i

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Weabmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

Elvis-Ozoadibe Christiana

FACULTY OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY

STUDIES

A SOCIOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF URHOBO PROVERBS

MALEDO, ERHUVWU ANITA PG/MA/12/61737

PG/M.ED/11/58795

PG/MSC/08/48435

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A SOCIOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF URHOBO PROVERBS

BY

MALEDO, ERHUVWU ANITA

PG/MA/12/61737

A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND

LANGUAGE

SUPERVISOR: PROF. SAM. ONUIGBO

JANUARY, 2015

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iv

APPROVAL/CERTIFICATION

This project has been read and approved as meeting part of the requirements for the award of

Master of Arts (M.A.) degree in the Department of English and Literary Studies, Faculty of Arts,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Maledo Erhuvwu Anita a postgraduate student of the Department

with the registration number PG/MA/12/61737 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for

the course and research work for the award of Master of Arts (M.A) degree. This project to the

best of my knowledge has not been submitted to any award giving institution on any ground.

Sign:________________ ____________ Sign: ____________ __________

Prof. Sam,Onuigbo Date Prof. Opata Damian Date

(Supervisor) (Head of Department)

Sign:_______________________ ________________

External Examiner Date

v

DEDICATION

To my lovely kids,

Divine and Marho,

who give me a daily dose of laughter.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My profound gratitude goes to God Almighty for His goodness, mercies, guidance and

protection and for making it possible for me to embark upon and finish this program. I am indeed

grateful to my supervisor Professor Sam Onuigbo for his constructive criticism, for painstakingly

reading through this work and his fatherly advice. God bless you sir. I appreciate all my lecturers

especially Prof. E.J Otagburuagu for impacting in me knowledge I cannot find elsewhere. May

God bless you all.

Words cannot express my gratitude to my wonderful husband and the love of my life for

the opportunity he gave me to improve myself, for his financial and moral support. Without you,

this program would not have seen the light of the day. Thank you, may God bless and reward

you.

To my parents, Mr. and Mrs. S.O Erubrenyo, words fail me to appreciate you. Thank you

dad for the foundation you gave to me which has made me what I am today. Mum, you are a rare

gem, without your support, I would not have dreamt of coming to UNN. May you live long to

enjoy the fruits of your hard work. To my wonderful siblings Abigail, Tega, Igho, Vwairhe, Gift

and Precious, you guys have been so helpful. God bless you.

Mention must be made of my lovely friends Victoria Ndifon, Lawrence Osanuwa,

Justina Ashibel, James Abah, Chizoba Obirieze, Amaka Okorie, John Bosco, Jerry Ugbo, Ngozi

Nnamdi, Henrietta Okafor and a host of others that space will not allow me to mention. You

made my stay in UNN remarkable. Thank you. And to my adorable kids, Divine and Marho, you

rock my world. May God guide and keep you.

Finally my sincere appreciation goes to all who in one way or the other, contributed to

the success of this program especially the CAPS family. Thank you and God bless.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - - - - i

Approval Page/Certification - - - - - - - - ii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - - - iv

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - v

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - viii

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - - 1

1.2Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - 8

1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - - 9

1.4 Relevance of the Study - - - - - - - - 10

1.5 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - 12

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction - - - - - - - - - 13

2.1.1 The Concept of Sociolinguistics - - - - - - 14

2.1.2 The Proverb - - - - - - - - - - 15

2.1.3 Language and Society - - - - - - - - 19

2.2 Review of Relevant Literature - - - - - - - - 20

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CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - 26

3.1 Ethnography of Communication. - - - - - - 26

3.2 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis - - - - - - - 29

3.3 Research Methodology - - - - - - - - 33

3.3.1 Research Design- - - - - - - - - 33

3.3.2 Sources of Data - - - - - - - - - 34

3.3.3 Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - 34

3.3.4 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 35

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - 37

4.1 Sociolinguistic Analysis of Urhobo Proverbs - - - - - 38

4.2 A Discussion of Analysis and Sociolinguistic Implication - - - 73

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - 78

5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - - 78

5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 79

Appendix - - - - - - - - - 80

Works Cited - - - - - - - - 85

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ABSTRACT

This research carries out a sociolinguistic study of Urhobo proverbs. Its aim is to explore and

analyze Urhobo proverbs from a sociolinguistic perspective in the context of English as a second

language in Nigeria. This will go a long way to offer a sociolinguistic insight to the contributions

of Urhobo language, culture and way of life in the sociolinguistic context of English as a second

language. The data for the study was sourced and collected orally from competent Urhobo native

speakers from the context of use and Urhobo music. The qualitative and analytic research

designs were adopted for the analysis. In all, fifty (50) proverbs were analyzed using Dell

Hyme’s Ethnography of Communication theory as the major analytical framework with insights

from Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. This is because of the relevance of Dell Hymes’ SPEAKING

which accounts for such sociolinguistic variables as setting, scene, participants, ends, act

sequence, instrumentality and genre as is evidenced in the data; and how the Sapir-Whorf

Hypothesis allows this study to relate its data to aspects of Urhobo world view and culture. On

typology, Adedimeji’s (2003) typological classification is applied for the classification of the

data into types. It was discovered that SPEAKING allows for a comprehensive understanding of

the data for this study as a result of its explicit and analytic potentials while the Sapir-Whorf

Hypothesis shows aspect of Urhobo culture that manifest in Urhobo proverbs.

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CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

This is a sociolinguistic study of Urhobo proverbs and Urhobo as used here refers to one

of the sub-ethnic groups that constitute the present Delta State of Nigeria with a population of

about 2.5 million people spread across 25 kingdoms covering over 5000

kilometers(Akpodiete,2013). The people are believed to have migrated from Aka-present day

Edo territory. All the twenty-two kingdoms that constitute the Urhobo nation have their distinct

dialects and traditions that reflect slight variation in origin and migrating patterns. However,

there is a universal Urhobo language.

Akporobaro asserts that proverbs everywhere, Nigerian proverbs inclusive are determined by

socio-geographical experience (72). This is to say that the nature of the imagery and the forms in

which the truth in proverbs are expressed, to a very large extent, reflect the socio-cultural milieu

in which the people live. He further states that the “repertoire of imagery implicit in the proverbs

of the Southern people are different from those dominant in the proverbs of the North”. This is

because proverbs reflect the values, beliefs, hopes and aspirations of the people, hence the

proverbs of most of the Hausa people reveal the influence of the Islamic religion.

Urhobos are optimistic because of the good climate, fertile lands, rich cultural heritage,

beauty and brilliance. Because of this, there is a positive outlook to life, a belief that life can be

better through appropriate application of common sense or native intelligence, which is handed

down by fore fathers to subsequent generations. Improper or non-application of this holistic

wisdom could result to one’s failure in life.

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Sociolinguistics studies how language relates to society and it draws insights from sociology,

anthropology and social psychology as well as insights from other areas of linguistic study.

Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society and between the users of

language and the social structures in which the users of the language live. Bussman identifies

sociolinguistics as that discipline which developed from the co-operation of linguistics and

sociology and it aims at investigating the social meaning of language system and of the common

set of conditions of language use and the linguistic and social structures (439).Hudson asserts

that sociolinguistics is “the study of language in relation to society” (4).In the opinion of

Holmes, the aim of sociolinguistics is to move towards a useful framework which provides a

motivated account of the way language is used in a community and the way the users employ

language.

Particular studies in sociolinguistics have demonstrated the importance of the social

function of language and have also shown that it is often possible to find social explanations for

aspects of linguistic structure (Malmjaer, 415).

Studies in sociolinguistics deal mainly with the way language varies according to the social

context in which it is used and according to the social group to which a user belongs. It aims to

describe this variation and to show how it reflects social structure. Malmjaer posits that those

linguistic units which vary fairly systematically in relation to social variables such as the user’s

region, class, ethnic group, age and gender are known as sociolinguistic variables.

Lyons posits that context determines the meaning of an utterance (201) and utterance

according to Finnegan (549) is an “expression produced in a particular context with a particular

intention”. Context is very important in decoding the meaning of proverb. It is context that

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determines the choice of proverbs used. Context determines the situation in which what people

communicate can influence the kind of language they use. The context or situation is the

environment in which proverbs become meaningful. Three main features of context are

distinguished by Bussman: the setting, the participants and the type of activity in which they

engage. Finnegan (4) agrees with Bussman by saying only in a particular context can an

expression convey a speaker’s intended meaning and be interpreted correctly by a hearer. He

further states that “to grasp the intended meaning of an expression, hearers must consider it in

the light of its context”. He sums it up by saying the best way to view a language is to see it as a

three sided figure of expression, meaning, and context. Expression encompasses words, phrases,

and sentences including intonation and stress.

For thousands of years, philosophers have pondered on the meaning of meaning, yet the

speakers of a language can make meaning out of what they hear and can also produce utterances

that are meaningful to other speakers. Meaning has to do with the senses and referents of these

elements of expression while context refers to the social situation in which the expression is

uttered including whatever has been expressed earlier in that situation. It depends on generally

shared knowledge between speaker and hearer. Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams, citing Jakobson

opines that language without meaning is meaningless (173). Akwanya, further points out that

words are meaningless in themselves, but only become meaningful when they are used as part of

the language where they belong (13). This is to say, for instance, that Yoruba words will be

meaningless to an Igbo person who does not understand Yoruba. Such words will only make

meaning to someone who understands and speaks Yoruba. This by extension applies to proverbs.

4

In every culture, there are nuggets of popular wisdom, expressed in the form of concise

sayings. These are usually known as proverbs. Other terms such as adage, maxim, precepts are

also used (Crystal 53). Crystal adds that in many cultures, especially in Africa, proverbs are

important and frequent elements in ordinary conversations. Mbisike citing Finnegan states that

“proverbs are generally terse figurative expressions which are frequently anecdotes in a

nutshell”(228).

Different scholars have given definitions of proverbs. Mieder defines a proverb as

a short, generally known sentence which contains wisdom, truth, morals and traditional views in

metaphorical, fixed and memorizable form and which is handed down from generation to

generation (3). Lamidi gives a definition which is not too different from Mieder’s, and according

to him, “proverb is a witty saying that captures the logic, culture and observations of a

people”(61). Whiting 1994 quoted in Mieder summarizes a proverb thus:

a proverb is an expression which owing its birth to the people, testifies

to its origin in form and phrase. It expresses what is apparently a

fundamental truth- that is, a truism,-in homely language, often

adorned, however, with alliteration and rhyme. It is usually short but

need not be: it is usually true, but need not be. Some proverbs have

both a literal and figurative meaning, either of which makes perfect

sense; but more often they have one of the two. A proverb must be

venerable; it must bear the sign of antiquity, and, since such signs may

be counterfeited by a clever literary man, it should be attested in

different places at different times. This last requirement we must often

waive in dealing with very early literature, where the material at our

disposal is incomplete (2).

Structurally, proverbs display inter-language similarities with their reliance on vivid

images, domestic allusions and word play. In the words of Olatunji, proverbs evolve from

traditional lore, history and religion and are usually attributed to elders as they embody the

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wisdom of elders or ancestors in society (61). Although there are speculations that proverbs are

at the verge of going into extinction, Mieder contradicts this by saying that “nothing could be

further from the truth”. He categorically states that proverbs are very much alive and well (xi).

Nwachukwu-Agbada opines that proverb is considered one of the longest surviving non-material

artefacts of a heritage (3). From pre-literate times, the wisdom of proverbs has been a lamp unto

the feet of people in their social interactions. It is succinct and pungent, and it is used to add

grandeur to an otherwise flat and ordinary speech. Young people sometimes find it difficult to

understand it since the meaning is not easily decoded from the surface. This is because the

language is elevated from the ordinary language of everyday communication.

Meanings in proverbs can be analogous to happenings in the real world. Proverb is based on

the wisdom, beliefs, culture, experiences, history, of its society and, it is therefore interpretable

easily within the society. Moreno opined that “proverbs are understood in relation to a

background of assumptions and values, so they are primarily a social phenomenon”

(46).Although, proverb is mainly used among the elderly, it is sometimes used in interpersonal

discourse by both the young and old in appropriate contexts. This context, Lamidi says must

include topic, participants, setting and subject matter (61). Moreno shares the opinion of Lamidi

by saying that context is mandatory for their correct interpretation, because they indirectly

provide a message. They are learned through social interaction and for social purposes, and they

are at the vanguard of social values. This is to say they promote the values that are held high in a

socio-cultural milieu.

Urhobo proverbs play the above roles. Proverbs are interpretable within the cultural

environment. They constitute an interesting and informative source of folk knowledge that

6

portrays certain cultural beliefs. They are an integral part of language; a spectacle through which

the Urhobo people see their culture. Tadi sums the usefulness of proverbs as follows:

As a communicative instrument, proverbs help in depicting the

values, the norms, the aspirations, the likes and dislikes of the

members of a society. Proverbs mirror the life of a people and

guide them in their daily actions. Consequently, proverbs play

an active role in the social life of a people as they advise,

criticize, admonish or console one another. They help in

conflict resolution, enrich the language philosophy, or reflect a

people’s material and spiritual life (165).

Communication is of vital importance for meaningful human existence. For the peaceful co-

existence of man and his fellows, communication must take place, and language makes this

happen. It is a people’s identity. Language does not exist in a vacuum, it does exist in a society,

as a result, language and society are functionally and socially inseparable. Awuzie defines

language as “the oldest human institution and the most sophisticated medium of

expression”(2).Being a tool for social communication, language is both an instrument and an

expression of society. Wilkins comments on the usefulness of language by saying that “language

will occur almost wherever we come in contact with other people” (134). Human expressions

generally are centered on language. The meaning derived from language is peculiar to the people

involved. Ogunsiji quoting James (1979) posits that one can rarely discuss language activity

without considering the relationship that exists between those who must communicate and the

circumstances that give rise to the communication. This is because what makes sense to a

particular group of people, for example the Hausas might make no meaning to another group like

the Urhobos. Ujomu in Igboanusi (ed). notes that “given the culture dependent character of

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language, the meanings ascribed to specific concepts or statements in one language are defined

by the totality of the culture in question” (169).

Bussmann defines language as “a vehicle for the expression or exchange of thought,

concept, information, knowledge as well as the fixing and transmission of experience and

knowledge”. He posits that it is based on cognitive processes, subject to societal factors and

historical change and development. This definition suggests that language is restricted to humans

and differs from all other forms of communication which might include animal communication

and artificial languages. Language can also be seen as a specific system of signs and

combinatory rules which are arbitrary but passed on as conventions. Linguistic skills are held in

high esteem in modern societies and all languages have developed to meet the linguistic needs of

their users (140).

The Sapir- Whorf’s hypothesis of linguistic relativity states that the distinctions encoded in

one language are not found in any other. The theory claims that there are no restrictions on the

amount and type of variation to be expected between languages, including their semantic

structures, and there is a total determining effect of language on thought (103).

The deficit theory makes reference to Chomsky’s theory of linguistic competence which is

meant by a person’s linguistic knowledge. The notion of linguistic incompetence deals with the

lack of the kind of knowledge which is covered by Chomsky’s competence. Such is present in

babies and others who, for some reasons, do not speak some particular language. A Yoruba

speaker will be incompetent in the Urhobo language since he has no linguistic competence in

Urhobo.

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A significant contribution is made by Basil Bernstein to the study of communication. This is

his sociolinguistic theory of language. He argues that within the broader category of language

codes are elaborated and restricted codes. Littlejohn defines code as “a set of organizing

principles behind the language employed by members of a social group” (278). As suggested by

Littlejohn, Basil Benstein’s theory shows that the language used in everyday conversation by

people reflects and shapes the assumptions of a certain social group. It further states that the

relationship that exists between members of a particular group determines the kind of language

and speech that is employed by that group.

Finally, Dell Hyme’s Ethnography of Communication states that in order to learn a

language, one must not only learn the vocabulary and grammar of the language but the context in

which the language is used as well. An ethnography of communication event says Wardhaugh, is

“a description of all the factors that are relevant in understanding how that particular

communicative event achieves its objectives.” Hymes uses the acronym SPEAKING for the

different factors he considers to be relevant (242).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Proverb is an important aspect of indigenous Nigerian languages. Most existing ethno-

linguistic studies of proverbs in Nigeria have focused mainly on Igbo and Yoruba proverbs (e.g.

Lamidi, 2008;Adedimeji,2003; Oha, 1998;Olubode-Sawa,2009;Fasiku,2006). To the best of the

knowledge of the Researcher, not much has been done on aspects of the language of Urhobo

proverb. One of the few existing studies is Ojaide(2007) which defines, describes and classifies

Urhobo proverbs into pre-colonial and post-colonial proverbs. This paucity of study on the

aspects of the language of Urhobo necessitated this study. Furthermore, it is a sociolinguistic fat

9

that most minority languages of the world are facing the threat of possible extinction. This fact

has been collaborated by Agu when he states that “half of the 6000 languages that abound in the

world are spoken by adults who do not pass it onto subsequent generation,”(cited in Emike,

2012). With a population of 546,000 native speakers (1993 census) of the Urhobo language,

there is no gain-saying the fact that the Urhobo language is a victim of this ugly trend. Its

position in this ordeal is more dangerous with the near creolization of the Nigerian pidgin in

Warri, Ughelli and Sapele, the three major economic nerve centres in Urhobo land. In the light of

the above, vital aspects of the Urhobo language like the proverb, are gradually fading away in the

repertoire of the new generation of Urhobo speakers. This scenario calls for research into the

various aspects of Urhobo language and culture. This will go a long way to preserve the

language and increase the communicative and performative competence of the users/speakers of

the Urhobo language.

In earnest, researchers like Mieder, Bayley and Lucas, Lamidi,x have done some works on

proverbs but to the best of the knowledge of the Researcher, no attention has been paid to the

study of Urhobo proverbs with special reference to the sociolinguistic implications.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This study aims at exploring and analyzing Urhobo proverbs from the sociolinguistic

perspective. This will offer a sociolinguistic insight to the contributions of Urhobo language,

culture and way of life in the sociolinguistic context of English as a second Language in Nigeria.

This study also shows the socio- cultural relevance, the communicative effect and conversational

value of Urhobo proverbs.

10

Language cannot exist in a vacuum; it needs a society to thrive. Also, the meaning

accruable to proverbs hinges on the linguistic environment. A good knowledge or mastery of the

sociolinguistic context is necessary for the meaning of proverbs to be decoded.

Proverbs can be seen as instruments of correction since they contain deep and hidden nuggets of

wisdom. This study examines the functions of proverbs in relation to the linguistic community

and by extension the society in general. The relevance of proverbs to society will be explored

and brought to limelight.

Proverbs are also peculiar and unique to a people. The culture of the linguistic community plays

a very important role in the use of the proverbs, though some proverbs apply to all languages. In

other words, some are of universal knowledge, but majority of the Urhobo proverbs are culture

specific.

1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is a contribution to the existing studies on proverbs and particularly to the socio-

linguistic aspect of Urhobo proverbs. It is a contribution to the body of research that seeks to

study aspects of the language and culture of indigenous Urhobo people. Studying L1 speech

codes (in this case proverbs) is very significant. This is because the meaning mappings provided

by proverbs are significant for attention in the second language context where the L1 ideas are

transposed in L2 ideas (Adedimeji,58). This study shows how the socio-cultural values and

belief systems of the Urhobos are communicated in English as a second Language situation.

Also, in the event of minority languages facing extinction all over the world, this research is

significant especially as it will serve as a documentary that will help to preserve Urhobo

proverbs which is an aspect of Urhobo language and culture. This study will go a long way to

11

enhance the sociolinguistic background of the Urhobo speech community and the ethno-

linguistic potentials of the Urhobo language. Through language, one can gain access into a

people’s culture. A sociolinguistic study of Urhobo proverb, an aspect of Urhobo language, is

therefore significant as it will underpin how the Urhobos use proverbs to organize speech and

how this manifests in English as a second language in Nigeria. This is in line with the

observations of Paolketi that “different patterns of talk are specific to definite cultural group” and

that “communication is locally patterned and practiced” (20).

Apart from increasing the communicative competence of the new generation of Urhobo

speakers, this study will also contribute to the discourse of English as a second language in

Nigeria as the translation of indigenous Nigerian proverbs into English is a necessary feature of

domestication of the English language in ESL contexts.

Again, this study is relevant to students and scholars of African Literature in English as it

provides a basis for a sociolinguistic interpretation of Urhobo proverbs as used in African novels,

plays and poems. The work can also provoke more research material for other scholars who are

interested in African studies and oral tradition among indigenous Nigerian cultures.

Proverbs are useful resources to pass across ideas. Even more, they provide a source of

information for anyone who wishes to have access to the traditions and the cultural heritage of a

linguistic community. They are also extremely valuable for sociolinguistic purposes. A good

understanding of linguistic and cultural diversity of a given society is useful in promoting equity

and respect in schools and places of work for all and sundry. Again, examining the way people

use language in different social contexts provides a wealth of information on how language

works hence this study will provide a better understanding of how language works, including the

12

English language. Furthermore, proverbs are interesting to study because through them, we can

extract many ideas on how we think, how we conceptualize and categorize the world, and how

we transmit traditional folk knowledge from generation to generation.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study is based on a sociolinguistic analysis of Urhobo proverbs. It is an impossible

task to analyze all the proverbs available in the linguistic repertoire of Urhobo language. Time

and space will not even allow for this. Randomly selected Urhobo proverbs are gleaned from

Urhobo music and Urhobo native speakers from the context of use. Where necessary, cross

references will be made to proverbs from other language communities in order to explicate their

usefulness in depicting the values, the norms, the aspirations, the likes and dislikes and

sometimes, the do’s and don’ts of members of society at large.

13

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter reviews relevant literature related to this study. It examines relevant works

of scholars in this field to discover the gap(s) yet to be filled. An attempt to effectively analyze

Urhobo proverbs from a sociolinguistic perspective would begin with a definition of terms.

Language cannot be mentioned without reference to the society. This is as a result of the

fact that language does not exist in a vacuum. Rather, it is deeply rooted in a society. In the same

vein, a society without a language would be impossible. Members of a society need language to

coexist. One can, therefore, assert that language and society have a symbiotic relationship. This

relationship offers an interesting field of study and investigation to scholars to examine the codes

of communication used and how members of society use these codes. This, according to

Adeyanju, leads to the sociology of language or sociolinguistics (527). Hudson (1) distinguishes

sociology of language from sociolinguistics thus: “sociolinguistics is the study of language in

relation to society while the sociology of language is primarily concerned with the study of

society and how the society uses language’’. He further asserts that there is an overlap between

the two. It is glaring at this point that society is a very important issue. Wardhaugh defines

society as “any group of people who are drawn together for a certain purpose or purposes” (1).

This is to say that there are certain things that bind members of a society together; these include

language, culture, beliefs, religion etc.

14

2.1.1 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Different scholars have given varying accounts of sociolinguistics as a concept. Hymes

confirms this by saying that the term sociolinguistics means many things to different people, and

no one has an all inclusive definition (195). Sociolinguistics as a field studies the relationship

between language and society and between the users of language and the social structures in

which they live. Crystal (18) sees sociolinguistics as a discipline which “studies language

variation and use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man”. In the views of Holmes,

sociolinguists are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts,

and their major focus is identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to

convey social meaning. This gives an insight into the way language works as well as the social

relationship that exits among users in a linguistic community (1). Akindele and Adegbite define

it as “the relationship which exists between a language or languages and the culture and tradition

as well as the politics of a particular community” (3). They state further that “it examines the

interaction between the use of language and the social organizations behaviour (4). From these

different accounts, it is obvious that language and society are key terms in sociolinguistics.

According to Hudson, sociolinguistics as a field of linguistic study gained prominence in

the late 1960s and early 1970s (1). This shows how recent the field is. Crystal gives an all

embracing definition of the term as a branch of linguistics which studies all aspects of the

relationship between language and society. It studies matters such as the linguistic identity of

social groups, social attitudes to language, standard and non- standard forms of language, the

patterns and needs of national language use, social varieties and levels of language use, social

barns of multilingualism and so on (440-441). It also studies how language varieties differ

15

between groups separated by some social variables, such as ethnicity, status, gender, literacy

level, age, etc and how creation and compliance to these rules can categorize individuals in

social or socio-economic classes. Language use varies among social classes just as the use of

language varies from place to place.

William Labov is considered to be one of the proponents of sociolinguistics who has

immense importance in its development. He is noted for introducing the quantitative study of

language variation and change and for making the sociology of language a scientific discipline.

(Labov,2007).

2.1.2 THE PROVERB

The Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary (1972) defines proverb as a “short

saying in common use expressing a well-known truth or common fact ascertained by

experiences”. According to Akporobaro, “proverb is an aphorism, a wise saying, based upon

people’s experience and is a reflection of the social values and sensibility of the people” (69).

Meider, the famous paremiologist, defines proverb as a “phrase, saying, sentence, statement or

experience of the folk which contains above all wisdom, truth, morals, experiences, lessons and

advice concerning life and which has been handed down from generation to generation (117). It

is often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as

maxim. From the above definitions, it is obvious that a proverb is common to the society who

use it, based on the people’s experience, social values, and it expresses a well known truth in that

society.

Mieder further asserts that the wisdom of proverbs has been a guide to people in their social

interactions for thousands of years throughout the world. Lamidi posits that a proverb is a witty

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saying which captures the logic, culture and observations of a people (61). To Olatunji, proverb

often evolves from traditional lore, history, and religion, and is usually attributed to elders as it is

believed to contain words of wisdom from the elders and ancestors (19).

Proverbs are important informative and useful linguistic signs of cultural values and

thoughts states Mieder; and the earliest collections of proverbs stem from the third millennium

B.C and were inscribed on Sumerian cuneiform tablets as commonsensical codes of conduct and

daily observations of human behaviour (xii).

Quoting the American paremiologist Whiting, Mieder gives a summary of proverb thus:

A proverb is an expression which, owing its birth to the people,

testifies to its origin in form and phrase. It expresses what is

apparently a fundamental truth – that is, a truism, - in homely

language, often adorned, however, with alliteration and rhyme. It is

usually short, but need not be; it is usually true, but need not be.

Some proverbs have both a literal and figurative meaning, either of

which makes perfect sense; but more often they have but one of the

two. A proverb must be venerable; it must bear the sign of

antiquity, and, it should be attested in different places at different

times. This last requirement we must often waive in dealing with

very early literature, where the material at our disposal is

incomplete (2).

This is surely a useful definition that not only comments on the nature but also on the form of

proverbs. Proverbs are used by speakers for different purposes: they lend grandeur and style to

oral speech and written words, they are a sign that one is at home with one’s culture and

linguistic environment. Obeng opines that proverbs are sometimes used as a way of saying

something gently, in a veiled way (529). Lamidi asserts that “it is used to sum up ideas in a

speech event or draw analogies between events/personalities…it is a record of past events which

are relevant to the contemporary world” (65). Good use of proverbs can indicate that one is full

of wisdom and a good orator; they can also be used to simply make a conversation livelier.

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Proverbs constitute a rich resource to analyze the way we process and conceptualize the world.

They are a conceptual universal phenomenon with high cross cultural and communicative value,

they also have instructive power. In the traditional African setting, proverbs can be used to

instruct the young ones on how to imbibe good conduct. Akporobaro notes that proverbs are used

by elders to instruct their fellows about specific codes of conduct and to remind listeners of age-

old wisdom and truth (60). For instance, the proverb wo dia kere ukpoto-o oshu we-e ( if you do

not stay close to a pit, you cannot be caved in) means that if you do not stat close to a source of

trouble, you cannot be involved in it. Sociolinguistically, this proverb encourages one to stay

away from trouble and embrace peace. Again, omiregwan da dieki, uyowi re omotete nue vwe

uko r’oni roye-e (if an elderly person is in the market, the head of a baby cannot be allowed to

bend on the mother’s back) means elders should be awake to their responsibilities. This would

make the society better for all. Pragmatically, proverbs serve communicative purposes. They are

easy to learn and they are a product of social, political and cultural beliefs and values.

In the opinion of Cram, certain qualities exist between proverbs, idioms and slogans. They

are all unique for they are individual expressions whose meanings cannot be easily decoded at

surface level. The three share similar features. In the first instance, their meanings are constant,

secondly, they summarize ideas, and thirdly, their structures are not very mobile. This means that

their constituents cannot be changed anyhow but they may be twisted by a talented user (74).

A proverb is, therefore, a form of language with a special structure and meaning that

cannot be easily altered. Although it is a form of language, it is important to examine the

meaning of language in general terms. According to Longe (16), linguists have defined language

as “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which a group of people [human beings] co-operate”.

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As he states further, there are two parts to this definition: the system and what it is used for.

Though there are other uses of language, it is more fashionable to say that language is mainly

used for human communication. Deriving from the definition of language above, Cherry (4) sees

a group of people, a society, or culture as people in communication, thus, “may be thought of as

‘sharing rules’ of language, customs, or habits etc”. This in a way underscores the intersection

between language and society. Communication, the main use of language, is realized by a group

of people, that is, a society. It therefore means that the relevance of a linguistic event must be

rooted in the society.

To Fromkin et al, “language is a city to the building of which every human being brought

a stone and we live in a world of language” (445).This means that all humans are involved in it.

Akwanya shares the same opinion by saying that language is a property of human kind. Syal and

Jindal sum it all by saying that language is species-specific. They further posit that all human

beings are possessors of at least one language and language is found only with humans (7). So to

man, language is a possession and a characterizing feature. According to Wardhaugh, when two

or more people communicate with each other in speech, the system of communication they are

involved in can be called a code. That code is something we can call a language (1). Appel and

Muysken assert that language is not just an instrument for the communication of messages but

that the cultural norms and values of a group are transmitted by its language. In this opinion,

languages carry social meanings or social connotations (11-12). Aitchison, (quoted in Baruah),

calls language a “patterned system of arbitrary sound symbols”. From this, it is obvious that

communication is a major function of language. In order for language to make meaning, the

context of situation must come into place. The context determines the meaning that is deduced

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from an utterance. Bloor and Bloor comment on this view by saying that “when people use

language to make meaning, they do so in specific situations, and the form of the language that

they use in discourse is influenced by the complex aspects of those situations” (4).

2.1.3 LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

Since language is entrenched in a society, there are many possible relationships between

them. Wardhaugh opines that social structure may have a measurable influence on linguistic

structure and behaviour. He supports this view by saying that the agegrading phenomenon in

which young children speak differently from older children and in turn children speak

differently from adults; studies which reveal that the varieties of language used by speakers

reflect such matters as their regional, social or ethnic origin and sometimes even their sex or

gender; and other studies which show that particular ways of speaking, choice of words and rules

for conversing are greatly determined by certain social requirements.

Wardhaugh further gives another relationship that is opposite to the former. Linguistics

structure, he says, may influence social structure. This view to him is behind the Whorfian

hypothesis, the claims of Bernstein and others who argue that languages rather than speakers of

these languages can be sexist. A third relationship between language and society is that the

influence is bi-directional. This means that language and society can influence each other. A

fourth possibility is to assume that there is no relationship at all between linguistic structure and

social structure and that each is independent of the other (10). Gumperz observes that

sociolinguistics attempts to find correlates between social structure and linguistic structure and to

find out the changes that might occur (223).

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2.2 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

The study of proverbs has been an exciting area of scholarship for a very long time. Its

nature, function, and rhetorical use for speech embellishment have attracted the attention of

many scholars from different linguistic backgrounds and fields of human study. In the review of

literature below, we will show some trends in the study of proverbs.

Tanure Ojaide’s (2007) Urhobo Proverbs and Maxims is an important step in the study of

Urhobo proverbs in particular. In this study, Ojaide defines, describes and states the use of

Urhobo proverbs and its connection to the Urhobo people. He goes further to classify Urhobo

proverbs into pre-colonial and post colonial proverbs. Pre-colonial proverbs are those which

arose from traditional living condition. To him, these proverbs adopt the traditional mode of

knowing and doing things. Post-colonial proverbs resulted from the new life that came with the

contact with the Europeans and their values. He further attests to the fact that whether traditional

or modern, “proverbs give colour and intellectual spice to the Urhobo language. The so many

proverbs attest not only to the richness of the language but also to the various experiences of the

people”(118). Despite the important nature of this work to the study of Urhobo proverbs, it is

descriptive and informative. Ojaide’s study is not methodical as he did not subject Urhobo

proverbs to any linguistic or literary analysis. Therefore, it creates a gap in scholarship.

Elsewhere, Nerus Tadi (2007) takes a pedagogical approach to study proverbs in Tangle

society in Gombe State in Northern Nigeria. He argues that proverbs have multiple functions

most of which can be subsumed under education. He makes the point that formal education in

modern times makes use of proverbs as a pedagogical tool citing the study of the grammatical

function and communicative effect of the use of proverbs in classrooms by the three major ethnic

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languages in Nigeria (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba). As can be gleaned from this study, Tadi’s study

just stated the obvious that proverbs all over the world are pedagogic in nature. He did not tell us

the social use of proverbs in the Tangle society. At the same time, while the pedagogic role of

proverbs cannot be overlooked in any study of proverbs, we intend to make it more obvious in

this study through the sociolinguistic theories to be adopted in our analysis.

In the same vein, Odebumi (2008) examines the pragmatic function of crisis motivated

proverbs in Ola Rotimi’s The Gods are not to Blame by applying the pragmatic act theory of

Mey (2001). He identifies two types of crisis motivated proverbs: social crisis-motivated

proverbs and political crisis- motivated proverbs. To him, these are characterized by practs such

as counseling, challenging, persuading, encouraging, threatening and admitting among others

etc. He concludes that studying proverbs from a pragmatic perspective gives an insight into the

paramiological tool and has a pedagogic function. This work differs from Tadi’s by being an

analysis first from the pragmatic approach and second it is a study from a scripted document;

thus, the reality of field information in real life situation is absent. Like Odebumi, Emike (2012)

views the study of Afemai proverbs from the pragmatic approach (Afemai is a language spoken

in Etsako and some parts of Owan in Edo state –Auchi dialect). It differs slightly from

Odebumi’s work by relying on the pragmatic theories of implicature, presupposition, mutual

contextual belief and knowledge of the world among others. His aim in this study is to elucidate

how Afemai speakers exhibit pragmatic prowess in the use of Afemai proverbs.

Adopting the socio- semiotic theoretical approach as espoused by Renkerha (2004),

Adegoju (2009) explores further the place of proverbs in conflict resolution. He draws his

proverbs mainly from proverbs that touch on conflict and conflict resolution in the Yoruba

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language. He concludes that apart from cultural values, proverbs carry rhetorical strokes that

give pragmatic forces to their interpretation through the linguistic and rhetorical devices used in

proverbs. Though an exciting work since it relates to the society, it is only restricted to conflict in

the society. There is much more to proverbs in society than conflict resolution. Related to the

meaning of proverbs in society is Olubode Sowe’s (2009) work on “Interpreting Yoruba

proverbs: Some Hearer Strategies”. Its main focus is on how hearers of proverbs arrive at

meaning when they hear proverbs. His aim is to determine the cues deposited in proverbs to

enable the hearer decide the meaning of the proverb. However, a careful study and analysis of

proverbs in some languages show that there may be no cues resident in the proverb to decide the

meaning.

From a purely linguistic perspective, Mensa (2010) undertakes a morpho-syntactic

description of Efik Proverbs. (Efik is a language spoken in Southern Cross River State). He

observes that proverbs are a morpho-syntactic construction of different kinds, structures and

functions. His linguistic investigation of the internal structures of Efik proverbs highlights

aspects of Efik language and culture which are on the verge of extinction. He argues further that

proverbs do not only have stylistic and sociolinguistic relevance; they have structural

relationship which they enter into in the lexicon. The major aim of this work as he states is to

preserve a valuable part of Efik language, culture and literary form. This work makes its

procedure distinct: morpho-syntactic. It avoids a sociolinguistic procedure or consideration. This

in a way validates our study.

Omolosho (2012) studies Yoruba proverbs from the linguistic pragmatic approach. He

argues that structural semantics alone cannot account for the meaning of proverbs. And that since

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proverbs encode the language user’s world view, contextual variables must be deployed with

linguistic resources to decode the meaning of proverbs. He calls for the analysis of proverbs in

real discourse situation with the understanding of their structure and the immediate and wider

context of use. This will go a long way to project the culture of the user and promote inter-ethnic

relation and peace. This paper recognizes the encoding of the user’s world view, and the context

of use. These are sociolinguistic facts in the study which in a way relates to our study. But his

incorporation of the structural approach and non use of sociolinguistic theories creates a gap in

scholarship.

Again, Fasika (2006) explores Yoruba proverbs relationship with names as an attempt

towards contributing to the development of national consciousness. This study takes a critical

review of the nature of proverbs and explores the dialectical relationship between Yoruba

proverbs and names. This is an exciting study but limited in scope. It considers a small area of

proverbs: names in Yoruba proverbs.

From a critical discourse perspective, Hussein (2005) analyses African proverbs in creating

and perpetuating gender culture. Sexist proverbs were analyzed within the post modern theory of

power relation between social groups and the role of language to mediate this relationship and

explore the implications of gender stereotypes.

In a similar vein, prior to Hussein (2005),Oha (1998) had analyzed Igbo proverbs from the

critical discourse perspective. Oha’s “Semantics of Female Devaluation in Igbo Proverbs”

focuses on the semantics of female devaluation and derogation in Igbo proverbs. His approach is

based on some modern theories of some feminist poets like Julia Kristeva (1981,1992), Luce

Irigavay (1985,1992), Dale Spender (1992) amongst others. Based on this approach, he observes

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that language as used in Igbo proverbs promotes sexual politics played by the male to the

disadvantage of the female. The study underscores the female subjugation and male dominance

prevalent in the Igbo society. These two works are very ambitious, interesting and exciting. But

they are totally silent on the sociolinguistic study of proverbs.

Furthermore, Lamidi (2008) undertakes a comparative approach of Yoruba and Igbo

proverbs with emphasis on structure and texture of proverbs in both languages. His data were

sourced from scripted sources: literary work and scholarly publication from Yoruba and Igbo

scholars. According to him, his findings reveal that proverbs from both languages have similar

structures. Therefore, he concludes by over-generalizing that proverbs are universal in structure

and texture. However, we consider this conclusion faulty. First, his source of data is not

authentic, that is, not from real life situations. Also, the relativity between the structures and

texture of Igbo and Yoruba languages is not enough to make a universal statement.

Proverbs have also been discussed extensively in narrative fiction from the literary

perspective Obiechina (1992) discovered what he calls “narrative proverbs” in African fiction.

These proverbs are

autonomous stories that appear in different genres

and narrative register…..they function as images,

metaphors, and symbols and advance the meanings and

formal qualities of the narrative in which they occur

(200).

Alimi (2012) discusses the use of proverbs in Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God.

In his work, he examines how Achebe uses proverbs to delineate his characters, how proverbs

are used generally in the literary texts and their interpretation. As mentioned earlier, these works

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are limited to the analysis of proverbs in the fictional world of the novels, though they are

interesting and relevant.

As mentioned at the beginning of this section, scholarly works in proverbs are very exciting.

Our review has revealed that there is enormous literature available in the study of proverbs.

Some classifications have been done: Pre-colonial, post-colonial and narrative proverbs. The

proverb has also been discussed from the functional perspective: pragmatic, didactic and

pedagogical. Interpretative and critical discourse approaches have been explored and the roles of

proverbs in conflict resolution in real life situations and in scripted text have been reviewed.

Mention has also been made of sociolinguistics. Though these works applied, their relevance and

insights will be useful to this study. There are still some gaps left to be covered. First, it is

obvious that not much has been done on Urhobo proverbs either from the sociolinguistic,

pragmatic, critical discourse approaches among others. The only available literature is Ojaide’s

descriptive approach. This leaves a very wide scope for scholars interested in the study of

Urhobo language in the context of English as a second language.

Also, the analytic approaches used as one can observe from the review so far leaves us

with a wide range of theoretical areas to explore. None so far has adopted Dell Hymes

Ethnography of Communication, Sapir-Whorf’s view of language and cultural relativity etc.

These are the theoretical backings on which our study lies.

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CHAPTER THREE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the theoretical framework and the research methodology for this

research. The theoretical framework discusses Dell Hyme’s Ethnography of Communication and

Sapir-Whorf’s Hypothesis while the research methodology consists of the research design,

sources of data and data selection, and the procedure for data analysis

3.1 ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION.

Dell Hymes’ (1972) Ethnography of communication is “concerned not simply with

language structure but with language use, with rules of speaking…the ways in which speakers

associate particular models of speaking, topics, or message forms, with particular setting and

activities” (qtd in Coulthard, 30). Ethnography is the description of different races and culture

while communication suggests the human language, especially the spoken form. Hymes’

Ethnograpy of communication accounts for participants at discourse, channels for transmitting

messages, the codes, setting, genres, topics, comments generated from discourse, the events, and

characters (Bello, 407). Wardhaugh (242) gives a breakdown of Hyme’s Ethnography of

Communication. He posits that Hyme’s Ethnography of communication takes various factors

that are involved in communication into cognizance. For the sake of convenience, he uses the

acronym SPEAKING for the various factors he deems relevant in understanding how a particular

communicative event achieves its objectives. These factors are explained below:

S- The Setting and Scene are important. The setting is the physical environment and time in

which speech takes place while scene refers to the abstract setting or the cultural definition of

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the occasion. The setting and the scene of a linguistic event have a determining effect on it. The

setting determines the type of communication that would ensue and of course the type of proverb

that would be used. In other words, a particular piece of discourse might be appropriate or

inappropriate depending on the setting and the scene in which it takes place.

P- Participant. This refers to the parties involved in the communication. A market conversation

will include a trader and his customers, in a council of elders meeting the Interlocutors could

involve the king and his chiefs. Again, the participants involved in a linguistic event determine

the type of communication that ensues between them. For example a child is not expected to use

proverbs in conversation with an elder in Urhobo society.

E – Ends refers to the recognized and expected outcome of the communication. Every piece of

communication has an outcome. The use of a proverb may have advice, rebuke, warning, praise,

castigation or challenge as its end, just as haggling between a buyer and a seller, for instance, is

targeted at out-doing each other in the bargain.

A – Acts sequence. This is the actual form and content of the communication. This represents the

exact words used and how they are used, and how what is said relates to the present topic of

discussion.

K –Key refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a message is passed across. The message

could be light hearted, humorous, precise, sarcastic etc. The key is put into consideration when

communication takes place. The key should be reflective of the topic for communication. Where

the key does not match what a person is saying, people would pay attention to the key. Key here

relates to the interpersonal function of language following the Hallidayan systemic functional

grammatical model (Halliday and Matthiessen,2004; Bloor and Bloor, 2004; Eggins,2004 ).

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I –Instrumentalities as the name suggests has to do with the medium for passing the message

across, and this could be written or spoken. This also refers to the form of speech used such as

the language, dialect and the register that is employed, which could also be formal or informal.

For instance, in a meeting or gathering where English is spoken, the orator or master of

ceremony could switch to vernacular when it is time for the presentation of kola-nuts because,

“kola nut does not understand the English language”. One may choose to employ different

instrumentalities during a single verbal exchange of a considerable length by switching from

writing to speaking, quoting a proverb, and code switching between different languages.

N –Norms of interaction and interpretation refers to the specific behaviour associated with

communication and how these behaviours are viewed. In other words, these are the norms or

rules that govern speaking. There are norms of interaction and norms of interpretation. Norms of

speaking are the specific behaviours and properties that attach to speaking, while norms of

interpretation relates to the number of interpretations to be placed on norms of interaction by

someone who does not share them (Longe 70).

G -Genre refers to the precise type of utterance, such as poems, proverbs, prayers etc. Of course,

the occasion determines the genre. In a festive mood for instance, one is expected to use songs

that would reflect the mood while in a council of elders meeting in Urhobo land, proverbs are

used richly to embellish speech.

As outlined above, Hymes’ Ethnography of Communication shows that communication is a

complex activity that requires expertise on the part of the speaker and the listener. These

communication codes given by Hymes would guarantee success when applied in strict

compliance. Herein lies Dell Hymes communicative competence which can “be seen to consist

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of factors which are non-language - a point which is often neglected by many exponents of the

concept” (Longe 10).

3.2 THE SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS

As noted earlier, one of the functions of language is that it is an instrument for

communication. It is also a means through which we interpret, classify or conceptualize our

experiences and impose structure on reality (Leech 28). To Fishman, “language is the recorder of

paternity and the carrier of phenomenology” (qtd. In Appel and Muysken 13). Further, Appel

and Muysken state that language is used to cope with our ethnic experiences and that we use

language to talk about our cultural or ethnic activities (13).Therefore, language has social and

cultural basis like other customs, conventions and codes, proverbs inclusive. It has become a way

of embodying the world view and belief of a culture and the things that culture takes sacred. In

this vein, language is invented to communicate and express a culture. This, according to Syal and

Jindal (24) is studied in anthropological linguistics. The assertion was developed by Edward

Sapir, an anthropologist and linguist and his pupil Benjamin Lee Whorf, a chemical engineer and

a linguist. This resulted in the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis which combined two principles: the view

that language determines the way we think – linguistic determinism, and the view that the

structure encoded in our language is not found in another language – linguistic relativity

(Crystal). One can infer from the above that the language one speaks affects one’s thought and

interpretation of the world around his culture. Thus, the classification of his cultural phenomenon

and objects is different from that of another language.

As explained by Bloor and Bloor, Whorf attaches much importance to the usefulness of

language in culture by saying that a society’s perception of reality is determined by the language

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of that society (241). To Wardhaugh (216), this hypothesis is mainly referred to as the Whorfian

hypothesis because it owes more to Whorf than it does to Sapir. Wardhagh further asserts that

Sapir maintains that there is such a close relationship between language and culture that one

cannot understand or appreciate one without the knowledge of the other. Sapir in his book

Language states “…language does not exist apart from culture, that is, from the socially inherited

assemblage of practices and beliefs that determine the texture of our lives” (207).To Hudson

(103), the extreme version of the hypothesis is a combination of extreme relativism with extreme

determinism as we noted earlier. The theory states that there is no limit to the type and amount of

variation to be expected between languages, including their semantic structures, and that there is

a total determining effect of language on thought. In other words, there is no thought without

language. Akwanya explicates on this by saying that “thought of course, never lets itself be seen,

and language is one of the main ways in which it may be analyzed” (8). Sapir defines thought as

“the highest latent or potential content of speech, the content that is obtained by interpreting each

of the elements in the flow of language as possessed of its very fullest conceptual value”(15).

Hudson further gives an excerpt from Whorf which gives one of the most extreme formulations

of his and Sapir’s theory.

…the background linguistic system (in other words the grammar) of each

language is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather

is itself the shaper of ideas, the program and guide for the individual’s

mental activity, for his analysis of impressions, for his synthesis of his

mental stock in trade. Formulations of ideas is not an independent process,

strictly rational in the old sense, but is part of a particular grammar, and

differs, from slightly to greatly, between different grammars. We dissect

nature along lines laid down by our native language. The categories and

types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there

because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is

presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized

by our minds- and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.

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We cut nature up and organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as

we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement that holds throughout

our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The ,

agreement is, of course an implicit and unstated one BUT ITS TERMS ARE

ABSOLUTELY OBLIGATORY; we cannot talk at all except by

subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the

agreement decrees… We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity,

which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to

the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are

similar, or can in some way be calibrated (104).

Though very relevant to this study, it is important to point out that scholars have

countered this theory. According to Leech (32), if language forces us into a peculiar mental

straightjacket, it will not be possible to translate into another language. Also, a single language

does have alternative means of conceptualizing the same phenomenon. Perhaps the fiercest

attack is the Universalist approach which states that there is a basic set of semantic categories

from which each language draws its own subset of semantic categories, and it is only in the

choice of the permitted combination that languages differ. Despite these attacks on the relativist

view, it is not possible to conclude that language and culture are totally separable. The language

of a particular society is an essential part of its culture and the distinctions drawn by each

language reflect the culturally important features of objects and activities on the society in which

the language operates (Lyons 432).Thus Babajide (171) maintains that “language and culture are

inseparable phenomena” and that “both exert influence on each other”. The relationship is thus

so close that its existence cannot be denied.

The British sociologist Basil Bernstein has also contributed a lot on the relationship between

language and society or culture. His stake on this matter according to Wardhaugh (326) is

largely influenced or shaped by his reading of Whorf. Basil believes that language both

influences and is influenced by culture. According to Wardhaugh, Bernstein believes that there

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exist a direct reciprocal relationship between a particular kind of social structure, in both its

establishment and maintenance, and the way people in that social structure use language. This

relationship is passed across to subsequent generations. For Bernstein, a particular type of social

structure leads to a linguistic behaviour and the linguistic behaviour in turn reproduces the

original social structure. Hence there is a kind of cycle between the social structure and the

linguistic behaviour. The social roles of individuals are learnt through the process of

communication.

Benstein claims that there are two varieties of language in use in a society - the restricted code

and the elaborated code. Littlejohn defines a code as “a set of organizing principles behind the

language employed by members of a social group” (278). He further asserts that the theory of

elaborated and restricted code reveals how the language employed by people in their daily

conversations reflects and shapes the assumptions of a particular group. Also, the relationship

that exists between a social group influences the way that group uses language. These codes

differ in their characteristics. In the restricted code, we find abbreviations, contracted forms,

short grammatically simple and unfinished sentences of syntactic forms that are often poor. It

uses idioms frequently and scarcely makes use of adjectives and adverbs. There is a level of

shared background knowledge between users of a language. This is usually found among friends

and family. In fact everybody in the society has access to this code. Contrastively, the elaborated

code makes use of well developed sentences in accurate grammatical order and is more formal in

nature. In this code, there is no background knowledge or shared information between users;

everything is expressed fully and in detail. Only a selected few prestigious elite in the society

have access to this code.

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Deficit Hypothesis according to Hudson (214) makes reference to Chomsky’s linguistic

competence which refers to a person’s linguistic knowledge. This refers to children who lack

knowledge of a particular language. With respect to that language, they are incompetent. This

could also refer to people who for one reason or the other are on the verge of forgetting their

language or have actually forgotten their language.

In the use of proverbs, this hypothesis comes to play. Linguistic competence is very

important in decoding proverbs. Otherwise, the proverbs would be meaningless. One who has no

knowledge of Hausa language cannot decode any proverbs in Hausa. As a matter of fact, the

proverbs would make no meaning to that person and the intended aim or purpose of that proverb

would be defeated.

3.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This section presents the research methodology. It consists of the research design, sources

of data and data selection, and the procedure for data analysis.

3.3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The qualitative and descriptive research designs are adopted for this study as against the

quantitative approach. These two approaches use few data for the analysis to be more detailed

and rigorous. The qualitative approach is suitable for our analysis because the study is an

ethnographic study. Ethnography according to the Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary is the

scientific description of different cultures and races. Kramsch sees culture as membership in a

discourse community, which shares a common social space, history and think alike (10).This

procedure therefore is appropriate since the study is centered on people and culture. The

descriptive survey gives a picture of a situation or a population. It is a scientific method which

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involves observing and describing the behaviour of a subject without in any way influencing it.

This method is used to obtain a general overview of the subject. Of course the consideration of

phenomena begins generally with a full understanding of the phenomena (Osuala, 197). The

subject is observed in a completely natural and unchanged environment hence this method

rightly befits it.

3.3.2 SOURCES OF DATA

The data for this study are sourced from competent Urhobo native speakers (noting

context of use), and Urhobo music. The Urhobo dialects of Eku, Abraka and Agbarho are used

since the participants reside in these places. Vast arrays of Urhobo proverbs are available for

study via the above mentioned sources. However, it is impossible to carry out an analysis of all.

Therefore, a random sampling method is used for our data selection. Apart from having equal

chances of being selected by all members of the data, random sampling technique gives no room

for bias as all members of the data have equal chances.

In all, fifty proverbs were selected and analysed using Dell Hymes’ Ethnography of

Communication as our main analytical framework. Insights are also drawn from Sapir-Worf’s

linguistic and cultural relativity theory.The proverbs used in this study cut across different social

and educational background of both the addresser and addressee. It should also be noted that

Urhobo as a language has different dialects but the proverbs used cut across all the dialects for

they are mutually intelligible.

3.3.3 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The method used for data collection from our sources is the participant –observation

method. This method places us as members of the society and enables us to obtain complete

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information in the appropriate context of use. The data were collected orally from Urhobo first

language speakers, Urhobo music and translated into English language for analysis.

3.3.4 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The major framework for our data analysis is Dell Hyme’s Ethnography of

communication as discussed in section 3.1.0. Also, insights from other sociolinguistics theories

would be used where necessary. However, some comments need to be made on certain elements

of the framework. We observe that the context of use is important in a bid to deduce the

sociolinguistic meaning of proverbs. The context of use also gives an insight into the type of

proverbs and its intended meaning. Kramsch rightly notes that “culture meaning is created

through the actions and interactions of speakers in social context” (25). This implies that the

function and meaning of proverbs will be lost without the context of use. Therefore, in our

analysis, context is taken care of under Setting and Scene.

On instrumentality, all our data belong to the spoken (oral) medium. On Norms of

Interaction and Interpretation, there is no pragmatic failure as all participants are competent

Urhobo native speakers. Thus, when such proverbs are used, the issues discussed are reacted to

and interpreted appropriately.

All the data analysed belong to the genre of proverbs. Our typology follows Adedimeji’s 2003

(61-72). He groups African (Nigerian) proverbs into four types: rhetorical, epistemological,

didactic and philosophical/analytic proverbs. Rhetorical proverbs are those sayings that are

geared towards persuading or influencing people to do certain things. These proverbs are meant

to encourage, motivate and advise people with the aim of making them act in a specific manner.

Didactic proverbs teach moral lessons. They are meant to instill some moral training or

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discipline in the hearers by exhibiting virtues and extolling them and identifying vices and

condemning them. Epistemological proverbs are those whose origins lie in history, stories,

folklore, myths, legends and other oral traditional sources. They tell a story or narrate an

incident. And philosophical/ analytical proverbs are those that are rooted in the study of the

cosmos, the universe and the knowledge of the world. They portray self evident truths that are

observable, discernable, empirical and philosophical. It should be noted that the relationship

between these different types of proverbs are not mutually exclusive; instances of overlaps may

occur. A rhetorical proverb may serve a didactic function while an epistemological proverb may

be rhetorical, didactic or analytic.

Finally, a discussion of the analysis and sociolinguistic implication will follow.

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This chapter deals with the sociolinguistic analysis of Urhobo proverbs using Dell Hymes

Ethnography of Communication and insights from Sapir-Whorf’s Hypothesis where applicable

to show aspects of Urhobo culture and world-view which the proverbs reflect. While indicating

the typology of the proverbs using Adedimeji’s (2003) classification, the fifty (50) proverbs are

analysed against Hymes’ SPEAKING model. This model reveals the context and situation of use

of the proverbs. Thus, it paves the way for the understanding of Urhobo proverbs in the context

of English as a second language in Nigeria.

4.1 SOCIOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF URHOBO PROVERBS

In what follows, our data is presented as act sequence in Urhobo and translated into

English. The meaning/analysis and typology are given after which other Ethnograpic features of

SPEAKING follow.

DATA 1

ACT SEQUENCE

URHOBO: okpole oteya gheleofe

ENGLISH: Big yam tubers grow despite the beetles.

ANALYSIS/MEANING: Despite the challenges and obstacles in life, one must survive.

TYPOLOGY: philosophical/analytic.

SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: in the evening, home.

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SCENE: A grown up child who is finding life experiences difficult complains to the father about

the challenges he is facing. The father encourages him through this proverb that despite such

challenges he would be successful in life.

ADDRESSSER: father.

ADDRESSEE: son.

ENDS: to encourage the son and make him believe in himself, the father wants him to see

beyond the present challenges and be hopeful and have a positive outlook to life.

KEY: sober tone.

DATA 2

ACT SEQUENCE

URHOBO: aye da rho n’ovwrovwro roye, odjaye eje-e.

ENGLISH: Even if a co-wife is taller than the other, it does not stop them from choosing things.

ANALYSIS: this proverb draws from the Urhobo cultural concept of polygamy. The average

Urhobo traditional man is polygamous in nature and the position of seniority among the wives is

determined by virtue of who was married into the home first. This proverb dwells on respect for

position and among the Urhobos. No matter how wealthy and strong you may be, the Urhobo

culture has respect for position and age.

TYPOLOGY: didactic.

SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: in the evening, at the family head’s home.

SCENE: The proceeds from a sale of family land are being shared among the members of the

family.

ADDRESSER: a member of the family (male).

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ADDRESSEE: the rest members of the family (all males).

ENDS: to ensure fairness and equitable distribution of the proceeds from the sale of a family.

KEY: serious.

DATA 3

ACT SEQUENCE

URHOBO: oro kpoghurhe r’ikokodia kpoghu’yovwi roye

ENGLISH: he who shakes a coconut tree shakes his own head.

ANALYSIS: the coconut tree is regarded as an upright, strong and generous plant in Urhobo

culture, therefore he who wants to shake (destroy) it shakes or destroys himself. It means that he

who plots the downfall/evil against an upright person plots evil against himself.

TYPOLOGY: philosophical.

SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: in the afternoon, at a ceremony.

SCENE: the spokesman (otota) sees a man who is adjudged upright and generous and he begins

to eulogise him as a means of soliciting for cash gifts from him.

ADDRESSER: spokesman.

ADDRESSEE: a rich man.

ENDS: prayer and blessing to solicit for money.

KEY: light and cordial tone.

DATA 4

ACT SEQUENCE

URHOBO: Aye kunedi, avwowhefe-e.

ENGLISH: women are like a bunch of palm fruits, you do not wedge it on your ribs.

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ANALYSIS: this proverb dwells on the loquacious, troublesome and quarrelsome nature of

women. They cannot be tamed or curtailed. In Urhobo culture, women are supposed to be seen

not heard. But because they always want to be heard with their “sharp mouths” they are

compared with a bunch of palm fruits with thorns.

TYPOLOGY: philosophical and didactic.

SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: in the evening, in an old man’s house.

SCENE: the young man was involved in beating up his wife the previous day and the elderly

man is mediating by telling him the nature of women.

PARTICIPANTS: ADDRESSER: an old man.

ADDRESSEE: a young man.

ENDS: to be cautious for the excesses of women cannot be curtailed, not even by beating them.

KEY: serious tone.

DATA 5

ACT SEQUENCE

URHOBO: orharha de ny’iku ro rho, jomoto vuere.

ENGLISH: If a stranger hears an old case/story, then it is a native/indigene that told him/her.

ANALYSIS: Every traditional Urhobo community has an old secret/story that is known only to

the indigenes. It means that it is only someone who knows or has access to where something is

hidden that can reveal it.

TYPOLOGY: rhetorical.

SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: in the morning, at the king’s palace.

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SCENE: A judgment is going on about what somebody said and she is being asked how she got

to know, who told her and she is denying all.

PARTICIPANTS: ADDRESSER: A member of the council of chiefs.

ADDRESSEE: the two parties involved in the judgment.(women).

ENDS: to drive home the point that the source of the “hearsay” or judgment is an insider

KEY: serious tone.

DATA 6

ACT SEQUENCE

URHOBO: uphoro oho atore evu eki ke ghwru evu eki.

ENGLISH: A feather picked in a market square will also get lost in a market square.

ANALYSIS: anything that is got freely goes freely. The Urhobos encourage hard work.

TYPOLOGY: didactic/rhetorical.

SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: in the afternoon, a friend’s home.

SCENE: A friend complains to another about his late elder brother’s children who are wasting

the wealth they inherited from their father.

ADDRESSER: a man.

ADDRESSEE: his friend.

ENDS: to reiterate the fact that if you do not make effort or work to achieve anything, you are

bound to waste it.

KEY: reflective tone.

DATA 7

ACT SEQUENCE

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URHOBO: ede oshare she ogo roye oye ayeroye se oyibo.

ENGLISH: the day a wife’s parent is buried by the husband is the day she will call the husband a

white man.

ANALYSIS/MEANING: it is a comment on the ungrateful and unappreciative nature of women

towards their husbands. Part of the Urhobo culture stipulates that the husband must do “in-law’s

greeting” when the parents of the wife die. This is a lavish ceremony by the husband which he

often takes loans to accomplish.

TYPOLOGY: epistemological.

SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: not specific.

SCENE: a general behaviour of women and their relation in terms of respect to their husband

ADDRESSER: a musician.

ADDRESSEE: his audience/listeners.

ENDS: to make women realize that they have been unfair to their husbands and should therefore,

have a change of attitude

KEY: abusive.

DATA 8

ACT SEQUENCE

URHOBO: obo evwere seru, urho ke se ruo-o.

ENGLISH: the feat of the earthen cooking pot cannot be achieved by the mortar.

ANALYSIS: where your strength and accomplishment lie is different from where my own

strength and accomplishment lie.

TYPOLOGY: philosophical/analytic

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SETTING: TIME AND PLACE: in his music.

SCENE: the two musicians were friends, now they are turned enemies. So they insult each other

indirectly in their songs.

PARTICIPANTS-ADDRESSER: a musician.

ADDRESSEE: a fellow musician.

ENDS: to drive home the point that each has his/her strengths an