniards must accept their wives as

72

their equals. If only the men of Spain would measure

up to the moral stature of their women, Spain would be

not only saved, but spiritually reborn. Benavente

continues his feminist theory in La farandula, where

he allows Gonzalo, the aspiring politician, to tell

us that

La mano que mece la cuna, mueve el mundo.-^^

In spite of women's dependence and their lack of free­

dom in Spain, they rule their men, their homes, and

ultimately their country by their love, care, persua­

sion, and tears.

Unlike the other heroes studied in this series of

plays, Aurelio appreciates and is inspired by the

truthfulness and sincerity that his wife possesses.

He finds consolation for the disillusionment that he

feels as a result of the hypocrisy and sham: that pre­

vail among his friends and business associates. Here

again Benavente emphasizes the beneficent influence of

women, as Guadalupe helps her husband secure the peace

and happiness that he so desires.

Guadalupe is one of Benavente's less striking

heroines, but she presents a modern idea of the

11 La farandula, I, vi, 108.

73

author, as she protests against the "double standard"

in Spain.-^^

The heroine in La gobernadora has absorbed all

the dangerous notions of an Ibsenlan heroine. It

seems that Benavente is wavering between two ideas

concerning his women characters. Will she be modern

or traditional? But Benavente is Spanish, and his

women are Spanish. Santiago voices the author's opin­

ion that women should be queens of the households and

not the governors.

Joseflna exerts an Influence over her husband that

is entirely different from that studied thus far. She

is one of Benavente's wise heroines who works her will

upon her husband and the surrounding society through a

subtle knowledge of human nature. She has made her

husband and she knows how to recall every detail of the

making in order to gain some new end. She can switch

back and forth between two decisions with complete

ease if the new occasion offers more opportunity, or Is

better suited to her personal interests. She is imper­

ious with Santiago. She obtains the favors that she

wants by demanding them, and then uses her feminine

12 Pobres de nosotrasl Los hombres teneis vuestra vida privada y vuestra vida publlca . . . vida de art is-tas, de sabios, y . . . de politicos. Cometeis bajezas, deslealtades, tralclones, y todavla parecels honrados. Las pobres mujeres, no tenemo^ mas que una vida, nuestra vida . . . Si en ella cometleramos una sola de vuestras faltas, no habri'a indulgencla para nosotros. (Ibid., II, vii, 173).

74

wllies to conquer him completely.-^^ When Santiago

determines what to do, Joseflna deno\mces his decision,

each time further breaking down his feeble attempts to

act on his own resources. He admits his inability to

cope with his wife.^^

Joseflna has been educated in Madrid; she is

charming and alluring, but she is flighty and unsteady.

She is irresistibly attracted to Manolo; she admires

the qualities in him that she does not find in San-

tiago'. Manolo is amhitious, capable and strong; he

has will power and character; he will fight for the

things that he wants. He finds support for his ambi­

tions in Joseflna, and so he is happy to serve her.

Manolo recognizes her dignity and ability, and she is

flattered. Santiago appreciates her charm and femi­

ninity, but he overlooks her dignity and Intelligence.

Josefina resents her husband's flatteries and his

desire to shield her from political cares. She real­

izes that she has made him what he is and she is deter­

mined to go on. She has worked hard and made sacrifices;

13 Ya estoy contenta, buenq dlo ves? Mira que facil es contentarme. Dame un abrazo; otro. Que'' bueno eres en el fondol jCua'nto te quierol (La goi'ernadora, II, 11, 87).

14 Quislera yo haber visto^a Richelieu, a Felipe II, a cualquier gran politico con una mujer como 6sta. (Ibid., II, vi, 103).

75

now he must recognize her opinions^^ and her dignity.

Benavente believes that women should influence their

husbands gently, by co-operating, rather than by tak­

ing over the men's jobs. He does not advocate the

entrance of women into politics and business. Par

from it. He advocates better and more practical edu­

cation in order that they may be more understanding of

their husbands, and their husb^^nds' business; and thus

a more closely knit family life would be established

and through it, Spain could be regenerated.

In El prime Roman, as in most of his plays, Bena­

vente idealizes woman. To Benavente she personifies

the spirit of sacrifice, kindness, and compassion.

The heroine, a lovely young uneducated country girl,

loves Roman. His desire to be a successful politician

pushes all thought of love from his mind. As in

Sacrlficios, the underlying idea of the story is that

we should not let egoistic desire keep us from love,

for only through love, truth, and fulfillment of obli­

gation, can one be completely happy.

Benavente seem s to waver between tenderness and

irony, i ien he softens his bitter irony, it is to

evoke the charming figure of a girl heroine who is to

15 Seras capaz de decir que no haces mas que lo que yo quiero; que yo soy la Gobernadora. (Ibid,, II, ii, 87).

76

be contrasted with her brutal surroundings. We are

Introdaeed te Cristeta through the conversation of the

other characters in the play. She is a victim of cir­

cumstances and is entirely at the mercy of others. She

appeals to the spectator .immediately; she is the acme

of self-sacrifice.

Roman's coming to the rural districts to secure

votes for the approaching election and his short visit

in the home of his aimt. Dona Salome', have brought

Cristeta the only happiness that she has ever known.

She feels a sincere need for affection and companionship

and she longs for Roman's love. He believes that a

life devoted to love is a useless life; however, Cris­

teta is certain that a life devoted to love and service

is a useful life. She enjoys helping others.-^^ She

finds happiness in the fact that Majm, a faithful old

servant of her father, needs and appreciates her affec­

tion and confidence.- *''

In El prime Roman, Benavente further emphasizes

the importance of education for women because he believes

that the hope for Spain's future lies in her women.

16 . . . Lo (que?) quisiera es servir para algo . . . (El prime Romd^, I, vlii, 206).

17 Tu me quieres a mi, yo a ti: ya servimos para algo. (Ibid., I, vlii, 207).

. j i j i j i j i j i j i

77

Cristeta realizes that she has no education, and

Benavente implies that she is at a distinct disadvan­

tage because she is uneducated. Although the author

thoroughly disapproves of Roman's conduct, he seems to

indicate that Cristeta would have a better chance to

win his love if she were of the same Intellectual

level, and if she held common interests with him. The

author allows Amalla, one of the minor characters in

the play, to suggest that they place Cristeta in "a

good college." (I, iv, 202).

Speaking of marrlAge, Roman says that "mutual

confidence, absolute independence, and good education

are more essential to happiness than the most tender

affection." But Benavente seems to believe that

mutual confidence, respect, education, and the "most

tender affection" are the essentials of happiness. He

implies that Roman will be unhappy lafcen he realizes

too late that he has permitted love to pass by.

Dona Salome , with whom Cristeta lives, is the

wealthy widow of her father. Although Salome does not

have the right to vote, her influence Is a thing to be

desired and sought after because she is the "queen of

half the province." Salome realizes that she influences

many people who work her land in the surrounding com-

m\mity. She resents Roman's representing himself as

her nephew, and as her "favorite" for the election.

78

because she disapproves of his political tactics.

The influence of the other country women is seen in

their conversations at the well. They resent the

indifference of politicians after they are elected;

officials should recognize their needs and abolish

existing social and political evils. They will not

permit their husbands to go to the voting places be­

cause they say that "all the men are drunk, . . . one

little drink here, another one there, . . . " As a

result of the influence of these wives, their men do

not vote. Benavente's observations of men's behavior

seem to lead him to think they assume all the rights

and privileges in modern Spanish society, but the ele-

mient, or faction, that really counts and that really

guides the destinies of Spain is the woman. Por this

reason Benavente seeks to educate the Spanish woman so

that she can be more understanding and lend her influ­

ence more intelligently because she m.akes men, and

ultimately should rule them.

Contrary to his usual procedure, Benavente has

not made the heroine of La cludad alegre y confiada

stronger than his hero. In fact, there is no real

heroine in the truest sense of the word. The women

assu-e a minor role so far as action is concerned, but

Benavente implies that there is much they should do if

Spain is to be regenerated. And it is to be noted that

79

the author has become much more skeptical and pessi-

mistic than he was when Rosas de otono was produced

eleven years before. In La cludad alegre y confiada

the author's discouragement and alarm are reflected in

all of the characters. They have an "air of forlorn

sadness, as if the days were always dark and dreary."

The superficial gaiety and calm that so permeated Spain

after her disastrous defeat in 1898 are now anxiety and

fear. The entire drama is developed in an atmosphere

of uneasiness and indifference. Madrilenian society is

still Benavente's favorite subject, but he is no longer

satirical and mocking. Now he interprets this society

with love and pity. The people try to hide their con­

cern for the City-state behind a mask of animation, but

there is no sincerity in the m.erriment—there is only

pessimism. They are celebrating the arrival of Girasol,

a famous dancer--at least the men are. The women view

her coming with m.ixed emotions. Julia, the younger and

inexperienced, tries, in vain, to convince Silvia that

Girasol has no ulterior motives. But Silvia knows that

her husband Leandro neglects her and spends his time

wooing the beautiful bailarina. Like so many other

Spanish women, Silvia's obligation to her children and

to her home supersedes her personal and patriotic duty.

Suddenly she has awakened to the realization that her

80

husband no longer loves her, and there is nothing that

she can do. She is helpless as she regards her prob­

lem; she is worried about her home, her children, and

the future of Spain. She expresses her fears to Julia

in these words:

• . . Cuando yo me creia dlchosa en el amor de Leandro, que poco pensaba en las intrigas del Gobierno y de su politica, que''poco me preocupaba la intervencion de mi padre en esos traficos y negocios que son escandalo de la Ciudadl Ahora, todo me asusta; perdido el amor de mi esposo, so'lo me queda el amor de mis hijos . . . y tiemblo por ellos.18

Benavente once again shows the Spanish woman that

she, herself, is to a great extent responsible for her

emiOtional security, that she should learn more about

her husband's type of employment, and how he spends

his idle ho\irs.

The dramatist reveals to the Spanish wom.an that her

horizon is very limited; apparently it does not occur

to her that she should develop new interests. Her

education consists chiefly of traditions and exper­

ience, her own, her mother's, and her grandm.other's.

Silvia's narrow conception of life leads her to conclude

that men miarry for money. She assures Julia that her

marriage to Lauro will bring disillusionment, just as

her ovim marriage to Leandro has. Silvia resents the

18 La cludad alegre y confiada, I, ix, 164

81

strong sense of obligation that parents feel for their

children because they lose sight of their obligations

to each other. She complains to Julia, saying

Pero . . . des que debemos pensar solo en

nuestros hijos?^9

Benavente wants husbands and wives to have time not

only for their children, but also for each other. He

tries to make the woman aware of her obligation to

herself, as well as to her family. The Spanish woman

feels a sincere need for love and companionship, but

she unwittingly neglects her opportunity to secure

them.

Girasol's confidante, Colombina, reprimands

Leandro for his Interest in Girasol; she reminds him

that at the time he and Silvia were married,, everyone

believed their happiness and love would endure for­

ever. They would be like Romeo and Juliet. Leandro

seems to express Benavente's opinion that marriages

are monotonous and uneventful in Spain,^^ so that one

must seek entertainment and companionship elsewhere.

Benavente believes that it is the duty of women to

19 Ibid., I, ix, 164.

20 Ten en cuenta que Romeo y Julieta murier^n muy jovenes, que de su despedlda en el florido balcon de Verona a su muerte en la tumba de los Capuletos solo medlaron unos dlas de ausencia; si hubieran vivido muchos anos de pl^cido matrimonio . . . (Ibid., I, vlii, 158).

82

make their marriages less monotonous in order to hold

their husbands and draw them closer to them, for as

long as "donjuanism exists, while Don Quijote sleeps,"

Spain can not be regenerated.

Although Benavente does not approve of woman's

active participation in civic affairs, he does believe

that she should acquaint herself with social and civic

problems, and lend her Influence toward their improve­

ment. It is her duty to be intelligent, strong, cour­

ageous, and conscientious so that she may be worthy of

questioning or attacking unworthy rulers. Benavente

seeks to arouse the Spanish woman to a consciousness of

the fact that it is only weak and vacillating people,

without conscience, who are satisfied with being badly

governed. The author seems to imply that while women

in Spain do not signify their approval of the social

and political structure, yet they remain silent and sub­

missive, partly because by tradition they are humble

and unquestioning, and because their traditional sense

of obligation to their home and family is so strong that

they neglect, and are even unaware of, their patriotic

duty.

In the foregoing discussion of the heroines in­

cluded in this study I have attempted to show that

according to Benavente the women of Spain should assume

a role of major importance. He believes that the

83

redeeming Influence of the Spanish wife can change her

husband and thus women can ultimately change Spain.

It is woman's duty to be strong in her character, in

her virtue, and in her convictions, in order that she

may lend her influence to the greatest advantage. She

must seek and find emotional security; she must broaden

her Interests and develop her mind. If the Spanish

women fail to fulfill their obligations to themselves

and to their country, they are neglecting to assume

their role in the regeneration of Spain. "The hand

that rocks the cradle" will have failed in its oppor­

tunity to rule Spain.

CONCLUSION

Prom the preceding study of nine of Benavente's

early plays, we can conclude that the author shared

to a great extent the aims and ideals of the Genera­

tion of 1898. These dramas are faithful pictures of

Madrilenian society of the period, a society losing

its casticismo and taking on the vices of other Euro­

pean capitals. Spaniards in the early 1900's were

choosing material welfare and comfort, and neglecting

the basic values which, in the end, really make a

nation great. As is evidenced by El nido ajeno, Lo

cursi, and Sacrlficios, Benavente believes that

"spiritual" or moral values are far more important in

our lives than material values.

In La farandula, La gobernadora, and in El prime

Rom.^ the author reveals his scorn for caciquismo,

nepotism, false elections, and many other political

and associated social evils of contemporary Spain

which were the chief object of criticism among the

Generation. Benavente's philosophy is very simple and

quite universal. It is to accept one's position in

life with all its obligations, for only in their ful­

fillment can one be happy. In this way all men become

equal. '/hen people have achieved self-government, then

all men become free, without revolutions and without

85

laws. In keeping with the spirit of the young writers,

the ideal of a better humanity and a faint ray of hope

for Spain's spiritual revival glow beneath his satire.

On Benavente's crowded stage we see the struggle

between the growth of the modern twentieth century

civilization and the deep-rooted traditions that give

a characteristic flavor to the Spanish character. Be­

lieving that the function of the theatre is to portray

life as it is, Benavente presents a phase of modern

life as he sees it and allows the spectator to draw

his ov/n conclusions. Instead of the typical villain

and the perfect hero, we have natural characters of

everyday life, who speak and act as people really do

under given situations. There is a tendency among all

the writers of 1898 to describe psychologically the

Spanish man, and we find that there is a profound rela­

tionship between the characteristics of the fictional

hero and those perceived by Benavente.

One of the largest elements that go to form what

the Generation of 1898 called the "Problema de Espaiia"

is, no doubt, the moral weakness of Spanish men--a

lack of will to make decisions, to cut through diffi­

culties. Their weakness subjects them to constant

compromises r/ith m.oral problems. Basic to the whole

regeneration of Spain, according to Benavente, is the

86

need for a more conventional sex life of the Spanish

male. He reveals the falsity of the conventions of

society, the egoism of men, and the cruel logic of

modern life. He shows the nature of the "moral ill-

ness," or the abulia, which has penetrated the very

soul of Spaniards, but distrusting his ability to offer

a constructive program for their moral, spiritual, and

intellectual recovery, he conceals his lack of skill

in irony—that irony which he has defined as "sadness

which can not weep, and therefore smiles."

Benavente idealizes the Spanish woman and makes

her the presiding spirit of his drama. The strength

and virtues of the feminine characters stand out in

vivid contrast to the weakness and the overbearing

egoism of the men. In El nido ajeno, Lo cursi, and in

Rosas de oton'o, the author presents women of great

moral strength and courage who are able to Influence

their husbands and lead them back to moral goodness

through their own virtue, and thus preserve the sanc­

tity of their homes. In spite of women's apparent

dependence and lack of freedom, Benavente shows that

they rule their men, their homes, and ultimately the

nation by their love, care, persuasion, and tears.

In the tragedies, Sacrlficios and Alma triunfante,

Benavente presents the themes of human goodness, sacri­

fice for the sake of others, love as the only basis

87

for happy marriage, and renunciation and self-abnegation

as necessary virtues. In these plays and in El prlmo

Roman, as well as those mentioned above, it has been

seen that Benavente's women really place no limit on

the sacrifices that they are willing to make for the

sake of their love, their families, their homes. Quite

the contrary is true of his men. Thus he would seem

to say that if the men of Spain could be brought to

measure up to the moral greatness of their women, Spain

would not only be saved, or reinvigorated, but actually

regenerated. Furthermore, he indicates that it is the

woman's duty to bring about the conversion of the men.

It seems that Benavente's faith in the regenera­

tion of Spain in this series of plays is still evident

through Rosas de otono (1905), but as early as El prlmo

Roman (1901) pessimism is the pervading spirit of the

drama. Roman will not permit love to interrupt his

political career; Cristeta is deeply hurt; her lack of

education and social standing make her unattractive to

Roman. Benavente seems to say that there is little

hope for Spain.

In La cludad alegre y confiada, speaking of their

defeat by, the Venetians, the author loses hope completely;

he says through El Desterrado that

. . . Ya desespero que pueda ser nunca . . .

1 La didad alegre y confiada. III, ix, 248.

88

And thus, this study is concluded on a note of pessi­

mism, for the very men of the Generation of 1898, who

sought to awaken Spain from her lethargy, themselves

became Inoculated with the virus of pessimism, defeat­

ism, and abulia. Benavente seems to have been no

exception in this series of plays; he is truly a man

of his time.

BIBLIOGRAPIiY

T e x t s

Benavente, Jacinto, Alma triunfante, (tercera edicio'n, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1918).

, El nido ajeno, (cuarta edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).

, El prime Roman, (segunda edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).

, La cludad alegre y confiada, (segunda edlcidh, Libreri'a de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).

, La farandula, (tercera edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).

, La gobernadora, (segunda edicid^, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1916).

, Lo cursi, (tercera edicion, Libreria de Los Sue. de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).

, Rosas de otono, (tercera edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).

, Sacrlficios, (segunda edicion, Libreria de Los Sue de Hernando, Madrid, 1917).

Criticism

Baeza, Rieardo, Comprension de Dostoiewesky y otros ensayos,' (Editorial Juventud, S. A. Provenza, ioi, Barcelona, 1935).

Barja, Cefsar, "Who are the Writers of the Spanish 'Generation of 1898'," Modern Language Forurn, XXX, 4, Univ. Cal., Los Angeles, 24. Dec. 1945.

Benavente, Jacinto,'"The Playwright's Mind," Yale Review, XIII, 43-62, (October, 1923).

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