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Towardshappiness: experiencesofwork-rolefiT, meaningfulnessandworkengagemenTofindusTrial/organisaTionalpsychologisTs

insouThafrica

Authors:Llewellyn E. van Zyl1

Elmari Deacon1

Sebastiaan Rothmann1

Afliations:1School of BehaviouralSciences, North-WestUniversity, Vanderbijlpark,South Africa

Correspondence to:Sebastiaan Rothmann

email:

[email protected]

Postal address:PO Box 11789, KleinWindhoek, Namibia

Keywords:engagement; happiness;industrial/organisationalpsychologists; meaning;work-role t

Dates:Received: 22 Jan. 2010Accepted: 25 June 2010Published: 04 Oct. 2010

How to cite this article:

Van Zyl, L.E., Deacon,E., & Rothmann, S.Towards happiness:Experiences of work-rolet, meaningfulness andwork engagement ofindustrial/organisationalpsychologists in SouthAfrica. SA Journal ofIndustrial Psychology/SATydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde,36(1), Art. #890, 10 pages.DOI: 10.4102/sajip.v36i1.890

This article is available

at:

http://www.sajip.co.za

2010. The Authors.Licensee: OpenJournals

Publishing. This workis licensed under theCreative CommonsAttribution License.

1

ABSTRACT

Orientation: The work of industrial/organisational (I/O) psychologists presents an interesting andrelevant context for studying meaning and engagement as components of happiness.

Research purpose:The aim of this study was to determine how I/O psychologists experience themeaning of their work and to investigate the relationships between their experiences of work-rolet, meaning of work, psychological meaningfulness and work engagement, utilising the happinessframework proposed by Seligman (2002).

Motivation for the study: I/O psychologists spend more than 88% of their working day withpeople, and they are primary role models for happiness in the workplace. Information about theirwork engagement and experiences of meaning is therefore needed.

Research design, approach and method:A survey design was used. A convenience sample (n=

106) was taken of I/O psychologists in South Africa. A biographical quest ionnaire, the Work-Role FitScale, the Work-Life Questionnaire, the Psychological Meaningfulness Scale, the Work EngagementScale and a survey measuring the actual and desired time spent on six broad categories of workwere administered.

Main ndings:Work-role t predicted psychological meaningfulness and work engagement. Thecalling orientation to work predicted both psychological meaningfulness and work engagement.Work-role t mediated the relationship between the meaning of work and psychologicalmeaningfulness. Work-role t partially mediated the relationship between a calling orientation towork and work engagement.

Practical implications: A calling orientation to work should be fostered in I/O psychologistsbecause it contributes to experiences of work-role t, psychological meaningfulness and workengagement.

Contribution/value-add:The results of this study contribute to scientic knowledge about work-role t, engagement and meaning as components of happiness of I/O psychologists.

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INTRODUCTION

Happiness is an elusive concept yet a buzz-word in modern society (Seligman, 2002). The concept hasbeen the subject of much scrutiny and debate in recent years (Peterson, Park, Hall & Seligman, 2009;Seligman, 2002; Sirgy & Wu, 2009). Happiness refers to the experience of a sense of joy, satisfactionand positive well-being, combined with a sense that ones life is good, meaningful and worthwhile(Seligman, 2002). It is estimated that more than half the worlds population is unhappy. Theseindividuals lack enthusiasm and are not actively and productively engaged with the world (Ryan &Deci, 2001; Seligman, 2002, 2008). Research shows that the presence of happiness manifests in variouspositive results, including superior attention span, longevity, recovery from illnesses and protectionagainst the onset of physical diseases and pathology (Seligman, 2008). While happiness is an importantconcept both for individuals and organisations, scientic information is needed about happiness and

the components thereof within the South African context.

Peterson, Park and Seligman (2005) propose an integrated model for happiness owing from the hedonicand eudaimonic approaches. The hedonic approach focuses on pleasures of the mind a nd the body andon the avoidance of pain. Eudaimonia is concerned with a deeper level of perceived happiness (Ryan& Deci, 2001). Peterson et al. (2005) suggest three routes to happiness, namely pleasure (the pleasantlife), meaningfulness (the meaningful life) and engagement (the good life). Peterson et al. (2005) foundthat these routes to happiness are discernible and compatible and could be pursued simultaneously.However, engagement and meaning as routes to happiness seem more under deliberate control ofindividuals than pleasure (Seligman, Parks & Steen, 2004). According to Seligman (2002), interventionsthat target only the pleasure of individuals (to promote happiness) will be short lived and ineffectivebecause individuals have a genetic set point for the experience of pleasure.

Individuals spend more than a third of their lives engaged in work-related activities (Wrzesniewski,McCauley, Rozin & Schwartz, 1997). Since work is central to their existence, individuals tend to buildtheir identities around their work (Meyers, 2007). Work is an important context to engage individualsin goal-directed activities and to provide meaning (Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003). Work-role t,meaning of work, psychological meaningfulness and work engagement have recently become importantresearch topics (Dik & Duffy, 2008; May, Gilson & Harter, 2004; Olivier & Rothmann, 2007; Schaufeli &Bakker, 2004; Wrzesniewski & Tosti, 2005).

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The perceived t between individuals self-concepts and theirroles within the organisation (work-role t) results in theexperience of meaningfulness and engagement (May et al., 2004;Olivier & Rothmann, 2007). Work roles and activities that arealigned with individuals self-concepts should be associatedwith more meaningful work experiences (May et al., 2004;Seligman, 2002). Participating in activities that are congruent

with an individuals values (Waterman, 1993) and/or signaturestrengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) contributes to theexperience of psychological meaningfulness and engagementin work (May et al., 2004).

Meaningfulness manifests in, (1) the meaning of work (Bellah,Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler & Tipton, 1985; Wrzesniewski et al.,1997) and (2) psychological meaningfulness (May et al., 2004).Bellah et al. (1985) dene the meaning of work as the level ofgeneral signicance that the subjective experience of workinghas in the life of individuals at a given time stamp. Bellah etal. (1985) cluster this subjective experience into three broadcategories, namely work as ajob, work as a careerand work as acalling. Psychological meaningfulness is dened as the the valueof a work goal or purpose, judged in relation to an individualsown ideals or standards (May et al., 2004, p. 14). In South Africa,studies pertaining to work-role t and meaningfulness, in bothits facets, namely, (1) the meaning of work (Carvalho, 2005) and(2) psychological meaningfulness (Olivier & Rothmann, 2007),are limited. The meaning attached to work as well as experiencesof psychological meaningfulness lead to positive work-relatedoutcomes (see Pratt & Ashforth, 2003; Wrzesniewski & Dutton,2001) and specically engagement (May et al., 2004; Olivier &Rothmann, 2007).

Work engagement is an important ideal within the currenteconomic situation in South Africa. May et al. (2004) dene workengagement as an extension of individuals selves to a workrole whereby they employ and express themselves physically,cognitively and emotionally during role performance. In aSouth African context, no studies have been found relating

to industrial/organisational (I/O) psychologists level ofengagement.

The work of I/O psychologists presents an interesting contextfor studying work-role t, meaningfulness and engagement.There are three reasons for this. Firstly, I/O psychologists aretrapped between their roles as traditional human resource(HR) practitioners and psychologists (Barnard & Fourie,2007; Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter, 2008). I/O psychologistsmight spend less time on desired activities (e.g. counselling,mentoring and coaching), consequently increasing the gapbetween their work role and their self-concept. This couldresult in disengagement (May et al., 2004; Olivier & Rothmann,2007). Secondly, Bellah et al. (1985) argue that the effect of themeaning of work is clearly visible in social occupations. Theseoccupations refer to careers in which individuals are constantly

interacting with various social systems within an organisation(Bellah et al., 1985). Thirdly, Cameron et al. (2003) argue thatI/O psychologists are the primary role models for change,happiness and hope within the organisation. I/O psychologistsare perceived to be leaders within the organisation (Barnard& Fourie, 2007). If the I/O psychologist is not happy (i.e. notexperiencing psychological meaningfulness and engagement),it could spill over into the other employees (Meyers, 2007).

Very little information exists regarding the effects of meaningof work and work-role t on I/O psychologists experiences ofpsychological meaningfulness in their work and the effectsthereof on their engagement. Scientic information aboutthese issues can be of great value in the development of theI/O psychology profession and in the implementation ofprogrammes to address the happiness of I/O psychologists.As happiness facilitators and change agents, I/O psychologistsneed to show happiness (in terms of meaningfulness andengagement) in order to ensure that it spills over into the otheremployees.

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationshipsbetween work-role t, meaningfulness (meaning of work andpsychological meaningfulness) and work engagement as thepathway towards happiness of I/O psychologists in SouthAfrica.

Work-role t, meaning and work engagementWork-role t is dened as the perceived t between anindividual s self-concept and his or her role (May et al., 2004).Close proximity between an individuals self-concept and his orher work role induces psychological meaningfulness, since theperson is able to express his or her beliefs, values and principlesopenly (Kahn, 1990; May et al., 2004). Research suggeststhat individuals will seek out work roles that allow them toexpress their true selves (May et al., 2004; Olivier & Rothmann,2007). Authenticity is facilitated through the freedom toexpress creativity and uniqueness (LeBon, 2001). Individualsexperiencing high levels of work-role t perceive their jobs to becallings and are willing to go beyond occupational restraints toaccomplish tasks (Dik & Duffy, 2008). Experiencing low levelsof work-role t will lead to job recrafting in terms of whichindividuals reshape their work activities in order to derive

more meaning (Wrzesniewski, 2003). Wrzesniewski and Dutton(2001) suggest that these individuals transform cognitiveprocesses, work activities and/or relational boundaries in orderto form relationships and shape relationships with others atwork.

Job recraf ting is used in order to reshape the working world,to ensure a closer work-role t (Berg, Dutton & Wrzesniewski,2008). The closer the relationship between the self and the workrole, the more meaning and engagement are derived (Berg et al.,2008). The process of crafting ones job to close the gap betweenthe self and the work role is a continuous process (Berg et al.,2008; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Research has shown thatindividuals are continuously searching for meaningful workexperiences, which is facilitated through job recrafting (Berget al., 2008).

The origin of the concept of meaning can be traced backto the work of Victor Frankl (Bellah et al., 1985; Frankl, 1988;Wrzesniewski, Dutton & Debebe, 2003). Meaningfulnessconsists of, (1) the meaning of work (Wrzesniewski et al., 1997)and (2) psychological meaningfulness (Kahn, 1990; May et al.,2004; Spreitzer, 1995). Bellah et al. (1985) dene the meaning ofwork as the general level of importance an individual attachesto the subjective experience of work at a given time stamp. Thisgeneral level of importance of work in the life of an individualmanifests in three distinct dimensions: the individual viewswork either as a job, a career or a calling (Bellah et al., 1985;Wrzesniewski et al., 1997).

Individuals who view work as a job are ensnared by the allure ofthe material rewards they receive from work. These individuals

view work as a means to an end. Little satisfaction is derivedfrom work-related activities. However, the material rewardsgained are utilised to acquire resources needed to expressambitions outside of an occupational context (Parry, 2006;Wrzesniewski et al., 1997; Wrzesniewski et al., 2003).

As opposed to this, a person who views work as a careeris concerned with occupational advancement rather thanjust monetary rewards (Parry, 2006; Peterson et al., 2009;Wrzesniewski et al., 1997). Here meaning is derived from theincreased level of perceived power, inuence and higher socialstatus that advancement holds. Increased power and socialstatus manifest in increased self-esteem (Wrzesniewski et al.,1997). Satisfaction and engagement depend on continuousadvancement (Peterson et al., 2009). Frustration, disengagementand dissatisfaction occur when advancement slows (Lopper,

2007; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997). Research suggests thatindividuals who view work as a career are happier than thosewho view work as a job but less so than those who view work asa calling (Dik & Duffy, 2008; Peterson et al., 2009).

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Viewing work as a callingis an end in itself (Peterson et al., 2009;Wrzesniewski et al., 1997; Wrzesniewski et al., 2003). Viewingwork as a calling implies a feeling that one was placed on earthto engage in these specic work-related tasks (Parry, 2006).Those who view work as a calling engage in work as a resultof the fullment they derive from engaging in these activitiesas opposed to nancial gains (work as a job) and career

advancement (work as a career) (Wrzesniewski et al., 1997).These individuals perceive their work and not remuneration, tobe their purpose in life (Bellah et al., 1985).

Perceiving work as a calling has benets for the individual,the group and the organisation, including zest, life satisfactionand organisational commitment (Cameron et al., 2003;Peterson et al., 2009; Wrzesniewski et al., 2003). Individualswithin similar occupations, tenures and remuneration canview work differently. However, individuals within socialoccupations (e.g. counsellors, ministers, priests, social workersand psychologists) are more likely to experience their work asa calling rather than as a career or a job (Wrzesniewski et al.,1997).

The meaning of work is clearly visible in occupations in

which individuals are constantly interacting with varioussocial systems, since the need for socialisation, inuence andafliation largely contributes to the experience of meaning ofwork (Bellah et al., 1985). Registered I/O psychologists spend88%of their t ime interacting with various social systems withinan organisational context (Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter, 2008;Meyers, 2007). It is presumed that I/O psychologists wouldexperience their work as a calling, though there is no literatureavailable to reference how these individuals view the meaningof their work.

The presence of psychological meaningfulness refers to thesubjective sense that ones work is meaningful. Kahn (1990, p.703704) denes psychological meaningfulness as a feelingthat one is receiving a return on investments of ones selfin a currency of physical, cognitive, or emotional energy.

Psychological meaningfulness occurs when individuals feeluseful and valuable and that they are making a difference(Kahn, 1990). Given that psychological meaningfulness reectsa sense of purpose or personal connection to work (Spreitzer,1995), it is expected that individuals with a calling orientationto work will experience more meaning in their work than thosewith job or career orientations. Furthermore, employees whospend time on desired activities and who experience work-rolet will experience more psychological meaningfulness, whichwill contribute to higher levels of work engagement (May etal., 2004; Olivier & Rothmann, 2007). It should be noted thatalthough psychological meaningfulness is related to and hasbeen shown to predict work engagement, it is a lso regarded asa separate construct (Peterson et al., 2005).

Work engagement has emerged as an important topic inpositive I/O psychology in recent years (Macey & Schneider,2008; May et al., 2004; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Empiricalresearch conrmed the relationship between engagement andorganisational outcomes (e.g. organisational commitment,turnover intention, productivity, motivation, job resourcesand burnout) (e.g. Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2005;Hakanen, Bakker & Schaufeli, 2006; Harter, Schmidt & Hayes,2002; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Theoretically, engagement isgrounded in desire theory (Griffen, 1986; Sirgy & Wu, 2009),which focuses on need gratication rather than the pursuitof pleasure to increase happiness. Gratication is enhancedby engaging in activities that generate ow experience(Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). However, the concept of ow focusesheavily on the cognitive component of engagement (i.e.absorption) and does not include the physical and emotionalcomponents thereof.

State engagement (which is relevant for this study) can bedened as the extension of oneself to a work role categorisedby feelings of absorption, satisfact ion, energy, commitmentand involvement in ones work (Macey & Schneider, 2008).

Engagement exists when one feels physically, emotionallyand cognitively attached to a work role (May et al., 2004).The experience of the mentioned attachment to ones workis facilitated by the opportunity to apply ones signaturestrengths in a work situation (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).This opportunity to express ones strengths leads to greaterwork-role t, which leads to work engagement (May et al., 2004;

Olivier & Rothmann, 2007).

Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma and Bakker (2002, p. 74)dene work engagement as a positive, fullling, work-relatedstate of mind that is characterised by vigour, dedication andabsorption. Vigour is characterised by high levels of energyand mental resilience while working. Dedication refers to beingstrongly involved in ones work and experiencing a sense ofsignicance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride and challenge.Absorption is characterised by being fully concentrated on andhappily engrossed in ones work, whereby time passes quicklyand one has difculties with detaching oneself from work. TheUtrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) was developed tomeasure the three components of work engagement (Schaufeliet al., 2002). Unfortunately, at least one UWES item (e.g. I

nd the work I do full of meaning and purpose) measuresthe psychological condition of meaningfulness, which mightcontribute to work engagement rather than the construct itself(see Kahn, 1990; May et al., 2004).

In the literature study, the constructs of work-role t,meaningfulness (meaning of work and psychologicalmeaningfulness) and work engagement as routes towardshappiness have been dened and the relationships betweenthem described. Figure 1 proposes a conceptual model of therelationships between these constructs, which will be used inthis study.

Based on the problem statement and literature review, thefollowing hypotheses were formulated:

H1: Work-role t predicts the experience of psychologicalmeaningfulness and work engagement of I/Opsychologists in South Africa.

H2: Work-role t mediates the relationsh ip between the

meaning of work and psychological meaningfulness.H

3: Work-role t mediates the relationsh ip between the

meaning of work and work engagement.H

4: Psychological meaningfulness mediates the

relationship between work-role t and workengagement.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research approach

A survey design was used to reach the research objective

(Shaughnessy, Zechmeister & Zechmeister, 2003). Acorrelational approach was followed.

Meaning of work

- Work as a job

- Work as a career

- Work as a calling

Work-role

fit

Work engagement

- Physical dimension

- Cognitive dimension

- Emotional dimension

Psychological

meaningfulness

FIGURE 1

Conceptual model for the research

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Research method

Participants

An initial random sample (n=300) was drawn, which produceda 1.3% response rate. Therefore, a convenience sample (n =106) was drawn from the entire population (1148) (responserate = 9.23%). An electronic version of the questionnaire wasemailed to participants. Table 1 provides an overview of thecharacteristics of the participants.

According to Table 1, the majority of the participants wereAfrikaans-speaking (67%), White (88.6%) women (54.7%)between the ages of 25 and 30 (26.4%). The majority of theparticipants had been registered as I/O psychologists for 0 5years (44.3%), were employed within Gauteng (66%) and workedin the private sector (45.3%). Most of the participants held amasters degree (65.1%).

Measuring battery

The Work-Role Fit Scale(WRFS) (May et al.,2004) was used tomeasure work-role t. Work-role t is measured by averagingfour items (e.g. My job ts how I see myself) that measurethe perceived t between individuals jobs and self-concept.For all items, a ve-point agreement-disagreement Likert scalevarying from 1 (totally agree) to 5 (totally disagree) was used.Olivier and Rothmann (2007) conrmed the reliability of theWRFS in a petrochemical company ( =0.90).

The Work-Life Questionnaire (WLQ) (Wrzesniewski et al.,1997) was utilised in order to determine the levels of meaningI/O psychologists associate with their work. According toWrzesniewski et al. (1997), the WLQ is a self-report measurethat aims to classify an individuals orientation to work intothree main categories, namely, (1) work as a job, (2) work as acareer and (3) work as a calling. The questionnaire is dividedinto two parts. The rst part contains a set of three paragraphsrepresenting the three main meanings of work, in which therespondent is encouraged to rate his or her level of associationwith each paragraph on a scale of 1 (very much like me) to 4(not at all like me). The second part consists of a set of 18 items

to substantiate the respondents position on the rst part ofthe questionnaire (e.g. My primary reason for working isnancial.) The items are also rated on a Likert scale varyingfrom 1 (very much like me) to 4 (not at all like me).

The Psychological Meaningfulness Scale (PMS) (Spreitzer,1995) was used to measure psychological meaningfulness byaveraging six items. For all items, an agreement-disagreementLikert scale varying from 1 (totally agree) to 5 (totally disagree)was used. These items measure the degree of meaning thatindividuals discovered in their work-related activities (e.g.The work I do on this job is very important to me.). May et al.(2004) found a Cronbach alpha coefcient of 0.90 for the PMS ina large insurance company, while Olivier and Rothmann (2007)reported a Cronbach alpha coefcient of 0.92 for the PMS in apetrochemical company.

The Work Engagement Scale(WES) (May et al., 2004) was adaptedand used to measure work engagement. For all items, a Likertscale varying from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) wasused. The items reect each of the three components of Kahns(1990) conceptualisation of work engagement, namely cognitive(Time passes quickly when I perform my job), emotional (Ireally put my heart into my job) and physical engagement (Itake work home to do). Olivier and Rothmann (2007) found aone-factor engagement model within a petrochemical companyconsisting of cognitive, emotional and physical engagement (=0.72), which is consistent with ndings by May et al.(2004) in alarge insurance rm, where fewer items were used.

Finally, a self-developed Perceived Actual Time (PAT)

questionnaire was used to determine the actual amountof time the participants spent on and the desired time theparticipants wanted to spend on six broad categories of work(see Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter, 2008). Benjamin and Louw-Potgieter (2008) state that I/O psychologists are activelyengaging in, (1) psychological assessment, (2) therapy andcounselling, (3) human resource management, (4) humanresource administration, (5) training and development and(6) interventions and consultation. Based on this, participantswere asked to indicate both their actual and desired time spenton these six broad categories of work.

Procedure

A cover letter explaining the purpose and emphasisingthe condentiality of the research project accompanied the

questionnaire. The researcher tried to make contact with theSociety of Industrial and Organisational Psychology in SouthAfrica (SIOPSA) in order to request access to its membershiplist; however, no response was received. The researcher

TABLE 1

Characteristics of participants (n= 106)

Item Category Frequency %

Gender Male 48 45.30

Female 58 54.70

Age 2530 years 28 26.40

3135 years 18 17.00

3640 years 21 19.80

4145 years 9 8.50

4650 years 12 11.30

51 and older 18 17.00

Race White 92 86.80

African 8 7.50

Coloured 4 3.80

Indian 2 1.90

Language group Afrikaans 71 67.00

English 30 28.30

Xhosa 1 0.90

Zulu 1 0.90

Tsonga 1 0.90

South Sotho 2 1.90

Province Gauteng 70 66.00

Free State 10 9.40

Mpumalanga 4 3.80

North West 10 9.40

Northern Cape 2 1.90

Eastern Cape 3 2.80

Western Cape 7 6.60

Educational level Masters degree 69 65.10

Doctoral degree 28 26.40

Post-doctoral degree 2 1.90

Professoriate 7 6.60

Type of employment Higher education 31 29.20

Private sector 48 45.30

Public sector 10 9.40

Private consultation 17 16.00

Number of years registered 05 years 47 44.30

610 years 27 25.50

1115 years 12 11.30

1620 years 4 3.80

2125 years 7 6.60

2630 years 5 4.70

3135 years 3 2.80

36 years and longer 1 0.90

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made appointments with various leaders in the eld of I/Opsychology to introduce them to the topic and to secure theirparticipation with regard to tracking down respondents. A listof all the registered I/O psychologists was obtained from theHealth Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). Initially,a random sample of 300 was drawn with a response rate of 1.3%.As an alternative, a convenience sample (n=106) was drawn. In

their study, Benjamin and Louw-Potgieter (2008) drew a sampleof 129 respondents with ful l access to the SIOPSAs membershipdatabase. Participation in the project was voluntary andrespondents had the option to withdraw at any time. DuringOctober through November 2009, emails were sent out to therespondents, inviting them to complete the questionnaire. Theraw data were captured and converted to an SPSS dataset.

Statistical analysis

The statistical analysis was carried out with the SPSS program(SPSS Inc., 2009). Descriptive statistics were used to analysethe data. Exploratory factor analyses and Cronbachs alphaswere used to determine the construct validity and reliabilityof the measuring instruments. Pearson correlation coefcientswere used to specify the relationships between the variables.

The cut-off point for statistical signicance was set at p1) and thescree plot were used to determine the number of factors ineach scale. Second, a principal axis factor analysis with a directoblimin rotation was used in cases where scales had more thantwo factors or more.

A principal component analysis was conducted on the fouritems of the WRFS. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure ofsampling adequacy revealed a value of 0.75, which indicatedthat the items were factorable. Bartletts test of sphericityshowed to be highly signicant (c2 (6) = 183.30; p

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I/O psychologists want to spend more time on psychologicalassessment (-1.36), therapy and counselling (-4.08) and,interventions and consulting (-6.49). They want to spend lesstime on HR management (4.32), HR administration (5.25) and,train ing and development (1.84). It seems that I/O psychologistswant to spend less time on human resource activities than thoserelating to psychology. The mean scores on work-role t (1.71)indicate a good relation between the self-concepts and the workI/O psychologists do.

The following statistically and practically signicantcorrelations were found: work-role t and psychologicalmeaningfulness (r =0.89;p

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(1986) recommend three steps in order to test for mediation.According to these authors, beta coefcients of differentregression equations must be compared. Firstly, the mediatorshould be predicted by the independent variable. Secondly, thedependent variable should be predicted by the mediator andthe independent variable. Lastly, the dependent variable shouldbe regressed on the independent variable, controlling for themediator. If all steps prove signicant, perfect mediation holdswhen, controlling for the mediator, the independent variabledoes not predict the dependent variable.

Firstly, to test whether work-role t is predicted by the meaningof work, a multiple regression analysis was carried out withwork-role t (as measured by the WRFS) as dependent variableand the meaning of work (as measured by the WLQ) asindependent variable. The results showed that the meaning ofwork (i.e. job/calling orientation predicted 59%of the variancein work-role t (F

(2, 103)=72.71,p

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Secondly, to test whether work engagement was predicted bywork-role t, a multiple regression analysis was carried outwith work engagement as dependent variable and work-rolet as independent variable. The results showed that work-role t predicted 55% of the variance in work engagement(F

(1, 103)=124.26,p

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calling orientation to work and work engagement. Work-rolet, psychological meaningfulness and work engagement weremoderately related to a career orientation. It is clear that thereis a strong relationship between the calling orientation to work,psychological meaningfulness and work engagement. Thesendings are in line with the ndings of Peterson et al. (2009)that psychological meaningfulness and work engagement (as

the routes towards happiness) are facilitated by the experienceof a calling in life. Similarly, work-role t impacts on thisrelationship. When a person experiences work as a calling, itfacilitates proximity between the self-concept and the workrole. This inadvertently leads to the experience of psychologicalmeaningfulness in work.

The results of this study conrm that work-role t predictspsychological meaningfulness and work engagement.However, psychological meaningfulness did not mediate therelationship between work-role t and work engagement,which is contrary to the ndings of May et al.(2004) and Olivierand Rothmann (2007). This study made use of a correlationalresearch design, which makes it impossible to prove causalrelationships. However, to test the possible relationshipsbetween the variables, a regression analysis strategy was

followed in which the effects of meaning of work and work-rolet (as independent variables) and psychological meaningfulnessand work engagement (as dependent variables) were studied.This is in line with the ndings of Peterson et al. (2005) thatmeaningfulness and engagement are separate components ofhappiness (eudaimonic well-being), which might or might notbe related.

The results of our study showed that work-role t predictspsychological meaningfulness (i.e. the experienced componentof meaning). Therefore, if I/O psychologists perceive that theyt their work roles, they tend to experience more psychologicalmeaningfulness at work. Participating in activities that arecongruent with an individuals values (Waterman, 1993) and/orsignature strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Seligman, 2002)contributes to the experience of psychological meaningfulness.

Also, a close proximity between an individuals self-conceptand his or her work role induces psychological meaningfulnesssince the person is able to express his or her beliefs, valuesand principles openly (Kahn, 1990; May et al., 2004; Olivier& Rothmann, 2007). Furthermore, a calling and careerorientation towards work predicted both work-role t and workengagement. The beta coefcients of a calling orientation towork and a career orientation were not statistically signicantwhen these two variables were entered with work-role t inthe regression equation for work engagement. These ndingsprovide evidence that work-role t mediates the relationshipbetween meaning of work (either a calling or a careerorientation) and psychological meaningfulness. Therefore,work as a calling and work as a career affect psychologicalmeaningfulness through their effects on work-role t.

It is possible that work-role t is affected by individuals jobrecrafting efforts. Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2003) suggest thatit is a central human tendency to adapt to the environment.Wrzesniewski (2003) states that when individuals derive littlemeaning from their work, they adapt by recrafting their jobsin such a way as to derive more meaning. These activities areusually outside of these individuals job descriptions. Theexperience of the I/O psychologists high levels of work-rolet is attributable to possible job recrafting (Wrzesniewski &Dutton, 2003). Since there is such a large discrepancy betweenthe actual and desired time spent on work activities, I/Opsychologists need to pursue meaning from other sourceswithin their occupation.

The second set of regression analyses indicated that work-rolet partially mediates the relationship between the job/calling

orientation to work and work engagement. The results showedthat a calling orientation to work had a strong effect on workengagement and that this could partially be attributed to itseffect on work-role t. However, it seems that having a calling

orientation to work strongly impacts on beliefs regarding work-role t and work engagement.

In conclusion, based on the results of this study, it is evidentthat I/O psychologists generally view their work as a calling,while some view their work as a career. I/O psychologistsare spending more time than they desire on human resource

management, administration, and training and development.I/O psychologists experience high levels of work-role t,which could be attributed to efforts to select, train and developthem, as well as to job-recrafting efforts by themselves. Acalling orientation to work seems to have a strong effect onof psychological meaningfulness, work-role t and workengagement.

Based on these results, various recommendations can bemade. Firstly, it is important to foster a calling orientation towork in I/O psychologists during their selection, training andsocialisation. A calling orientation to work will contributetowards experiences of work-role t, psychological meaningful-ness and work engagement. Secondly, managers who use theservices of I/O psychologists should be made aware of thevalue that they can add in organisations by spending more

time on I/O psychological activities and less time on HRactivities. This could result in higher levels of psychologicalmeaningfulness, which should have an enormous impact on I/Opsychologists organisational commitment, turnover intentionand performance. Through understanding the effects of work-role t, the meaning of work, psychological meaningfulnessand work engagement, a deeper level of understanding can bedeveloped of the happiness of I/O psychologists.

A major limitation to this study is that the design is cross-sectional. As a result, no causal relationships could be identied.Longitudinal studies could provide deeper insight intowhich activities provide deeper meaning and the reasons forengagement. It is also recommended that a random samplingtechnique be used to ensure the absence of bias. Another majorlimitation to this study relates to the respondents. The majority

of the respondents experienced high levels of psychologicalmeaningfulness and work engagement. It would seem thatonly respondents who are experiencing meaning and whoare engaged completed the questionnaire. Furthermore, thework activities indicate the actual and desired time spent butdo not signify the importance of these activities. Furthermore,if a cross-sectional design is used in the future, a more idealdistribution method should be identied in order to addresssample size issues. In the current study, a response rate of lessthan 10%was obtained via the email distribution.

It is recommended that the role of psychological meaningfulnessand work engagement as routes towards happiness beconsidered and investigated further. Future studies shouldfocus on job recrafting as a means to induce happiness throughpsychological meaningfulness and work engagement (Parry,2006; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2003). Finally, the psychometricproperties of both the WLQ and the WES should be furtherinvestigated. Items on the WLQ should be revisited and clearlydened.

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