Drug and Alcohol Review (i99o) 9, 7-13

A diary approach to analysing young adults' drinking e v e n t s and motivations

JEFFREY WILKS & VICTOR J. CALLAN

School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University College of Central Queensland, Rockhampton, and Graduate School of Management, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia

Abstract

Completing a diary over two weeks, "2oI young adults recorded each of their drinking events, and information about the context and their motivations for alcohol use. Males reported almost twice as many drinking events and three times the number of drinks over the two-week period. At the same times males and females mostly drank from Wednesdays to Sundays, with the majority of beer, wine and spirit consumption being between 4 p.m. and midnight. Most drinking occurred in mixed-sex peer groups, and the next greatest in family gatherings. Males mostly drank beer, while females chose either wine or spirits. Most drinking was in bars or at home. Males tended to drink for a wider range of reasons. The advantages of using prospective diaries in studies of young adults' alcohol use are discussed.

Introduction

Surveys of young adults' alcohol consumption have often gathered information on the social contexts in which drinking occurs. These contexts have included physical settings, companions, time of drinking, beverage pre- ferences, motivations and mood [z-zz]. The findings re- ported are complex, with many interactions occurring between measured variables [io]. Among the main find- ings are that both males and females report drinking frequendy in group settings as part of social activities [2, 4, 5, 7, 8, xx]. Indeed, sociability or being part of the group is given as the main reason for drinking. Weekends are the time most drinking takes place, though drinking also occurs during the week [i, 3, xx]. The most common venues include bars and nightclubs, a friend's home or apartment, and own home [4, 5, 7, 8, 9]. The parental home, and restaurants, are usually cited as venues where students drink less often. Frequency ofdrinkingincollege dormitories varies across studies according to the alcohol policies enforced on different campuses [4-6, 8, 9]. Stu- dents drink mostly at night, in groups or pairs, and only a small percentage report drinking alone [4, 5, 8, 9].

Sex differences are consistently reported, not so much

in the overall prevalence of drinking but in the quan- tity and frequency of use. Males usually drink more frequently, and consume larger amounts of alcohol, than do females Ix, 7, 8, ix]. Sex differences are also apparent in beverage preference, with males choosing beer and spirits, while females show a preference for wine and spirits [ix].

Between the teenage years and young adulthood, drink- ing tends to change from private 'at home' to public settings, and drinking companions from family to peers [3, 5, ix]. Young adults report a greater range of drinking locations than do older adults [3]. For researchers and policy-makers concerned with reducing alcohol-related problems, it is clearly important to examine the social contexts in which this drinking takes place.

The overwhelming majority of studies on young adults' drinking contexts involve surveys, and in a few cases observational studies [t2, z3], with the diary approach rarely considered as another source of confir- matory data. As a method of recording alcohol intake, diaries have been found to have 9o% reliability [I4]. However, as Room & Roizen It5] note, most diary

Jeffrey Wilks, PhD, Lecturer, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University College of Central Queensland, Rockhampton, Queensland 4702, Australia. Victor J. Gift]an, PhD, Professor~ Graduate School of Management, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland ¢o67, Australia. Correspondence and requests for reprints to Dr Wilks.

8 Jeffrey I¢1ilks • Victor Callan

studies of drinking have been limited, usually measuring the amounts of alcohol, but not the context of drinking. One exception is the early study by Williams & Straus Ix61. They obtained detailed records of drinking on a daily basis for io subjects over a r2-month period. While not representative of drinkers, these five men and five women provided a rich data set for understanding the typical drinking patterns of second generation Italians in the United States, and especially, the impact of acculturation on alcohol use.

In a larger study, Fuller and his colleagues [17] had I55 adults complete diaries on three days during the month, for 6-iz months. These researchers supported the use of the diary method if the subject group were of a reasonable size and respondents were both motivated and literate. The diary was perceived to have several advantages over other methodologies. Among these were accuracy, because respondents record their behav- iour immediately, rather than estimate it from memory, and greater detail, as data is obtained on the time, place and variability of drinking.

As an alternative to survey approaches in determining young adults' drinking contexts and motivations for consuming alcohol, the present study involved university students keeping a diary of their drinking. The diary was seen as a useful device for tapping into aspects of the environment within which drinking occurs. The need to understand these environments or behaviour settings is seen increasingly as significant to the development of policy and programmes promoting 'low risk' alcohol consumption [H, t9].

Methods

Subjects

Two hundred and thirty-two students (u4 male, n8 female) enrolled in introductory psychology courses at the University of Queensland signed up to participate in the study and were requested to record details of their drinking over a two-week period. All undergraduates in the department are required to choose from a range of studies offered by researchers each semester. Course credit is given for their participation. In this case, the research formed part of the first author's doctoral programme and was unrelated to teaching.

On average, female subjects were i8.o years of age (SDmL4, range x7-24); males averaged i9.i years (SD=u.I, range i7-25). Most respondents (78%) had been living at home in the six months prior to the study and 57 % were still living with parents. Only four students were married. Selected comparisons with the larger population of students at the university revealed that this sample was representative of young undergra- duates in terms of age, sex, marital status, religious affiliation and living arrangements [i9J.

Students completed the Khavari Alcohol Test [201 and from this measure a profile of alcohol use was developed for the sample: see [211 . Comparisons with other studies of alcohol use by teritary students [22, 231 revealed strong similarities, and further suggested that most undergraduates are light to moderate drinkers. In addition, background information on the drinking habits of family members for students in this study revealed that most fathers (87%) and mothers (80%) drank alcohol at least occasionally. These results are similar to previous findings with other samples of tertiary students [191.

Instrument and procedures

To examine the situational contexts in which young adults use alcohol, a prospective drinking diary was developed. The format of the diary was adapted from a training manual for alcohol educators [24]. Our diary sought information about any drinking event under the headings: when (time of day), where (location), with whom (companions), why (reason for drinking), what type (specific beverage), how much (quantity), and whether food was consumed with the drink. Each drinking event, defined as any occasion that involved consumption of beverage alcohol [i8], was recorded as it occurred. In small groups, students worked through the coding of a number of examples of drinking events to facilitate effective use of the diaries. Students were asked to carry their diary with them at all times.

There was an 87% response rate in the successful completion of diaries. That is, 2ox of the 232 students returned usable diaries. This response rate compares well with returns from other studies (e.g. 79 % ) using the less difficult retrospective diary method [25]. Those students failing to return their diaries (22 males, 9 females) were mostly non-drinkers (5 males, 2 females) or light drinkers (x 3 males, 7 females). The remaining four males included one moderate drinker, one moder- ate to heavy, one heavy and one very heavy drinker. It was felt that those failing to return their diaries did not constitute a special type of drinking group that would systematically affect the findings of the study.

Results

Males reported 732 drinking events during the two- week period, an average of 9.2 events per male. Females had a significantly lower number of events (N=42o), with an average of 5.3 drinking events each. In their diaries, males recorded a total of 2862 individual drinks consumed: an average of 35.8 drinks for each male over the two weeks. Females recorded significantly lower rates, with 967 individual drinks, at an average of I2.t drinks each. The range of male drinking during the

Young adults" drinking events a n d motivations

Table x. Distribution of beverage-specific drinking contexts: days and time (%)a

Total Drinking context Beer Wine Spirits 'Other' events

Days

Men

Monday 6 io 6 8 7 Tuesday 6 7 io 13 8 Wednesday i2 13 9 6 II Thursday 13 12 15 13 13 Friday 27 22 3 ° 13 26 Saturday 22 zo 21 35 23 Sunday 13 x6 io 13 13

Total events 52 17 23 8 ioo

Women

Monday ii 4 4 2 5 Tuesday 9 5 6 6 6 Wednesday xi xi 6 9 9 Thursday 4 I4 ~9 16 i 5 Friday i8 21 32 26 25 Saturday 3 x 25 23 32 26 Sunday 16 20 Io IO I4

Total events r3 35 32 20 ~oo

Time

Men Midnight-4 p.m. 35 i8 26 24 29 4 p.m.-8 p.m. 34 5 ° 29 27 35 8 p.m.-midnight 32 32 45 49 36

if'omen Midnight-4 p.m. 24 x 3 26 24 2i 4 p.m.-8 p.m. 44 54 25 39 4 I 8 p.m.-midnight 33 33 49 37 39

a Column totals may not add to Ioo% due to rounding.

period was I-i22 drinks; the female drinking range was 1-66 drinks. Following Harford [xS], drinking events were examined according to the type of beverage consumed (i.e. beer, wine, spirits and 'other ' beverages). The 'other ' category here included port, sherry, liqueurs and cocktails. Table i presents a profile of beverage- specific drinking contexts. Beer was the preferred beverage for males, while wine and spirits were more popular for females. Drinking occurred most frequently on Fridays, followed by Saturdays and, less frequently, on Sundays and Thursdays. For beer and wine, Friday-Saturday-Sunday drinking was common in both sexes. Spirits, however, again for both sexes, showed a Thursday-Friday-Saturday pattern, and were consumed less frequently on Sundays. Higher spirit drinking on Thursday was likely to follow Thursday

night shopping. Females drank liqueurs and cocktails most often on Friday and Saturday, while males' use of other drinks occurred more frequently on Saturday only.

For males, beer consumption was evenly spread across the three time periods. Most wine consumption oc- curred in the early evening, while spirits and fortified wines were more likely to be consumed after 8 p.m. For women, beer and wine consumption were more likely between 4 and 8 p.m., while spirits were drunk later at night. Fortified wines and liqueurs were drunk about equally between 4 p.m. and midnight. Males reported that more than half o f their drinking events involved beer, with wine and spirits each drunk on about one- fifth of occasions. Two-thirds of female drinking involved wine or spirits, about equally.

IO Jeffrey l¢Xi/ks ~ Victor Callan

Table 2. Distribution of beverage-specific drinking contexts: location and presence/absence of food (%)a

Total Drinking context Beer Wine Spirits 'Other' events

Location

Men Home 28 5 8 2I 44 33 Bars 36 6 39 xo 29 Discos, balls 6 5 I3 6 7 College 7 8 5 H 7 Private party 6 5 5 ix 6 Restaurant 3 xo 5 8 5 Sundry 14 9 I2 IO I2

Total events 52 x 7 23 8 xoo

Women Home 49 57 I9 4 ° 4 ° Bars 26 8 47 21 26 Discos, balls 4 3 x3 4 6 College 2 io 6 ix 8 Private party 6 6 6 o 5 R e s t a u r a n t 2 I o 2 I I 6

Sundry x 3 8 7 I3 9

Total events x3 35 3 z 20 zoo

Presence/absence of food

Men With food 40 66 41 52 46

IYomen With food 33 7 ° 29 43 46

a Column totals may not add to ioo% due to rounding.

Table 2 presents the location of drinking events. Males reported most beer and spirit drinking in bars and at home, while wine was drunk at home, very often with meals. On the other hand, beer and spirits were more likely to be drunk without food. Port, sherry and liqueurs were more similar to wine in that they were mostly consumed at home with meals. Females drank beer, wine and 'other ' beverages most often at home, wine with food but beer and 'other ' beverages without. Spirits were mostly drunk at bars, and without food.

Table 3 presents information on reasons for drinking, and drinking companions. All beverage types were most often consumed by males and females in mixed-sex peer-group settings, especially the consumption of spirits. Males also drank beer with other young males, and their family; wine was consumed with family and female friends. Females also drank beer and wine with parents and family.

Reasons for drinking varied according to the choice of beverage and the sex of the drinker (Table 3). As can be seen, males attributed beer consumption to sociabil- ity, celebration, relaxation and the quenching of thirst, and less so to the complementing of a meal. They drank

wine, however, mostly to add to the enjoyment of a meal, and to be sociable. Both celebration and sociabil- ity were reported as reasons for drinking spirits, port and liqueurs. With females, sociability was the dominant reason for drinking all beverage types. On the whole, females attributed their drinking to a smaller number of motives.

Discussion

As in the case of the findings of surveys in Australia [n ] and the United States [3, 9], this diary study shows that alcohol use by young adults is closely associated with the social activities they share with their family and friends. Drinking occurs predominately with friends in mixed- sex peer groups, but also with parents and family. The main reasons given for drinking are the same as those reported in surveys [5, 7, 8, ix]: to be sociable, to celebrate and to relax. Young adults show a pattern of alcohol consumption that can be considered the norm in Australia. As predicted, most drinking occurred at weekends. A majority of drinking events were reported on Friday nights and Saturdays, with some drinking on

Young adults' drinking events and motivations

Table 3. Distribution of beverage-~pedflc drinking contexts: companions and reasons for drinking (%)a

Total Drinking context Beer Wine Spirits 'Other' events

Gompanions

Men Mixed-sex peer group 59 42 65 65 58 Parents and family ii 25 9 r4 13 Same-sex group r6 3 ii 2 12 Opposite-sex pair 4 22 5 IO 8 Same-sex pair 7 3 7 6 6 Alone 2 4 4 3 3

Total events 52 17 23 8 Ioo

IFomen Mixed-sex peer group 49 46 71 6r 58 Parents and family 24 33 8 1i 20 Same-sex group t 5 io io 9 1o Opposite-sex pair Ix 2 7 12 7 Same-sex pair 2 3 3 4 3 Alone o 5 2 4 3

Total events I3 35 32 20 ioo

Reason for drinking

Men Sociability 31 2i 34 27 3 ° Celebration i8 ix 2i 33 I9 Relaxation i6 12 I 3 io I4 Complement a meal " 8 32 6 ii I2 Thirst xx 2 4 o 7 General enjoyment 5 x 4 5 4 Sundry ii 2i 19 14 15

Total events 52 17 23 8 ioo

Women Sociability 44 28 53 38 40 Celebration 7 13 14 23 I5 Relaxation 7 13 8 6 9 Complement a meal o iz 3 6 6 Thirst ¢ 4 3 2 3 General enjoyment xI x 5 7 5 Sundry 27 29 14 17 22

Total events 13 35 32 20 ioo

a Column totals may not add m xoo% due to rounding.

Thursday nights and Sundays. For both sexes, two- thirds or more of their beer, wine or spirit consumption was reported as occurring between 4 p.m. and midnight.

Again reflecting the results from Australian surveys [1i, 22, 23, 26], males reported a preference for drinking beer and spirits. Females drank wine and spirits, but also showed a greater preference for liqueurs and cocktails. With wine and spirits, however, drinking patterns reveal more motivational and context-specific expectations. For example, wine was drunk by the majority of males and females at meals, but beer and spirits were not. Wine is drunk with family, but spirits are not, being

predominately seen as a drink to have with mixed-sex peer groups of friends at bars and college-associated events. In addition, while drinking patterns reveal a diminution of drinking of all beverages early in the week (i.e. Monday and Tuesday), an additional sanction is implied to the drinking of spirits on Sundays. As drinking times reveal, spirits are consumed much later at night, and the need for a clear head on Monday mornings possibly encourages the greater use of beer or wine on a Sunday night. As learning theorists would argue, drinking behaviour is learned, and learning defines what is appropriate in given contexts.

i2 feffrey I¢~ilks ~ Victor Callan

While the prevalence of drinking is becoming more similar between the sexes, young males and females continue to differ in their rates of alcohol consumption, and in terms of the social determinants of their drinking. Recent evidence suggests that young men drink because of social expectations and normative beliefs about alcohol use, while young women's use of alcohol is determined more by their personal prefe- rences [27, 28]. Our diary study reveals continued sex differences, with males having almost twice as many drinking events, and drinking about three times the number of drinks. At the same time, males show generally similar expectations to females about where they should drink, with whom and why they drink.

This study adds to a relatively small literature in which diaries have been used to describe drinking patterns, and contexts and motivations for alcohol use. Our findings highlight the importance of examining sex differences in the drinking levels of young adults, especially in terms of the greater number of drinking events actually experienced by males. At the same time, both sexes report generally similar motivations for drinking, and similar sets o f companions.

Diaries are a useful methodology for examining the social contexts o f young adults' drinking and for validating findings most often identified through sur- veys. However, a note of caution must be added. Diaries generate complex data sets that are sometimes difficult to interpret, and their validity is dependent on having highly motivated and co-operative subjects. Given these constraints, researchers are advised to consider the advantages of a survey or interview methodology which, as the present study has shown, will probably produce the same answers for much less effort. In a following report the reliability of the diaries will be assessed against alcohol consumption measured by the Khavari Alcohol Test [2o]. Differences in drinking events, motivations and companions for young adults classified as light, moderate or heavy drinkers will also be examined.

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