A review of international HRD: incorporating a global HRD construct
29
EDITORIAL A review of international HRD: incorporating a global HRD construct Thomas N. Garavan and Ronan Carbery Department of Personnel & Employment Relations, Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland Abstract Purpose – The aim of this paper is to review published conceptual and research papers within the field of international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD. Design/methodology/approach – The paper’s approach is a targeted literature review focusing on papers within the mainstream HRD journals, as well as a small number of non HRD journals. Findings – The literature review revealed that international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD is an emerging subfield of study. In general the authors were able to categorise the literatures into the three trajectories specified. However, they noted contradictions and confusions within the literature. Research limitations/implications – The paper is solely theoretical in nature; however, it does identify gaps for further research. The authors highlight specific research questions within each trajectory as well as proposing a global HRD construct. Originality/value – The paper is particularly valuable to scholars interested in theorising and researching international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD. It sets the scene for the special issue on the three trajectories, and identifies possible avenues for future theorising and research. Keywords International HRD, Comparative HRD, Cross-cultural HRD, Global HRD, Human resource development, Cross cultural studies Paper type Viewpoint Introduction During the past two decades HRD research has broadened from its traditional focus on understanding learning by individuals and organisations to examine HRD in an international context. Recent articles and books have documented this broadening of focus (McGuire et al., 2011; Hamlin and Stewart, 2011; Gray et al., 2011; Trehan and Rigg, 2011) and called for increased attention to international and global HRD in future research. We extend these calls by providing a review of international HRD research to date. Furthermore, we build on the calls for research that focus on the emergence of a global HRD construct. A number of academics have sought over the years to conceptualise HRD as a concept (Garavan, 1991; Weinberger, 1998; McLean and McLean, 2001). However, as McGoldrick et al. (2002) suggested, the process of defining HRD is thwarted by the lack of boundaries and parameters. More recently, attempts have been made to define HRD from an international or global perspective (Wang and McLean, 2007; Metcalfe and Rees, 2005). The focus on international HRD has come about due to a variety of macro level trends such as globalisation, technological innovation and changes in organisational form. These changes have made the exploration of International HRD The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm A review of international HRD 129 European Journal of Training and Development Vol. 36 No. 2/3, 2012 pp. 129-157 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2046-9012 DOI 10.1108/03090591211215579
Transcript of A review of international HRD: incorporating a global HRD construct
EDITORIAL
A review of international HRD:incorporating a global HRD
constructThomas N. Garavan and Ronan Carbery
Department of Personnel & Employment Relations, Kemmy Business School,University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Abstract
Purpose – The aim of this paper is to review published conceptual and research papers within thefield of international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper’s approach is a targeted literature review focusing onpapers within the mainstream HRD journals, as well as a small number of non HRD journals.
Findings – The literature review revealed that international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD isan emerging subfield of study. In general the authors were able to categorise the literatures into thethree trajectories specified. However, they noted contradictions and confusions within the literature.
Research limitations/implications – The paper is solely theoretical in nature; however, it doesidentify gaps for further research. The authors highlight specific research questions within eachtrajectory as well as proposing a global HRD construct.
Originality/value – The paper is particularly valuable to scholars interested in theorising andresearching international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD. It sets the scene for the special issue onthe three trajectories, and identifies possible avenues for future theorising and research.
Keywords International HRD, Comparative HRD, Cross-cultural HRD, Global HRD,Human resource development, Cross cultural studies
Paper type Viewpoint
IntroductionDuring the past two decades HRD research has broadened from its traditional focus onunderstanding learning by individuals and organisations to examine HRD in aninternational context. Recent articles and books have documented this broadening offocus (McGuire et al., 2011; Hamlin and Stewart, 2011; Gray et al., 2011; Trehan andRigg, 2011) and called for increased attention to international and global HRD in futureresearch. We extend these calls by providing a review of international HRD research todate. Furthermore, we build on the calls for research that focus on the emergence of aglobal HRD construct.
A number of academics have sought over the years to conceptualise HRD as aconcept (Garavan, 1991; Weinberger, 1998; McLean and McLean, 2001). However, asMcGoldrick et al. (2002) suggested, the process of defining HRD is thwarted by the lackof boundaries and parameters. More recently, attempts have been made to define HRDfrom an international or global perspective (Wang and McLean, 2007; Metcalfe andRees, 2005). The focus on international HRD has come about due to a variety of macrolevel trends such as globalisation, technological innovation and changes inorganisational form. These changes have made the exploration of International HRD
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm
A review ofinternational
HRD
129
European Journal of Training andDevelopment
Vol. 36 No. 2/3, 2012pp. 129-157
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited2046-9012
DOI 10.1108/03090591211215579
more necessary than ever. Globalisation has created increased economicinterdependence between nations and regions, and contributed to the growth ofemerging markets, resulting in an increased interest in international, comparative andcross-cultural HRD (McGuire et al., 2011).
Studies to date on international HRD have explored issues of definition and themajority of research has focused on comparative aspects of HRD at the level of thenation. The emerging field of National HRD (NHRD) has contributed to a focus onnations. This research stream has proved valuable; however no broad framework yetexists for understanding and tying together international HRD research findings. As aresult, scholars do not have a clear picture of the strength of the IHRD field, gaps in theliterature, or the agenda for conducting further research. Moreover, as a relatively newarea of enquiry, the international HRD literature includes many areas in need ofclassification and future research.
The purpose of this article is therefore to apply a framework to review theinternational HRD literature. We begin by defining the dimensions of that framework,highlighting three distinct trajectories and the attributes or characteristics thatdistinguish each one[1]. We continue with a review of each trajectory in which weidentify and discuss the research issues that are unique to each trajectory. We thenpropose future directions for a global HRD construct as well as questions that shouldbe considered to advance the three trajectories and finally, we describe the papersincluded in this special issue.
Global HRD: a distinct construct?Our review focuses on 20 years of research that we consider can be described asinternational HRD research. International HRD researchers often refer to a number ofconstructs as being almost interchangeable with international HRD. These include:national HRD, comparative HRD and cross-cultural HRD. In order for internationalHRD to flourish and offer meaningful contributions to the broader HRD field, it isimportant to identify different trajectories of international HRD research, and explainhow these trajectories differ from each other in terms of research focus and emphasis.We are also aware of recent contributions that seek to argue for a global HRD constructand explore what this will mean for HRD. Therefore following Morley’s (2007)conceptualisation of international HRM into three distinct but overlapping trajectories,international, comparative and cross cultural, we discuss and compare the researchfocus of each trajectory. We use the term “trajectory” to mean the existence of distinctlines of enquiry. We are however conscious that some international HRD research maynot neatly fit into these distinct trajectories, but may cut across the international,comparative and cross-cultural categories.
International HRD trajectoryWithin the HRM literature there is a proliferation of research conducted in the contextof the multinational corporation (MNC). However, there is a distinct lack of suchresearch in the HRD context. For our definitional purposes, international HRD focuseson understanding HRD in the context of the MNC. The growing importance of the MNCand the focus on complex global strategic decision making has resulted in an interest inthe relationship between IHRD and business performance. This has given rise tostrategic perspectives on HRD. Strategic perspectives on IHRD can be attributed to a
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number of factors: HRD is considered to be an important component of effectivestrategy implementation, IHRD can be important to enable the MNC achieve its goalsand IHRD will have a major impact on talent management and retention strategies.
It is perplexing as to why there is a limited research base on HRD in the context ofthe MNC. Metcalfe and Rees (2005) acknowledge that there is significant complexity indefining what constitutes IHRD, and their definition is an interesting mix of global,comparative and national HRD. Their definition is as follows
IHRD is a broad term that concerns processes that address the formulation and practice ofHRD systems, practices and policies at the global, societal and organization level. It canconcern itself with how governments and international organizations develop and nurtureinternational managers and how they develop global HRD systems; it can incorporatecomparative analyses of HRD approaches across nations and also how societies developnational HRD policies (p.455).
A later definition of IHRD, proposed by Wang and McLean (2007), is broader incontext, encompassing individual, organizational, cultural, economic, community,social, political and cross-national dimensions. What is interesting is that bothdefinitions make no explicit reference to the influence of the MNC. We argue that it isnot possible to consider IHRD, or for that matter, a global HRD construct withoutincorporating the influence of the MNC as a force for globalisation. MNCs implement araft of leading or “best” HRD practices that are common across many global firms.Therefore, IHRD researchers need to pay more attention to the MNC when studyinginternational HRD. How, for example, can the development of global workforces be oneof the key issues that are faced by MNCs but which are ignored to a large degree inIHRD research? We do not have the answers to this question, other than to suggest thatit may have something to do with the historical origins of HRD, and in particular, theinfluence of the education tradition (Swanson, 1999). The influence of the businesstradition is a more recent phenomenon, and it has not to date significantly shaped theresearch agenda. The majority of IHRD papers presented in Table I focus on issues ofdefinition, methodological challenges in researching international HRD and thecontribution of HRD in MNCs and other organisations. In general there are few studiesthat research the MNC context, suggesting that notions of international HRD differsomewhat from notions of what constitutes international HRM. Within the HRMliterature, the MNC represents the starting point for the majority of international HRMresearch, whereas within the IHRD literatures, there is an emphasis placed on thesocietal contribution of HRD.
The comparative HRD trajectoryAuthors such as Wang and Wang (2006) argue that the concept of comparative HRDcan be traced to a study by Sung et al. (2000). This study investigated national HRDpolicies, skill formation systems and processes in a number of countries. A variety ofsimilar studies followed by Ashton (2002), Ardichvili and Kuchinke (2002), Benson andZhu (2002) and Wang (2008). These studies utilised a mixture of research levels anddefined time periods for comparison purposes. In their totality, they emphasised theimportance of comparative HRD research as a way of enhancing the theoretical base ofHRD. However, as Wang and Swanson (2008) have emphasised, the amount ofcomparative HRD research is currently inadequate.
A review ofinternational
HRD
131
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Table I.The international HRDtrajectory: indicativecontributions
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pra
ctit
ion
ers
inte
nd
totr
ansf
orm
info
rmal
lear
nin
gp
ract
ices
into
afo
rmal
lyst
ruct
ure
dfo
rmat
ofH
RD
inte
rven
tion
.P
ract
ices
are
inte
gra
ted
wit
hor
gan
izat
ion
aln
eed
sb
yfo
cusi
ng
onth
ed
evel
opm
ent
ofh
igh
pot
enti
alin
div
idu
als
wit
hin
anor
gan
izat
ion
.M
onol
ith
icin
terv
enti
ons
by
HR
Dar
en
olo
ng
erac
cep
ted
app
roac
hes
,in
resp
onse
toan
agin
gw
ork
forc
ean
dw
omen
inth
ew
ork
forc
e
HumanResource
Development
International
Kor
ea
(continued
)
Table I.
A review ofinternational
HRD
133
Au
thor
sT
yp
ean
dsa
mp
leF
ind
ing
san
dco
ntr
ibu
tion
sJo
urn
alC
oun
trie
sst
ud
ied
Nik
and
rou
etal.
(200
8)
Qu
anti
tati
ve;
cros
s-se
ctio
nal
,su
rvey
.5,
189
org
anis
atio
ns
Con
sid
ers
imp
act
ofn
atio
nal
and
org
cult
ure
ontr
ain
ing
and
firm
per
form
ance
inE
uro
pe.
Cu
ltu
ral
(per
form
ance
orie
nta
tion
)an
din
stit
uti
onal
(per
cen
tag
eof
GD
Psp
ent
for
edu
cati
on)
fact
ors
wer
efo
un
dto
mod
erat
eth
ere
lati
onsh
ipb
etw
een
T&
Dan
dfi
rmp
erfo
rman
ce.
Inin
tern
atio
nal
con
tex
tsw
her
ep
erfo
rman
ceor
ien
tati
onis
hig
h,t
rain
ing
man
ager
ssh
ould
dev
elop
asy
stem
atic
app
roac
hto
trai
nin
gth
rou
gh
care
ful
TN
A
International
Journalof
HumanResource
Management
Eu
rop
e
Joh
nso
net
al.
(201
0)
Qu
alit
ativ
e;ca
sest
ud
y.
Inte
rvie
wan
dd
ocu
men
tan
aly
sis.
Sev
enN
GO
org
anis
atio
ns
Th
efo
llow
ing
them
esaf
fect
edh
owH
RD
sup
por
ted
and
dev
elop
edh
um
anca
pac
ity
inH
IV/A
IDS
NG
Os:
(1)
bro
ken
pol
icy
imp
lem
enta
tion
affe
ctin
gA
IDS
NG
Os;
(2)
con
fusi
onov
erro
les
bet
wee
nh
ealt
hca
rean
dN
GO
s;(3
)a
lack
ofco
ord
inat
ion
and
con
nec
tion
ofth
eA
IDS
sect
oran
dn
atio
nal
pol
icy
inad
dit
ion
toan
adeq
uat
ech
eck
ing
pro
cess
;an
d(4
)a
nee
dfo
rm
ore
men
tori
ng
opp
ortu
nit
ies
asw
ell
asst
rate
gic
thin
kin
gin
AID
SN
GO
sT
he
opp
ortu
nit
yfo
rth
eH
RD
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mu
nit
yto
pla
ya
lead
ersh
ipro
lein
the
HIV
/AID
Sd
ialo
gu
ecl
earl
yex
ists
HumanResource
Development
International
Sou
thA
fric
a
SelectinginternationalHRDstrategies
Lob
el(1
990)
Con
cep
tual
Iftr
ain
ing
pro
gra
ms
for
glo
bal
lead
ersh
ipar
eto
be
effe
ctiv
e,th
eysh
ould
imp
art
gen
eral
isab
lesk
ills
by
wh
ich
ind
ivid
ual
s“l
earn
how
tole
arn
”in
any
inte
rcu
ltu
ral
sett
ing
and
eng
age
inte
amb
uil
din
gac
tiv
itie
sw
ith
div
erse
ind
ivid
ual
s
HumanResource
Management
N/A
Ink
son
etal.
(199
7)
Qu
alit
ativ
e;an
aly
sis
ofca
sest
ud
yd
ata.
In-
dep
thin
terv
iew
s75
pro
fess
ion
als
Ov
erse
asE
xp
erie
nce
rep
rese
nts
am
ore
imp
orta
nt
mea
ns
ofk
now
led
ge
acq
uis
itio
n,
ind
ivid
ual
enri
chm
ent,
and
nat
ion
alh
um
anre
sou
rce
dev
elop
men
tth
and
oes
Ex
pat
riat
eA
ssig
nm
ents
.T
her
ear
ead
van
tag
esto
asy
stem
wh
ere
the
exp
atri
ate
ind
ivid
ual
rath
erth
anan
emp
loy
ing
com
pan
ym
akes
dec
isio
ns
asto
her
orh
isca
reer
pla
cem
ent,
dev
elop
men
t,an
dre
inte
gra
tion
into
the
“hom
e”en
vir
onm
ent
Journalof
World
Business
N/A
Osm
an-
Gan
i(2
000)
Qu
anti
tati
ve;
cros
s-se
ctio
nal
.In
terv
iew
and
surv
ey,
501
exp
atri
ates
Hos
tco
un
try
lan
gu
age
trai
nin
gra
ted
rela
tiv
ely
mor
eim
por
tan
tth
anot
her
typ
esof
pre
-dep
artu
retr
ain
ing
.Pre
fere
nce
son
trai
nin
gd
ura
tion
dep
end
edon
the
exp
atri
ates
’cou
ntr
yof
orig
in.O
n-s
ite,
oron
-th
e-jo
b,
trai
nin
gra
nk
edas
the
mos
tap
pro
pri
ate
del
iver
ym
eth
od.
Hos
tco
un
try
sub
sid
iary
-p
artn
erp
erso
nn
elw
ere
con
sid
ered
the
mos
tef
fect
ive
and
qu
alifi
edp
eop
leto
pro
vid
eth
en
eces
sary
trai
nin
g
HumanResource
Development
Quarterly
Sin
gap
ore
Jap
an,
Kor
ea,
Ger
man
y,
and
the
Un
ited
Sta
tes
(continued
)
Table I.
EJTD36,2/3
134
Au
thor
sT
yp
ean
dsa
mp
leF
ind
ing
san
dco
ntr
ibu
tion
sJo
urn
alC
oun
trie
sst
ud
ied
Wen
tlin
g(2
004)
Qu
alit
ativ
e;cr
oss-
sect
ion
al;
inte
rvie
ws
and
doc
um
ent
anal
ysi
s;ei
gh
tm
anag
ers
atFortune
500
com
pan
ies;
fiv
efe
mal
e,th
ree
mal
e
Div
ersi
tyin
itia
tiv
ep
lan
nin
gid
enti
fied
asan
imp
orta
nt
inp
rev
enti
ng
fail
ure
ofd
iver
sity
init
iati
ves
inco
rpor
atio
ns.
Hav
ing
ast
rate
gic
pla
nfo
rd
iver
sity
init
iati
ves
,se
nio
rm
anag
emen
tco
mm
itm
ent
and
sup
por
t,d
iver
sity
lin
ked
wit
hst
rate
gic
bu
sin
ess
pla
n,r
ecog
niz
ing
that
div
ersi
tyis
ab
usi
nes
sim
per
ativ
ean
dh
avin
gan
org
aniz
atio
nal
cult
ure
that
val
ues
div
ersi
tyid
enti
fied
asim
por
tan
tfa
ctor
sth
atas
sist
inth
esu
cces
sof
div
ersi
tyin
itia
tiv
esin
MN
C.
Div
ersi
tytr
ain
ing
and
edu
cati
onid
enti
fied
asp
lay
ing
anim
por
tan
tro
lein
avoi
din
gp
oten
tial
fail
ure
ofot
her
div
ersi
tyin
itia
tiv
es
HumanResource
Development
International
US
A
Moe
ller
etal.
(201
0)
Con
cep
tual
Ind
icat
ors
ofa
succ
essf
ul
lon
g-t
erm
over
seas
assi
gn
men
tar
e:(1
)re
alis
tic
job
pre
vie
w(2
)fr
eech
oice
ofta
kin
gth
eas
sig
nm
ent,
and
(3)a
ssu
ran
ceth
atre
pat
riat
ion
isan
opti
on.R
egar
dle
ssof
the
cult
ura
ldis
tan
ceof
anin
pat
riat
eto
the
assi
gn
edh
ome
cou
ntr
y,p
roce
sses
and
tact
ics
mu
stb
ein
pla
ceto
ensu
relo
ng
-ter
msu
rviv
alin
the
new
env
iron
men
tan
dto
mon
itor
the
con
tin
uou
sd
evel
opm
ent
and
stre
ng
then
ing
ofin
pat
riat
e
HumanResource
Development
Review
N/A
StructuringHRDin
MNCsandother
organisations
Lie
nan
dM
cLea
n(2
004)
Qu
alit
ativ
e;cr
oss
sect
ion
al.
Inte
rvie
w.
HR
man
ager
s.S
even
par
tici
pan
ts
Th
ree
maj
orth
emes
emer
ged
abou
tH
RD
inth
eT
aiw
anes
ew
ork
cult
ure
:(1
)H
RD
ison
eas
pec
tof
HR
M(2
)H
RD
iseq
uat
edw
ith
trai
nin
gin
Tai
wan
and
(3)
HR
Dsu
cces
sre
lies
onth
ev
isio
ns
and
sup
por
tof
top
man
agem
ent
HumanResource
Development
International
Tai
wan
Ard
ich
vil
ian
dD
iran
i(2
005)
Qu
anti
tati
ve;
cros
sse
ctio
nal
,su
rvey
.27
0p
arti
cip
ants
.M
anu
fact
uri
ng
sect
orw
ork
ers
Stu
die
dH
um
anC
apit
alM
anag
emen
tp
ract
ices
ofR
uss
ian
Fir
ms.
Fir
ms
that
trie
dto
coor
din
ate
sele
ctio
n,
com
pen
sati
onan
dtr
ain
ing
pro
ced
ure
s.F
irm
sth
atem
pow
ered
thei
rem
plo
yee
sal
sop
ut
mor
eem
ph
asis
onlo
ng
-ter
mor
ien
ted
trai
nin
g,
sele
ctio
nan
dco
mp
ensa
tion
pra
ctic
es.
Div
ersi
tyis
gra
du
ally
bec
omin
gan
imp
orta
nt
issu
efo
rR
uss
ian
ente
rpri
ses
ofal
lsi
zes.
How
ever
,com
par
edto
div
ersi
ty,
com
pan
ies’
emp
has
ison
hel
pin
gth
eir
emp
loy
ees
tod
eal
wit
hth
ew
ork
/fam
ily
bal
ance
issu
esw
asm
uch
stro
ng
er
HumanResource
Development
International
Ru
ssia
Notes:
We
incl
ud
edst
ud
ies
inth
isth
eme
that
focu
sed
onH
RD
issu
esin
MN
Cs
and
org
anis
atio
ns
gen
eral
ly.W
eal
soin
clu
ded
stu
die
sh
ere
that
use
dH
RD
inte
rven
tion
sth
atre
sear
ched
the
con
trib
uti
onof
IHR
Dto
soci
etal
issu
es.
We
excl
ud
edst
ud
ies
that
focu
sed
onn
atio
nal
HR
Dis
sues
Table I.
A review ofinternational
HRD
135
Table II provides a summary of indicative HRD research papers that fall within thecomparative HRD trajectory. These papers reveal a significant and growing number ofstudies that focus on national HRD issues within specific countries. Asian countries arestrongly represented in the comparative HRD trajectory. A small number of studiesreport comparative research and investigate HRD within particular regions. What isvery is the influence of the work of Gary McLean who coined the concept “NationalHRD”. National HRD research typically focuses on describing national systemscharacteristics within a particular country and how they influence HRD practices atnational and organisational levels. These national studies provide valuable insightsconcerning the influence of institutional factors within a particular country such as therelationship between government, employers and trade unions, the extent of regulationof the employment relationship, labour market characteristics and socio-culturalcharacteristics unique to the country. There is scope to enhance this research through aconsideration of HRD structures, processes, policies and outcomes across nations orcountries.
There is limited discussion of convergence and divergence issues in the IHRDliteratures. As we already have indicated, convergence theory basically postulates thatglobal market and technological forces induce nations or countries to implementsimilar approaches to HRD. Over time, there will be a homogenisation of institutionsand HRD practices within developed countries. In contrast, divergence theorypostulates that due to a variety of national and institutional factors, HRD practices willdemonstrate difference simply because national systems are slow to change. Theseissues have not featured to date in the IHRD literature.
Therefore, comparative studies of HRD need to engage with a multiplicity of factorsincluding national culture, national institutions, industry sector and the wider businessenvironment. Different configurations of these variables will impact national,firm-level and individual-level outcomes. It is likely that a complex interplay betweenactual HRD policies and practices and the surrounding national factors andorganisational factors will exist. It should however be acknowledged that whilecomparative IHRD research is essential for the credibility of the field, it is very difficultto undertake due to the need to ensure appropriate comparative units of analyses anddefined time periods.
Cross-cultural HRD trajectoryThe literature has developed frameworks to analyse how national culture can influenceIHRD. The cross-cultural perspective has generally focused attention on the culturaldistinctiveness of practices, beliefs and values shared by a country. It assumes thatculture and values act as boundaries that allow interaction and socialisation withinthem. Cross-cultural perspectives assume that societies or countries will vary in thetypes of institutions and approaches to HRD and those variations reflect differenttraditions, values, attitudes and experiences. Culture is typically measured throughvarious value dimensions. Examples of such value dimensions are suggested byHofstede(1980); Schwartz(1994) and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner(1998). Thisapproach is not, however, without criticism and it is acknowledged that culture ishighly elusive, difficult to operationalised and measure.
Two culture frameworks are commonly utilised in the HRD literatures.The Hofstede conceptualisation is by far the most popular. The four dimensions –
EJTD36,2/3
136
Au
thor
Ty
pe
and
sam
ple
Fin
din
gs
and
con
trib
uti
ons
Jou
rnal
Cou
ntr
ies
stu
die
d
NationalHRD
Har
ada
(199
9)Q
ual
itat
ive;
seco
nd
ary
dat
aD
escr
ibes
dy
nam
icch
ang
esin
the
Jap
anes
eH
RD
syst
em.
Ch
ang
ein
the
wor
ksy
stem
inJa
pan
isin
flu
ence
db
yor
gan
izat
ion
alst
ruct
ura
lch
ang
e.N
ewJa
pan
ese
HR
Dsy
stem
show
sor
gan
icin
tera
ctio
ns
amon
gfu
nct
ion
sof
the
hu
man
reso
urc
ecy
cle,
the
wor
ksy
stem
and
each
com
pon
ent
inth
eH
RD
syst
em(i
nd
ivid
ual
,ca
reer
and
org
aniz
atio
nal
dev
elop
men
t)
HumanResource
Development
International
Jap
an
Rot
hw
ell
and
Kol
b(1
999)
Qu
alit
ativ
e;lo
ng
itu
din
al,
surv
ey,
inte
rvie
w,
focu
sg
rou
ps,
20ex
per
ts
Iden
tifi
edsi
xw
ork
forc
ean
dw
ork
pla
cetr
end
saf
fect
ing
HR
man
ager
s:T
ech
nol
ogy
,G
lob
alis
atio
n,
Cos
tco
nta
inm
ent,
Sp
eed
inm
ark
etch
ang
e,Im
por
tan
ceof
kn
owle
dg
eca
pit
al,
and
chan
ge
International
Journalof
Trainingand
Development
US
A
Ku
ruv
illa
etal.
(200
2)Q
uan
tita
tiv
e;se
con
dar
yn
atio
nal
dat
a
Sin
gap
ore’
ssk
ills
dev
elop
men
tsy
stem
isa
goo
dco
nce
rted
nat
ion
alan
din
teg
rate
def
fort
,giv
enit
sm
ult
ilev
elfo
cus
and
pri
vat
e-p
ub
lic
sect
orco
llab
orat
ion
.T
he
Sin
gap
ore
syst
emw
ork
sw
ell
for
its
curr
ent
nee
ds
and
exh
ibit
sth
en
eed
edp
re-r
equ
isit
esto
tran
sfor
min
toH
SE
World
Development
Sin
gap
ore
Rig
by
(200
4)Q
uan
tita
tiv
e:se
con
dar
yd
ata
Su
gg
ests
that
the
mos
tim
por
tan
tco
ntr
ibu
tion
ofS
pan
ish
Nat
ion
alT
rain
ing
syst
emis
skil
lsd
evel
opm
ent
for
wor
ker
sin
SM
Es.
Key
fact
ors
inth
isco
ntr
ibu
tion
are
the
inv
olv
emen
tof
the
soci
alp
artn
ers
and
the
dev
elop
men
tof
asu
pp
ly-d
riv
enof
fer.
Ah
igh
lev
elof
inte
rven
tion
by
inte
rmed
iary
org
aniz
atio
ns
and
the
soci
alp
artn
ers
isa
nec
essa
ryp
reco
nd
itio
nfo
rim
pro
vin
gsk
ills
dev
elop
men
t
HumanResource
Development
International
Sp
ain
Yor
ks
(200
4)C
once
ptu
alP
rop
oses
ap
olit
ical
econ
omy
mod
elof
stra
teg
icH
RD
pra
ctic
e.W
hic
h(1
)re
cog
niz
esth
ein
flu
ence
ofth
ela
rger
pol
itic
al-e
con
omic
syst
emon
HR
Dop
por
tun
itie
san
dp
ract
ices
(2)r
ecog
niz
esth
atov
erth
elo
ng
term
,org
aniz
atio
nal
chan
ge
isa
pro
du
ctof
pre
vai
lin
gex
tern
alan
din
tern
alp
olit
ical
econ
omic
forc
esan
dth
ep
atte
rnof
resp
onse
sto
them
by
org
aniz
atio
nal
mem
ber
s(3
)em
ph
asis
esh
owh
um
anag
ency
affe
cts
onth
esy
stem
icb
alan
ceof
the
per
form
ance
imp
rov
emen
tsy
stem
and
(4)
hig
hli
gh
tsth
ero
lep
lay
edb
yad
voc
acy
pat
tern
sin
defi
nin
gan
dal
ign
ing
over
lap
pin
gin
tere
sts
amon
gor
gan
izat
ion
alm
emb
ers
HumanResource
Development
Review
N/A
Ly
nh
aman
dC
un
nin
gh
am(2
006)
Con
cep
tual
Alt
hou
gh
NH
RD
refl
ects
sim
ilar
itie
sac
ross
nat
ion
s,it
also
dif
fers
acco
rdin
gto
spec
ific
nat
ion
alan
dw
orld
-reg
ion
con
tex
ts.
Con
tex
tan
din
ten
tsh
ape
and
info
rms
wh
atm
akes
for
resp
onsi
ble
hu
man
reso
urc
ed
evel
opm
ent.
Em
erg
ing
mod
els
and
nec
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Table II.The comparative HRD
trajectory: indicativecontributions
A review ofinternational
HRD
137
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hs
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HumanResource
Development
International
Sou
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Com
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ents
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s
TheInternational
Journalof
HumanResource
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ent
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ere
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pos
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Journalof
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Sin
gap
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Tai
wan
and
S.
Kor
ea (continued
)
Table II.
A review ofinternational
HRD
139
Au
thor
Ty
pe
and
sam
ple
Fin
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gs
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trib
uti
ons
Jou
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ntr
ies
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die
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ton
(200
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ual
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man
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Journalof
Development
Research
Sin
gap
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Tai
wan
and
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Kor
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chin
ke
(200
3)Q
ual
itat
ive;
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Dac
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Nu
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ain
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leof
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.P
erce
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erv
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ort
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ere
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itiv
ely
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ted
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mat
ive
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pon
ents
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gan
izat
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mm
itm
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td
iffe
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ces
wer
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aniz
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nal
com
mit
men
tv
aria
ble
sb
etw
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New
Zea
lan
dan
dth
eU
nit
edS
tate
s.
HumanResource
Development
International
New
Zea
lan
d,
US
A
Haw
ley
and
Pae
k(2
005)
Qu
anti
tati
ve:
seco
nd
ary
nat
ion
ald
ata
An
aly
zes
the
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omic
pay
off
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ivid
ual
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estm
ent
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ocat
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al-t
ech
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,an
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ent
emp
loy
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tin
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cup
atio
n.F
ewm
enor
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enen
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pw
ork
ing
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they
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trai
ned
for.
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men
inK
orea
and
wom
enin
Th
aila
nd
,em
plo
ym
ent
ina
rela
ted
fiel
dp
ays
off
inte
rms
ofh
igh
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onth
lyea
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gs.
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t-se
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ytr
ain
ing
offe
red
pot
enti
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stro
ng
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ortu
nit
ies
for
rein
forc
ing
the
imp
act
ofem
plo
ym
ent
ina
mat
ched
fiel
d
International
Journalof
Trainingand
Development
Kor
ea,
Th
aila
nd
Kow
ske
and
An
thon
y(2
007)
Qu
anti
tati
ve;
seco
nd
ary
dat
a.18
,425
sup
erv
isor
sfr
om12
cou
ntr
ies
Com
par
esth
eim
por
tan
cep
lace
don
mid
-lev
elle
ader
ship
skil
lsac
ross
twel
ve
cou
ntr
ies.
Com
pet
ence
ssu
chas
An
aly
seis
sues
and
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erte
amw
ork
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otra
ted
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fere
ntl
y,i
nd
icat
ing
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usi
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eop
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lace
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asi
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elf
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nt
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lth
oug
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ake
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ur
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yg
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rap
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ph
asis
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ract
itio
ner
san
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lv
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erco
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ltu
res
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agin
gin
bu
sin
ess
HumanResource
Development
International
Mu
ltip
leco
un
trie
s
(continued
)
Table II.
EJTD36,2/3
140
Au
thor
Ty
pe
and
sam
ple
Fin
din
gs
and
con
trib
uti
ons
Jou
rnal
Cou
ntr
ies
stu
die
d
Sy
dh
agen
and
Cu
nn
ing
ham
(200
7)
Con
cep
tual
Con
sid
ers
HR
Din
Su
b-S
ahar
anA
fric
a.T
her
eis
anA
fric
anm
anag
emen
tp
hil
osop
hy
,b
ut
itis
imp
orta
nt
that
the
inte
gra
tion
ofA
fric
anp
hil
osop
hy
such
asU
bu
ntu
isco
nsi
der
edw
hen
man
agin
gth
elo
cal
wor
kfo
rce.
Itis
imp
orta
nt
that
ind
igen
ous
cult
ura
las
pec
tsan
dk
now
led
ge
are
use
din
the
dev
elop
men
tof
man
agem
ent
inA
fric
a.T
he
reg
ion
isfa
cin
gn
um
erou
sch
alle
ng
esin
term
sof
pov
erty
,war
,HIV
/AID
S,s
kil
lssh
orta
ge,
bra
ind
rain
,an
dd
evel
opm
ent
ing
ener
al,b
ut
opp
ortu
nit
ies
incl
ud
e:in
clu
de
anab
un
dan
ceof
hu
man
reso
urc
esan
din
crea
sin
gin
ves
tmen
t
HumanResource
Development
International
Su
bS
ahar
anA
fric
a
Lim
etal.
(200
9)Q
ual
itat
ive;
stru
ctu
red
inte
rvie
ws.
33e-
lear
nin
gin
stru
ctor
sfr
omN
orth
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eric
aan
dN
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eala
nd
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ep
erce
pti
ons
ofth
eN
orth
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eric
anan
dN
ewZ
eala
nd
inst
ruct
ors
tow
ard
se-
lear
nin
gar
em
ore
sim
ilar
than
they
are
dif
fere
nt.
Bot
hp
lace
ast
ron
gfo
cus
onst
ud
ents
and
ther
eis
stro
ng
agre
emen
ton
the
val
ue
ofe-
lear
nin
gap
pro
ach
esfo
rg
ener
atin
gst
ud
ent
dis
cuss
ion
HumanResource
Development
International
US
AC
anad
aan
dN
ewZ
eala
nd
Ach
oui
(200
9)Q
ual
itat
ive;
cros
sse
ctio
nal
.li
tera
ture
rev
iew
and
anal
ysi
sof
gov
ern
men
td
ocu
men
ts
Ch
alle
ng
esof
econ
omy
and
HR
Dp
rog
ram
mes
face
db
yG
ulf
Ara
bC
oun
trie
sar
e:h
igh
dep
end
ence
onoi
lan
dth
ep
etro
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ical
ind
ust
ry;
hig
hd
epen
den
ceon
fore
ign
lab
our;
alo
wra
teof
fem
ale
par
tici
pat
ion
inem
plo
ym
ent;
and
aw
eak
lin
kb
etw
een
edu
cati
onal
syst
emou
tpu
tan
dth
en
eed
sof
the
econ
omic
sect
ors,
esp
ecia
lly
thos
eof
the
pri
vat
ese
ctor
,wh
ich
req
uir
essk
ille
dan
dp
rofe
ssio
nal
lab
our
HumanResource
Development
International
Gu
lfA
rab
Cou
ntr
ies
Xie
and
Hu
ang
(201
0)
Qu
alit
ativ
e;se
con
dar
yd
ata
Com
par
edan
dan
aly
zed
HR
Dro
les,
key
wor
kd
imen
sion
s,an
dp
ract
itio
ner
com
pet
enci
esth
rou
gh
the
com
pet
itiv
ev
isio
nof
dif
fere
nt
cou
ntr
ies.
Ind
ust
rial
HR
Dis
rela
ted
ton
atio
nal
ind
ust
ryco
mp
etit
ion
and
nat
ion
alst
rate
gy
.In
du
stry
com
pet
itio
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try
isb
ased
onth
eex
per
tise
ofth
en
atio
n’s
dis
pos
itio
nof
hu
man
reso
urc
e.C
hin
ash
ould
seiz
eth
eop
por
tun
ity
for
dev
elop
men
t,em
ph
asiz
ing
mac
roec
onom
icp
olic
yin
the
sear
chfo
rth
ein
ters
ecti
onb
etw
een
nat
ion
alan
din
du
stri
aln
eed
s.C
hin
ash
ould
focu
son
dev
elop
men
tin
stea
dof
adm
inis
trat
ive
HR
M.
Ch
ina’
sm
ain
lan
dis
inth
ese
con
dst
age
ofca
reer
dev
elop
men
t,w
hic
hin
vol
ves
the
form
atio
nof
un
iqu
ela
bou
rd
ivis
ion
and
pro
fess
ion
alco
mp
eten
ces
Frontiersof
Education
inChina
Ch
ina,
US
,U
K,
Ger
man
y,
Jap
an,
Ind
ia,
Sin
gap
ore,
and
Kor
ea
Notes:
We
wer
ese
lect
ive
inth
est
ud
ies
we
incl
ud
edin
this
tab
le,
bec
ause
ofth
ev
ery
sig
nifi
can
tg
row
thin
the
nat
ion
alan
dco
mp
arat
ive
HR
Dfi
eld
s
Table II.
A review ofinternational
HRD
141
power, distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivism andmasculinity/femininity, are considered valuable in understanding HRD practices andoutcomes. These four dimensions are not without faults; they have been criticisedbecause they do not capture the richness of national culture and they are viewed in astatic rather than a dynamic way.
Culture has also been conceptualised in terms of context – low and high contextcultures. Hall and Hall (1976) described low-context cultures as ones that value clear,explicit and written forms of communication. Anglo-Saxon and Northern Europeancountries fall into this category. In high context cultures, the external environment andnon-verbal cues are considered important to communication. There are however fewstudies that have used this categorisation to study HRD practices. The development ofcross-cultural frameworks continues. A very recent example is the GLOBE project(Peterson and Castro, 2006). This project sets out to develop a multi-dimensionalframework to explain cultural similarities and differences. It makes an importantdistinction between values “as it is” and “as it should be”. This framework has not yetbeen integrated into HRD research; however, it has the potential to prove valuable inexploring differences and similarities in HRD across countries. Table III summarises asample of research that falls within the cross-cultural trajectory. What is particularlyevident is the small number of published papers on cross cultural HRD issues. Asignificant proportion of the papers are conceptual or theoretical in nature.
It is appropriate to point out some of the difficulties associated with thecross-cultural perspective on IHRD. Three particular difficulties are highlighted. Thecross-cultural perspective may over-simplify national cultures and its influence onHRD. It is difficult to make a clear distinction between cultural values and institutions.It is generally acknowledged that institutions include cultural attitudes and values.The cross-cultural perspective is also a difficult one to operationalise in methodologicalterms. The robustness of measures and the over-reliance on dimensional models ofculture like the ones we have outlined earlier may reduce the potential to reach strongconclusions about the influence of culture on HRD. We have not yet found studies thatuse multi-level models to investigate the impact of culture on HRD policies andpractices.
In summary, globalisation and internationalisation have had an undoubted impacton business and economic activity at both national and international level, thusimpacting the theoretical discipline of HRD. The process of globalisation makes itnecessary to consider the emergence of a global HRD construct. We should howeveracknowledge McLean and McLean’s (2001) claim that a global HRD concept might beto difficult to construct given that the purposes, notions of what constitutes HRD andthe influences on HRD vary between countries and regions. Ruona (2000) warned thatthe pursuit of a single global definition of HRD is “not a worthy cause”. However weargue that there is value in exploring a global HRD construct that captures thechallenges faced by globalisation processes. It is also important to acknowledge that asignificant amount of HRD takes place in global organisations. There is clear evidencefrom the IHRM literatures that MNCs continue to be a major influence on HRDpractices and that the success of these organisations is contingent upon the leveragingof human, societal and organisational capital throughout the global business. Thesecapitals are dependent upon skills, informal and formal learning and the use of HRD to
EJTD36,2/3
142
Au
thor
sT
yp
ean
dsa
mp
leF
ind
ing
san
dco
ntr
ibu
tion
sJo
urn
alC
oun
trie
sst
ud
ied
SocietalCulture
andHRD
Han
sen
and
Bro
oks
(199
4)
Con
cep
tual
Rev
iew
sC
ross
-cu
ltu
ral
Res
earc
hon
HR
D.N
atio
nal
cult
ure
sco
nst
itu
tean
imp
orta
nt
var
iab
lein
exp
lain
ing
dif
fere
nce
sin
HR
Dp
ract
ice.
HR
Dp
ract
itio
ner
sm
ust
be
atte
nti
ve
toso
cioc
ult
ura
lfa
ctor
sev
enth
oug
hth
ere
isso
me
ind
icat
ion
that
the
incr
easi
ng
lyra
tion
alsy
stem
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atac
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pan
ym
odem
ity
hom
ogen
ize
som
ecu
ltu
ral
dis
tin
ctio
ns
HumanResource
Development
Quarterly
N/A
McG
uir
eet
al.
(200
2)C
once
ptu
alC
onsi
der
sth
ecu
ltu
ral
bou
nd
edn
ess
ofth
eory
and
pra
ctic
ein
HR
D.
Cu
ltu
ral
infl
uen
ces
may
affe
ctn
oton
lya
pro
fess
ion
al’s
imp
lici
tco
nce
pt
ofw
hat
con
stit
ute
sef
fect
ive
pra
ctic
e,b
ut
may
also
affe
ctre
sear
cher
s’ex
pli
cit
theo
ries
asd
emon
stra
ted
by
the
ran
ge
ofp
osit
ion
sad
opte
don
the
con
ver
gen
ce-d
iver
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ceco
nti
nu
um
.Fu
nd
amen
tal
val
ues
atth
eco
reof
cult
ura
lli
few
orld
sd
isti
ng
uis
hon
eg
rou
pfr
oman
oth
er.
Th
ese
val
ues
can
act
asa
stro
ng
det
erm
inan
tof
man
ager
ial
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log
yan
dco
nse
qu
entl
yaf
fect
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hH
Rp
ract
ice
and
per
form
ance
Cross
Cultural
Management:An
International
Journal
N/A
Ala
gar
aja
and
Doo
ley
(200
3)
Con
cep
tual
Con
sid
ers
orig
ins
and
his
tori
cali
nfl
uen
ces
onH
RD
.On
lya
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est
bod
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reh
asb
een
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tten
onh
isto
rica
lin
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ence
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omn
on-W
este
rnp
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ecti
ves
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efi
eld
.T
he
earl
iest
dev
elop
men
tsin
the
fiel
dof
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Dh
ave
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nd
ue
ton
on-W
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ence
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ecau
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ract
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dsc
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ars
inth
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sh
ave
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dom
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tly
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trib
ute
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reof
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D,i
tsp
ract
ices
,met
hod
s,v
alu
es,a
nd
core
bel
iefs
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hea
vil
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flu
ence
db
yth
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alu
esan
das
sum
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ons
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ltu
reof
Un
ited
Sta
tes
HumanResource
Development
Review
N/A
Dir
ani
(200
6)Q
ual
itat
ive:
seco
nd
ary
dat
aA
nal
yse
sh
owex
tern
alor
gan
izat
ion
alfa
ctor
san
dso
cio-
cult
ura
las
pec
tsaf
fect
HR
Dp
ract
ices
inL
eban
on.
At
ag
lob
alle
vel
,th
ere
isan
incr
ease
dn
eed
tod
eal
wit
hth
eam
big
uit
yof
glo
bal
izat
ion
and
the
req
uis
ite
for
new
and
curr
ent
emp
loy
ees’
skil
lse
ts.H
RD
can
wor
kw
ith
bot
hor
gan
izat
ion
alan
dg
over
nm
enta
lch
ann
els
toen
cou
rag
eth
ep
urs
uit
ofp
olic
ies
that
enco
ura
ge
inte
gra
tion
into
the
glo
bal
econ
omy
HumanResource
Development
International
Leb
anon
McG
uir
eet
al.
(200
8)Q
uan
tita
tiv
e;cr
oss
sect
ion
al.
Qu
esti
onn
aire
.34
0m
anag
ers
Con
sid
ers
effe
ctof
per
son
alv
alu
eson
the
imp
orta
nce
atta
ched
by
ind
ivid
ual
sto
trai
nin
gan
dd
evel
opm
ent.
Per
son
alca
pab
ilit
yv
alu
esw
ere
fou
nd
tob
ea
sig
nifi
can
tp
osit
ive
pre
dic
tor
ofth
ep
erce
ived
imp
orta
nce
oftr
ain
ing
and
dev
elop
men
t.T
her
ew
ere
no
sig
nifi
can
tre
lati
onsh
ips
fou
nd
for
wor
ldv
iew
,O
ther
nes
s,re
lati
onsh
ipan
dId
eali
stic
Val
ues
.C
apab
ilit
yv
alu
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pla
ina
smal
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nta
ge
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ev
aria
nce
inth
eim
por
tan
ceat
tach
edto
trai
nin
gan
dd
evel
opm
ent
HumanResource
Development
International
Irel
and
,C
anad
a
Mic
hai
lov
aan
dH
olli
nsh
ead
(200
9)
Qu
alit
ativ
e.S
econ
dar
yd
ata
Ex
amin
esch
ang
esin
des
ign
and
imp
lem
enta
tion
ofW
este
rnm
anag
emen
ttr
ain
ing
inte
rven
tion
sin
Eas
tern
Eu
rop
e.O
ver
the
per
iod
of12
yea
rsof
trai
nin
gin
terv
enti
onfr
omth
eW
est
into
Eas
tern
Eu
rop
e,th
ere
hav
eb
een
gra
du
al,
yet
defi
nit
esh
ifts
inth
est
atu
sof
pro
vid
ers
and
clie
nts
tow
ard
sg
row
ing
equ
ival
ence
inth
eor
gan
izat
ion
and
del
iver
yof
trai
nin
gp
rog
ram
mes
HumanResource
Development
International
Eas
tern
Eu
rop
e
(continued
)
Table III.The cross-cultural
trajectory: indicativecontributions
A review ofinternational
HRD
143
Au
thor
sT
yp
ean
dsa
mp
leF
ind
ing
san
dco
ntr
ibu
tion
sJo
urn
alC
oun
trie
sst
ud
ied
Joy
and
Kol
b(2
009)
Qu
anti
tati
ve;
cros
sse
ctio
nal
,53
3re
spon
den
tsin
sev
enco
un
trie
s
Con
sid
ers
cult
ura
ld
iffe
ren
ces
inle
arn
ing
sty
le.
Asi
gn
ifica
nt
por
tion
ofth
ev
aria
nce
inth
ep
refe
ren
cefo
rab
stra
ctco
nce
ptu
alis
atio
nw
asex
pla
ined
by
cult
ure
,gen
der
,lev
elof
edu
cati
onan
dar
eaof
spec
iali
zati
on.
Th
ev
aria
bil
ity
inp
refe
ren
cefo
rac
tiv
eex
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disseminate knowledge throughout the organisation. Therefore in the next section weconsider the research questions that flow from our discussion so far.
An agenda for international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD researchIn this section we propose an agenda for future research. We first of all focus on thepotential conceptualisation of a global HRD construct. We then describe new avenuesthat stem directly from the three trajectories discussed in this paper.
Future research: conceptualisation of a global HRD constructWe argue that in order for the field of HRD to continue its development as a body oftheory and practice, it is necessary to take account of the influence of globalisation. Theshift towards globalisation has major implications for how HRD is conceptualised.Notions of what constitutes HRD are being influenced by different cultures, languages,business environments, physical locations and ways of doing business. HRD can nolonger think solely about the domestic setting, but must focus on the needs ofindividuals in an international and global context. The emergence of global brandssuch as Google, Hewlett Packard and Microsoft are shaping the way HRD isconceptualised. HRD researchers therefore need to research HRD in a much morecomplex, dynamic and variegated context. Practitioners are likewise challenged todeliver HRD interventions that add value. They must work with multiple stakeholderson a worldwide basis. HRD researchers and practitioners increasingly need tounderstand global trends, and to think about the implications of HRD for society ingeneral as well as the traditional focus on performance and profits.
We suggest that three primary areas for future research exist in the context ofunderstanding a global HRD construct. We currently note the general lack ofdiscussion of a global HRD construct and what it may consist of. There is alsoconsiderable variability across trajectories (international, comparative andcross-cultural) discussed in this article and what they may propose as the essence ofa global HRD construct. We propose that global HRD may consist of activitiesimplemented by organisation to develop people on a global scale. In terms ofidentifying the dimensions of a global HRD construct, the following are proposed:
. a focus on local, regional and global levels of the firm when developing people;
. the extent of employment branding across international operations;
. the existence of centres of excellence to address issues such as development;
. policies, strategies and practices around the use of expatriates and thedevelopment of a highly mobile pool of managers that are aligned to firmstrategy; and
. the involvement of multiple actors in the development of people (Garavan, 2012).
Second, future research can explore issues of context and how context influences globalHRD. In particular we need to more effectively account for the influences of national,cultural, institutional and regional context. Research should continue its expansion tonon-US and non-European contexts to capture regional and cross-cultural influences.Research that investigates organisational-level issues needs to focus on the uniqueorganisational contexts that surround global HRD. These factors include differences inMNC ownership and location, differences in organisational purposes and differences in
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terms of HRD infrastructure. There is also value in exploring the role of occupationaland professional contexts and how they shape a global HRD construct.
Third, future research can more effectively understand the outcomes of global HRD.A significant proportion of prior research has focused on individual- andorganisational-level outcomes. We would encourage a continued focus on theseoutcomes, in addition to more study of outcomes at national, regional and societal level.Scholars have begun to consider the influence of HRD on societal issues (Garavan andMcGuire, 2010). To build on this perspective, further research can explore how globalHRD impact societal outcomes and issues such as CSR, sustainability and world peace(Kuchinke, 2010; Fenwick, 2011).
Future research: the international HRD trajectoryOur review of the international HRD trajectory suggests that future research in thisarea can grow in three primary ways. We first of all encourage future studies thatcontinue to understand the dynamics of HRD in the MNC. For example, researchersneed a better understanding of the factors that enable and hinder HRD in MNCs. Wehave scope to more fully understand the influence of MNC strategy, the relationshipbetween talent management strategies and HRD, the influence of the HR architecture,and the focus on developing insiders rather than hiring outsiders (Osman-Gani andChan, 2009).
Second, future research can explore the factors that explain the diffusion of HRDpractices throughout subsidiaries. What are the barriers between headquarters andsubsidiaries? In particular, if the relationship between headquarters is distant, localsubsidiaries may focus on HRD for their purposes rather than the good of theorganisation as a whole (Bjorkman et al., 2004). A particular gap concerns the influenceof culture on the relationship between headquarters and subsidiary. Collings andMellahi (2009) for example, found that regions such as China, Japan and South Koreawhere there is a strong power distance, there is less likely to be upward communicationto headquarters.
Third, we have scope to understand HRD roles in MNCs. This represents asignificantly under researched area. HRD professionals will take on a variety of roles inareas such as: ensuring an effective balance of centralised and decentralised HRDstrategies, the development of HRD programmes for international assignments, thedevelopment of headquarter and subsidiary teams and the development of globalcompetencies (Harveya et al., 2009; Beechler and Woodward, 2009). There aresignificant gaps in our knowledge concerning how local HRD practitioners customiseHRD to satisfy local conditions, how local strategies feed into the development ofglobal competencies and the structural arrangements that most effectively facilitatethe delivery of HRD in MNCs.
Future research: the comparative trajectoryOur review of the comparative HRD trajectory highlighted the emergence of studies ofa comparative nature and in particular, the study of HRD national policies in differentcountries. Future research on this trajectory can grow in two primary ways. First, theissues of convergence-divergence, while not unique to this trajectory, have particularscope for investigation in the context of comparative HRD at the level of nations andfirms. There is scope to study the extent to which convergence leads to similar HRD
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strategies, policies and practices. At an organisational level there is also scope tounderstand how organisations adopt similar HRD strategies regardless of the influenceof cultural and institutional differences. Studies on national HRD should continue toexpand their research scope to more fully understand how national institutionalcontexts shape HRD practices and outcomes (Wang and McLean, 2007).
Second, we suggest methodological advances in the comparative HRD trajectory.Future research needs to carefully consider the match between the context in whichstudies are conducted and the variables included in these studies. Wang and Wang(2006) have argued that effective comparative HRD research starts with theidentification of comparative units and associated dimensions so that studyboundaries are clearly established. These comparative units may consist of nation,region, community, multinational organisation, division and function. The dimensionsalong which comparisons can be made include but are not limited to cultural context,institutional framework, HRD strategies, policies and programmes, HRD processes andoutcomes. This is by no means an exhaustive list; however, clarification of thecomparative units is fundamental to understanding the impact of HRD withincountries and across countries. It is also important that future research seeks to utiliselongitudinal designs and a multiplicity of data sources.
Future research: the cross-cultural HRD trajectoryA variety of studies have to date highlighted that national cultural differences havesalience in explaining HRD practices, in particular socio-cultural contexts. The focus todate has emphasised the study of societal culture, and in particular the constructsproposed by Hofstede. Future research can build on this research tradition, and morefully investigate the strength of the relationship between societal culture and HRDpractices. There is a considerable amount of research on cross-cultural training,however as McLean (2006) argues, cross-cultural training programmes are lessfrequently studied from an acculturation perspective. There are gaps in our knowledgeconcerning how individualism and collectivism influences the values that individualsattach to HRD and to their participation in training and development. An interestingquestion concerns the extent to which HRD practices are more culturally bound thanHRM practices such as hiring, reward management and retention practices.
Further research can build on existing cross cultural research findings to explorewhether the societal culture context will result in different HRD outcomes. Weacknowledge that to undertake this type of research will pose significantmethodological challenges. It will require sophisticated date collection processes toenable the isolation of the cultural impact. Further studies of this nature will addvaluable insights to the cross-cultural HRD literature.
Our review of over 20 years of research that followed initial conceptualisation ofHRD has produced several valuable insights including: steps to clarify the boundariesof international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD, the extent to which it is possibleto formulate a global HRD construct, categorising existing research with aninternational focus into three trajectories and identifying new avenues for futureresearch. Of primary importance we highlighted the need for global HRD research toadapt novel research designs that account for context and enhance our understandingof global HRD. We seek to expand the scope of the Global HRD research incorporatinga global perspective on HRD requires research that builds on and extends the three
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trajectories discussed in this article. In Table IV we specify the research questions thatemerge from incorporating a global HRD construct in addition to extending theInternational, comparative and cross-cultural trajectories. These proposed researchquestions can motivate new research and in the long term extend theory on globalHRD.
The papers in this special issueIn this special issue we are pleased to present a collection of ten empirical papers thatillustrate the diversity of international, comparative and cross-cultural HRD. They alsohighlight new directions for theoretical development and push the boundaries ofexisting HRD research to incorporate a global HRD construct. The papers in thisspecial issue examine HRD issues utilising samples from variety of countries, somecompare different national and cultural contexts and utilise a variety of methodologicalillustrating both universalistic and contextual research paradigms. We must howevermake a particular observation. We received no papers for this special issue that couldbe positioned solely within the international HRD research trajectory. Therefore themajority of the papers presented here focus on comparative HRD and cross-culturalHRD.
The first comparative HRD paper is by Khalil Dirani entitled “Professional trainingas a strategy for staff development: a study in training transfer in the Lebanesecontext”. This paper addresses trainees’ perceptions about the effects of a “Western”professional training program on their skill development and how cultural factorsspecific to Lebanon influence the learning. The findings suggests that, whileprofessional training programs may lead to increased motivation of trainees in terms ofwork commitment, and enhanced skills relevant to individual career development andlife-long learning, this type of training fails to tackle problems specific toorganizational or cultural needs
Eduardo Tome’s paper “European social fund in portugal: a complex question forhuman resource development” examines the funds awarded to Portugal under theEuropean Social Fund (ESF) from a HRD perspective. Examining the impact thisfunding has had on skill supply, training demand and supply, and the role of the state,the paper suggests that while investment was significant in monetary terms, the lackof focus on services and knowledge-based training has left the country with significantskill shortages.
Roziah Modh Rasdi, Thomas Garavan and Maimunah Ismail’s paper “Networkingand managers career success in the malaysian public sector: the moderating effect ofmanagerial level” examines the relationship between networking behaviours andcareer success in the context of a public sector organisation in Malaysia, and how thisrelationship is moderated by managerial level. The paper highlights the advantagesthat senior managers have in respect of networking opportunities and the importanceof particular types of networking objective and subjective career success. From acomparative perspective, findings extend our knowledge of the value of networkingand demonstrate that relationships found in Western organisations also hold up inAsian organisations and cultures and in public as well as private sector organisations.
A fourth comparative HRD paper by Alexandre Ardichvili, Elena Zavyalova andVera Minina is entitled “Human capital development: comparative analysis of BRICs”.They conduct a macro-level analysis of human capital) development strategies,
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Issue Research question
Issue 1A conceptualisation ofglobal HRD Definitional issues
What is the scope of Global HRD?Who are the intended beneficiaries and purposes of Global HRD?What paradigm is appropriate to study global HRD?Contextual issuesWhat organisational characteristics facilitate or hinder global HRD?To what extent do regional issues shape global HRD?To what extent does labour mobility impact global HRD?How do global HRD strategies address issues of ethnocentrism?How do HRD practitioners balance global formalisation or standardisationwith local flexibility or customisation?How do global organisations balance centralised and decentralisedstrategies?Understanding global HRD outcomesHow do global HRD interventions affect individual and organisationaloutcomes?What are effects of combinations of global HRD outcomes?What are the HRD Roles required for success in global HRD?How do global organisations utilise HRD interventions to develop globalcompetencies?
Issue 2International HRDtrajectory Theoretical, conceptual and methodological issues in international HRD
How is international HRD defined?Is it possible to agree a definition of International HRD?What methodological issues emerge in studying IHRD?The contribution of IHRDHow do MNCs develop their workforces in order to secure competitiveadvantage?How can HRD be of value in helping the expatriation process andinternational assignments?What factors explain the diffusion of HRD practices throughout thesubsidiaries of the MNC?What are the IHRD issues that emerge in the context of international jointventures, mergers and acquisitions?How do IHRD practices change to adapt to labour market requirements andchanges in MNCs competitive strategy, and changes in the localenvironment?How does IHRD contribute to societal objectives?Selecting international HRD strategiesWhat factors shape how MNCs develop their leadership populations?How can IHRD contribute to the development of global competencies?What role does IHRD have in global team building processes?Structuring HRD in MNCsWhere should IHRD activities be located within the MNC?What type of structural arrangement is best suited to IHRD in the MNC?What HRD roles should be performed in the MNC to ensure alignment?What types of barriers are experienced between headquarters andsubsidiaries in implementing IHRD?What discretion do subsidiaries have in terms of the implementation ofHRD practices?How do MNCs balance centralised and decentralised HRD strategies?
(continued )
Table IV.Agenda for future
research on global HRD
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Issue Research question
Issue 3Comparative HRDtrajectory National HRD
What are the key determinants of national HRD policies and practices?What is the differential influence of national culture and nationalinstitutions in the context of national HRD?Comparative HRDWhat can be learned from comparing different national systems of HRD?What regional level influences are relevant in the context of HRD?What gaps exist between policy and practice in different national contextsand what factors explain these gaps?Methodological issues in national and comparative HRDWhat level of analyses is appropriate for the conduct of cross-nationalcomparisons?How do researchers ensure equivalence in terms of function, concept,categories, variable, uniformity of data collection methods and time framesin comparative research?How do we test for convergence and divergence in national HRD systems?
Issue 4Cross-cultural HRDtrajectory The influence of societal culture on HRD
How do societal culture values explain the importance that is attached toHRD, the content of training practices and the types of training methodsthat are utilised?What impact does societal culture have on individual learning styles? DoHRD specialists need to approach the design and delivery of trainingdifferently to account for cultural differences?How does societal culture influence the way in which individuals assessHRD outcomes? It is possible that some cultures have short versus long-term orientations in assessing the value of HRDIs HRD more culture bound than other HRM practices? Given that manydevelopment practices focus in interpersonal, relationships it is likely thatthey will be more embedded in the local cultureHow does culture influence the way HRD is conducted given that manydevelopment processes are relational-based, the extent and type of feedbackmay be influenced by the nature of the culture? In this context, areindividualist cultures more amenable to direct feedback; than arecollectivist cultures, which are more focused on indirect and informalfeedback processes?It is possible that individualist cultures will show a preference fordiscussing potential and performance issues whereas in collectivistcultures, these issues are less likely to be considered in the context ofdevelopmental discussionsCross cultural training interventionsHow effective are cross cultural training interventions?What particular concepts of culture should underpin cross-cultural traininginterventions?What are the most effective ways of developing HRD researchers andpractitioners to be culturally aware?Methodological issues in cross-cultural HRDHow appropriate are the Hofstede frameworks to the study of HRD in asocietal context?How do we isolate the specific influence of national culture on HRD?Is there value in the use of qualitative to capture the societal culturalcontext more effectively?Table IV.
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pursued by four countries commonly referred to as BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India, andChina). The findings suggest that, in terms of present human capital capacity, Russiaand Brazil are ahead of China and India. However, during the last decade thegovernments of the latter two countries have initiated national programs of humancapital development, which include significant investment and targeted governmentregulation in such areas as primary and secondary education, vocational education andtraining, and higher education, especially in science and technology fields.
Robert G. Hamlin and Taran Patel also adopt a comparative approach in their paper“Behavioural indicators of perceived managerial and leadership effectiveness withinRomanian and British public sector hospitals” in their study perceived managerial andleadership effectiveness within a Romanian public sector hospital, and discusses theextent to which they are similar and different to findings from equivalent studiescarried out in two British hospitals. The comparative analysis revealed high degrees ofcommonality and relative generalization between the Romanian and British findings,suggesting that the results have potential to inform and shape HRD initiativesdesigned to train and develop effective managers and leaders within the health servicessector of Romania and the United Kingdom.
Francoise Le Deist and Vidmantas TUtlys compare structural and systemicinfluences in the development of competence models and qualifications systems atsectoral and national levels across Europe in their paper “Limits to mobility:competence and qualifications in Europe”. The paper suggests that differentsocio-economic models of skills formation operating through the processesqualification frameworks increase the variety of competences and qualifications interms of their contents, functions and applications, creating challenges forinter-country comparability. The study offers recommendations for improving thepotential of the European Qualifications Framework to promote comparability ofqualifications and also mobility of labour.
Sandra Idrovo Carlier, Consuelo Leon Llorente and Marc Grau Grau present thefinal paper in the comparative trajectory “Comparing work-life balance in Spanish andLatin-American companies”. This paper presents a comparison between Spain and fiveLatin American countries (Brazil, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador and Peru) in terms oforganizational approaches to work-life balance. Gathering 2,155 responses from the sixcountries, the findings indicate that Latin American organisations are more supportiveof work-life balance initiatives than Spanish organisations, but with lesser formalpolicies implemented and a stronger presence of enablers and practices. This is the firstattempts to present a comparison between Spanish organisations and organisationsfrom the five Latin American countries regarding work-life policies, enablers, practicesand culture.
The first cross-cultural paper by Olga Verkhohlyad and Gary N. McLean is entitled“Applying organizational commitment and human capital theories to emigrationresearch”. The paper examines the issue of emigration by looking at the relationshipbetween emigration and psychic return of citizens to their human capital investment inthe country and suggests that psychic return to human capital investment in thecountry has a significant relationship with emigration level from the country. Thefindings indicate that emigration from a country cannot be reduced unless citizenshave the ability to lead an economically comfortable life and have access to education.Countries that experience significant emigration should turn their attention to
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developing and implementing sound economic and educational reforms in order toreduce emigration.
Satish Pandey examines the use of movies as a learning tool in the managementclassroom in context of a course on cross-cultural management issues in his paper“Using popular movies in teaching cross-cultural management”. The findings of thisstudy reveal that students found specific movies very relevant and effective in learningcross-cultural theories, issues and developing cross-cultural competence. It suggeststhat this approach could be useful as learning tool for developing multiculturalperspectives and cross-cultural competence for expatriate managers and immigrantworkers or even managers who travel a lot to different countries.
The final paper by Danielle Dimitrov, is entitled “Sources of meaningfulness in theworkplace: a study in the US hospitality sector”. It explores sources of meaningfulnessat the workplace, based on perceptions of hospitality employees from different nationalcultures in one US-based hotel. The findings suggest that the most meaningful sourcesof work were work itself and pride in the product; the social environment; the self andspirituality at work; and becoming a humane organization.
Note
1. In selecting the papers to include in Tables I–III, we adopted a systematic approachconsisting of two stages. We focused initially on six HRD journals (HRDQ, HRDR, HRDI,ADHR, JEIT and IJTD) and conducted an analysis of these journals for papers that reportedinternational, comparative and cross cultural research. We also searched a number of otherjournals such as IJHRM, JWB and ISMO. We then analysed the various papers for citations.This helped us to narrow down our choices for inclusion in the analysis. We acknowledgethat the list of articles cited under each trajectory is not exhaustive but can best be describedas indicative. We also acknowledge that in some cases it proved difficult to make a decisionconcerning which trajectory the paper should be located within. We based our decision onour interpretation of the primary focus of the paper.
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About the authorsThomas N. Garavan is a Professor at the Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick wherehe specialises in both the research and teaching of human resource development, leadershipdevelopment and vocational training and education. A graduate of the University of Limerick(BBS, 1982; MBS, 1985) and the University of Bristol (Doctor of Education, 1996), he has authoredor co-authored 14 books and over 100 refereed journal papers and book chapters. Thomas iscurrently Editor-in-Chief of European Journal of Training and Development and Associate Editorof Human Resource Development International. He is a member of the editorial board of HumanResource Development Review, Advances in Developing Human Resources, and Human ResourceDevelopment Quarterly. Thomas N. Garavan is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:[email protected]
Dr Ronan Carbery lectures in human resource development and human resourcemanagement at the University of Limerick. He is a Chartered Member of CIPD Ireland(MCIPD) and is also a member of University Forum for Human Resource Development (UFHRD)and the Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD). Ronan is Associate Editor of theEuropean Journal of Training and Development. His research interests include careers, careerdevelopment, workplace learning, and participation in training and development.
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