726-9210 E&HI Volume 8 No. 2 2006 ISSN 1 Environment and ... · Cover Photograph: Trinity College,...

Environment andHealth InternationalMagazine of the International Federation of Environmental Health (On-line version)

ISSN 1726-9210 E

&H

I Vo

lum

e 8

No

.2

2006

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OFENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

President – Colm Smyth, Ireland

President, Colm Smyth, Ireland

President Elect, Bernard J Forteath, Scotland

Hon. Secretary, Ray Ellard, Ireland

Hon. Editor, John Stirling, Scotland

Webmasters, Henning Hansen and Jan Joergensen, Denmark

Archivist, Mike Halls, ScotlandHon. Public Relations Officer, Kia Regner, Sweden

Cover Photograph:

Trinity College, Dublin

The views expressed in this magazine are not

necessarily the views of the International

Federation of Environmental Health

IFEH REGISTERED OFFICEChadwick Court15 Hatfields, London, UK SE1 8DJ

www.ifeh.org

Many thanks to all contributors to thisissue of Environment and Health

International

Deadline for submission of articles for thenext issue is

1st March 2007

The Hon. Editor, John Stirling, can becontacted at

11 Muirwood Drive

Currie

Edinburgh EH14 5EZ

SCOTLAND

e-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

President’s Comments 3

Bernard J Forteath, President Elect of the International Federation of Environmental Health 4

The Eric Foskett Award to Kia Regner 5

Assessment of Water Quality Parameters for Motshane River, Ngweny Industrial Site in Swaziland 5

CIEH Campaign for a Smoking Ban in England and Wales 16

The Influence of Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Food Handlers on Food Kiosk Hygiene - Eldoret, Kenya 19

Networking Patterned on the Environment 30

PRESIDENT’S COMMENTSColm Smyth

It is an honour and a privilege to present myfirst communication in Environment & HealthInternational.

Earlier this year in June the Environmental

Health Officers Association hosted the 9th

World Congress on Environmental Health inDublin, Ireland. The congress attracted overfive hundred delegates from around the world.Delegates from over thirty-five countries attendthe weeklong event. Of particular note is thefact that, for the first time nearly fifty percentof the delegates were from overseas. This, Ibelieve, contributed enormously to the successof the event and made it a truly internationalaffair. There were over eighty five presentationsmade at the congress covering a wide variety ofenvironmental health topics, including tobaccocontrol, food safety, housing and health, wastemanagement, sustainability to mention but afew. As presentations become available they arebeing place on the congress website atwww.ifeh2006.org. On behalf of the FederationI would like to thank the Environmental HealthOfficers Association in Ireland for organisingand hosting a very successful Congress

On the theme of the World Congresscongratulations to the Lithuanian Union ofHygienists & Epidemiologists who weresuccessful in their bid to host the 2012Congress in Vilnius.

We all know that environmental health hazardsdo not recognise national boundaries. We arealso aware of the devastating impact thatdisasters, both natural and tragic have onpeople and the environment. The Federationmust be well placed to assist the internationalrelief agencies in providing humanitarianassistance when called upon. In addition wemust also proactively promote our uniqueexpertise in areas such as water supplies,housing and health, sanitation, food safety,waste management and vector control etc.

The Federation, through Environmental Healthin Disasters & Emergencies (EHiDE) is

working with a number of aid agencies,Concern in Ireland, Oxfam in the UK, todevelop a register of environmental heathprofessionals that will be available to allinternational aid agencies. In addition we areworking with a number to training agencies todevelop a training needs assessment tool, forprofessionals to develop the skills necessary towork in disaster situations. The Federation hasover thirty-six national associationsrepresenting several thousand individualmembers around the world and we must striveto provide a focal point for environmentalhealth professionals wishing to assist in disasterand emergency relief.

Tobacco consumption is the single biggestpreventable cause of death worldwide. Itrespects no one, young or old, rich or poor.World wide over five million deaths annuallyare attributed to tobacco use and in the nexttwenty-five years it will be responsible for overone hundred and twenty five million deaths.This equates to the population of thirteen IFEHmember countries being totally wiped out.

Moreover the preamble to the WHOFramework Convention on tobacco controlrecognises the role of health professionalorganisations in tobacco control….

“The special contribution of non-governmentalorganisations not affiliated to the tobaccoindustry, including health professional bodies,environmental and consumer groups, academicand health care institutions to tobacco controlefforts nationally and internationally and thevital importance of their participation nationaland international tobacco control efforts thisquotation appears to be incomplete as at presentit is meaningless

So what of our role? I believe the Federationmust actively promote the anti tobacco messageon the world stage. As health professionals wehave the opportunity to help people changetheir habits and our involvement is essential tosuccessfully curbing the tobacco epidemic.After all as enforcement professionals andeducators we are ideally placed to make animportant contribution.

ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH INTERNATIONAL

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At the recent World Congress the Federationwas challenged to sigh up to the WHO “Code ofPractice on Tobacco Control for HealthProfessional Organisations”. I believe this is achallenge we must rise to and play an activerole in the global anti tobacco alliance.

The first day of this year’s Council meeting inDublin in June was a first for the Federation.We dispensed with the formalities to undertakea strategic review of the role, purpose anddirection of the Federation. The day wasorganised by Ray Ellard and the workshopreview facilitated by Jim Cumiskey. The daywas extremely successful and highlighted manyissues. The Secretary who is now seekingnominations form the Regional Groups onto theStrategic Working Committee has now receivedthe report on the day’s proceedings. Theresultant agreed documents will be the blueprint of Federation activity over the comingyears and every member is encouraged tocontinue to contribute positively to thedevelopment of the strategy over the comingmonths.

This year we witnessed a number of changes tothe Board of IFEH. After ten (two as Presidentand eight as Secretary) years dedicated serviceto the Federation Michael Halls finally lockedaway his pen and paper and stepped down asHonorary Secretary. Mike’s dedication,enthusiasm and wholehearted commitment tothe development of Federation were unstinting.On behalf of the member organisations and theBoard we wish him a long and healthyretirement.

Raymond Ellard representing the EnvironmentalHealth Officers Association (EHOA) of Irelandwas elected at the Council meeting in Dublin inJune to the position of Honorary Secretary. Rayis a longstanding EHOA delegate to IFEH andwill no doubt bring his unique style to his newposition. The new President Elect, BernardForteath, representing the Royal EnvironmentalHealth Institute of Scotland, formally took uphis position on the Board in June. Also StephenCooper, representing the Chartered Institute ofEnvironmental Health was re-elected asHonorary Treasurer. We look forward toworking with all the officers and members ofthe Federation over the next two years.

Bernard J Forteath

President Elect of the International Federation ofEnvironmental Health

Senior Vice President of The Royal EnvironmentalHealth Institute of Scotland

Bernard entered the environmental health professionas a student in 1965. He qualified in 1969 andworked in a number of local authorities in Scotlandbefore becoming Director of Environmental Healthwith Renfrew District Council in 1978. Subsequentlyhe became Director of Environmental Services withRenfrewshire Council, where he was responsible forenvironmental health, trading standards, wastemanagement, parks and recreation, and catering andcleaning in all Council owned properties. He tookearly retirement earlier this year having completedover 40 years service in local government, 28 yearsof which as the Director.

Bernard has been involved in the Institute and itspredecessor organisations for over 40 years. Prior tothe merger in 1983 of two organisations to form whatis now the Royal Environmental Health Institute ofScotland, he held various positions in the ScottishInstitute of Environmental Health, principally asPresident in 1980.

He served as Honorary Secretary of the Institute in itsearly days and was elected President in 1988. He washeavily involved in the preparatory work leading tothe Institute being awarded a Royal Charter andChartered status for its Environmental Health Officermembers. In November he began a second term asPresident of REHIS, only the third person to do so.

Bernard’s involvement with the Federation goes backto 1982 when the late Eric Foskett invited him andMike Halls to lunch, to discuss the possibility ofsetting up an International Federation. He remembersthat first meeting well, particularly Eric’s boundlessenergy, enthusiasm and vision. That was the start ofhis involvement with the Federation and he has beenone of the Institute’s representatives on theFederation Council for many years. When theRegional Groups were first formed he was Secretaryof the Euro-Cypria Group and held that position untilit merged with the Nordic group to form whatbecame the Europe Group, now the EuropeanFederation of Environmental Health.

He is an enthusiastic supporter of the IFEH and he islooking forward, over the next few years, to workingclosely with members of the Council to increase themembership of the Federation in particular fromThird World countries, and to expand and improvethe influence that the Federation could have onenvironment and health throughout the world.


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The Eric Foskett Award to Kia Regner

Ms Kia Regner, Sweden was presented with the EricFoskett Award by President Jerry Chaka at theCongress Dinner held at University of Dublin duringthe World Congress in June 2006.

The recipient of the Eric Foskett Award, which isnamed after the founder of the IFEH (omit and theaward), must have made a notable contribution to thework of the International Federation ofEnvironmental Health by helping it to fulfil its aimsand objectives.

Driving force in supporting IFEH Kia Regner has been a driving force in promotinginternational environmental health co-operation, andin supporting IFEH as a worldwide network forenvironmental health professionals, both nationallyand internationally, indeed even before IFEH wasinaugurated (omit full stop and replace with comma)Nordic co-operation laid a foundation to future IFEHdevelopment. Kia was also the first female presidentof the IFEH elected at the IFEH World Congress inStockholm in 1998 for which organization andsuccess she carried a major responsibility.

Holistic approach That IFEH should be appreciated as an active,transparent and open organisation for memberorganisations from countries all over the world hasalways been in her focus. The connection betweenenvironmental problems and their impact on health,and indeed public health, is all too often neglected.Kia has always adopted a holistic approach to issuesof environment & health and has tried to ensure thatthe different professions involved are recognised asessential for being successful in preventing orhandling environmental health effects. Kia’s efforts inbringing environmental health into different nationaland international contexts have been extensive and alot of her private life has been dedicated to this task.

Environmental health competence vitalAs honorary officer or advisor in differentorganisations, for instance IMPEL and EEHC shealways takes the opportunity to promote both theimportance of qualified environmental healthprofessionals and of IFEH as an organisation, havingregard to its motto “Caring for the environment in theinterest of world health”.

Kia Regner is the Honorary Public Relations Officer(PRO) of IFEH, and the international representativeof Yrkeforeningen Miljo Och Halsa (YMH), theSwedish Association of Environmental HealthProfessionals (SEAHP) for which she waschairperson between 1982 and 2002.

Assessment of Water QualityParameters for Motshane River,Ngweny Industrial Site inSwaziland

Stanley J. Nkambule 1, Joseph S. Mtshali 2

and Sicelo N. Mashwama 3

Department of Environmental Health, Faculty ofHealth Sciences, University of Swaziland, P. O Box369, Mabane, Swaziland. Telephone No. (09268)404 0171/2 Cell No. (09268) 603 3421 Fax No. (09268) 404 6241 E-mail address [email protected]

Department of Environmental Health, Faculty ofHealth Sciences, University of Swaziland, P.O.Box369, Mbabane, Swaziland. Telephone No.(09268) 404 0171/2 Cell No. (09268) 603 2385 Fax No. (09268) 404 6241 E-mail address: [email protected]

Department of Environmental Health, Faculty ofHealth, University of Swaziland P.O. Box 369,Mbabane, Swaziland. Telephone No. (09268) 4040171/2 Cell No. (09268) 604 3974 Fax. No. (09268) 404 6241

ABSTRACT

The study involved determining the current waterquality characteristics of Motshane River, which runsthrough the Ngwenya Industrial Site. The researchwas experimental in design and qualitative methodsof analysis were used. Data was collected throughsampling several sites of Motshane River andsamples were analyzed at the Ministry of NaturalResources & Energy Water Laboratory. The analysesfor all parameters were done using the “StandardMethods for the Examination of Water andWastewater” (19th Edition, American Public HealthAssociation, Washington).

The results obtained showed that generally, MotshaneRiver water characteristics were within anenvironmentally acceptable range, with onlyalkalinity exceeding the stipulated levels by only afew units. These excessive levels were howeverattributed to agricultural activities that were takingplace along the river course.

Hence the study has created a reference informationdatabase that will be used in future monitoring. Thiswill enable early and easy detection of industrialpollutants and prompt action towards polluters.


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INTRODUCTION.

Water – A finite resource

Water quality management is multidimensional. Itembraces planning, design, construction, operationand maintenance. It must also be conducted withinthe constraints of technology, social goals, laws andregulations, political viewpoints, environmentalconcerns and economic realities. In concept, waterquality management is simple, the trouble is that theboundaries of the physical systems that must be dealtwith often differ markedly from the politicalboundaries that affect how water is used anddeveloped. Furthermore, many historical, social, legaland organizational factors have been narrowlyfocused and constrain, if not preclude, good waterquality management (Viessman and Hammer, 1998).

Water is a finite resource and it is very important forthe present generation to use it sustainably. Water ispart of or rather has a direct link with the ecosystem.Water forms the base of all natural environmentalprocesses; hence an effect on the water quality willhave a proportionate impact to the ecosystem. Wateris a moving body of matter; hence not only thesurrounding environment will be affected, but evendownstream, miles away from the source of impact(www.bcn.boulder.co.us, 2005)

According to Manahan (2000), anthropogenicprocesses are the major culprits when it comes towater pollution. Humans are unable to use water anddiscard it back to the environment the way it was oreven in a better status. Manahan (2000), further statesthat some of these pollution impacts even affect otherhuman water users on the other end, and at times thismay lead to increased mortality rates. It is thereforeimportant to give more attention to preventive ratherthan remedial approaches to solving water problems.In the long run, considerable cost saving andreduction in environmental degradation can beexpected.

OBJECTIVES

Broad Objective

To develop an information database for water qualityparameters of Motshane River for creating areference point to safeguard the river from pollutionby influx of industries in Ngwenya.

Specific Objectives

To assess water quality and come up with a databasewhich will act as resource information for futureanalyses.

To provide information which would help indeveloping early monitoring strategies for industrial

influx in Ngwenya, which may present pollutionthreat to the river.

To evaluate the current water quality status of theriver, and hence identify crucial points where theriver may need environmental attention.

To recommend ways to safeguard the river frompollution by influx of industries.

Problem Statement and Justification

Ngwenya is a small but one of the fast developingtowns in Swaziland, and hence it has attractedindustries, most of which are under construction.Industrial operations vary in nature, from those whichare simple, have non-hazardous discharges, whichmight not have a significant impact to theenvironment, up to those with complex operationswhich yield discharges of hazardous waste which inturn tend to be a threat to the environment(www.clarkwater.com 2005). Rivers normally are themost affected by these impacts of pollution of all theecosystem’s constituents. This is made worse by thefact that rivers are able to transport the waste fromthe source of discharge, far downstream where actualimpacts may then take place (Viessman and Hammer,1998).

Hence this study will help in providing a database ofthose significant water quality characteristics so thatas the industries start operating, these characteristicscan be re-assessed to find out if the industrial influxaffected the values from their original levels. In thepast, the water quality of surrounding water bodies inindustrial sites had not been assessed before theindustries started operating. This has caused aproblem whereby the local environmental authorityhas not been able to have a database at hand whichthey would have used to compare current waterquality and water quality before industries startedoperating. The study focuses on the Ngwenyaindustrial site, where most industries are currentlyunder construction and quite a lot more will followsoon or later. The industries including textile andclothing manufacture and motor vehicle engineeringwill operate in the Ngwenya Industrial Site.

Literature review

Industrial influx is one of the major indicators ofdevelopment in a country, and this is the same forSwaziland, whereby the country is at a process ofindustrialization. The Matsapha Industrial Site is thebiggest and the oldest, whilst the Nhlangano andNgwenya Industrial Sites are still under development.

Most development strategies come with both (omittheir) pros and cons. Much as we would like to seeour small country developing in terms of


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industrialization, at the same time we should considerin depth the impacts to the environment which arebrought about by the industrial operations.

Most of these impacts are long-term and some mayeven be irreversible. It is therefore of great concernthat (omit we do) every available measure is used toensure that there are no such impacts to ourenvironment, or at least they are reduced to a safeinsignificant level (www.ems.psu.edu 2004).

According to the Swaziland Investment PromotionAuthority website (2004) industries which had beenconfirmed that they will soon be operating inNgwenya include textile and clothing industries andmotor vehicle engineering plants. Both these types ofindustries produce quite a reasonable and significantamount of effluent. This study focuses in particularon discharges of the effluent to Motshane River.

Industrial Waste Volumes and Water Quality

Throughout history, the quality of drinking water hasbeen a factor in determining human welfare(Manahan, 2000). Faecal pollution of drinking waterhas frequently caused waterborne diseases that havedecimated the populations of whole cities. Althoughthere are still occasional epidemics of bacterial andviral diseases caused by infectious agents carried indrinking water, waterborne diseases have in generalbeen well controlled. Currently, waterborne toxicchemicals pose the greatest threat to the safety ofwater sources especially in industrialized nations(www.h2ou.com/h2wtrqual.htm, 2005)

Industrial waste volumes are highly variable in bothquantity and quality, depending principally on theproduct produced (Viessman and Hammer, 1998).Since very little water is consumed in industrialprocessing, large volumes are often returned as wastewater (effluent). This wastewater may include toxicmetals, chemicals, organic materials, biologicalcontaminants and radioactive materials.

Viessman and Hammer further state that industrialeffluent has a great impact to the receiving waterbody, especially if discharged without any internaltreatment from the discharging plant.

Water Uses and Water quality

Water quality can be defined in many aspects and itis important that its definition be understood. Waterquality is the ability of a water body to support allappropriate beneficial uses. (www.crcwater.orgl -2004)

Beneficial uses are the ways in which water is usedby humans and wildlife; drinking water and fish

habitat are two examples. If water supports abeneficial use, water quality is said to be good orunimpaired. If water does not support a beneficialuse, water quality is said to be poor or impaired.

A key concept is that different beneficial uses havedifferent needs. Most people believe good waterquality means the water is pure and clean. This ispartly true, especially when water is to be used fordrinking. However, fish and wildlife have lots ofother requirements. Fish must get all of their oxygenand food from water, and therefore need water thathas enough oxygen and nutrients. Thus, good waterquality implies that harmful substances (pollutants)are absent from the water, and needed substances(oxygen, nutrients) are present (U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 1996).

Measures of water quality

After defining and understanding concepts of quality,there is then a need to move in-depth with quality bydescribing water quality parameters which are goodmonitoring tools when describing the water quality ofa river, stream, or lake. Parameters that are measuredfor the basic routine monitoring are physical,chemical, and biologic properties. However, thisstudy focuses on the physical and chemical propertiesof the water. The parameters of concern will beselected from the list and are those which shall havea relation or bearing to industrial wastes effluents.

Physical Measurements

Physical measurements include water temperature,depth, flow velocity, flow rate, and turbidity. Theseare all useful in analyzing how pollutants aretransported and mixed in the water environment, andcan be related to habitat requirements for fish andother aquatic wildlife. For instance, many fish havevery specific temperature requirements, and cannottolerate water that is either too cold or too hot (Carol,1993).

Chemical Measurements

Chemical measurements include a wide range ofchemicals and chemical properties. Most waterchemistry tests measure concentration, defined asmilligrams of chemical per liter of water (mg/l)(Viessman and Hammer, 1998).

Even the purest water contains countless chemicals,and it would be impossible to measure all of them.Water quality studies therefore focus on thechemicals that are most important for the problem athand. In agricultural areas, studies measure chemicalsfound in manure, fertilizers, and pesticides. In anindustrial area studies focus on measuring chemicalsused by the nearby industries (Canter, 1995).


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Water quality parameters

Below is the list of parameters which had beenidentified to have a direct link with industrialeffluent, and each one of them is described in depth.These parameters are the ones which will be analyzedfor in the samples. Many parameters would havebeen considered but these have a great role insupporting the surrounding ecosystem:

1. Temperature- Temperature is an importantparameter in its affect on the solubility of oxygen inwater, the rate of photosynthesis by algae and higherplants, the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms, andthe sensitivity of organisms to toxic wastes, parasites,and diseases. To perform the test the temperature istaken at the testing point and then anothertemperature reading is taken one mile upstream. Thetest result is the difference in those two readings, theleast difference having the highest quality rating.Significant increases in water temperature caused byindustrial discharges of warm water, or by reductionof water flow where dams are operating, or soilerosion may eliminate cold-water aquatic species andincrease large aquatic plant growth.

2. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)- Rivers have solidparticles in them called dissolved and suspendedsolids. The total dissolved solids test measures theamount of particles that are dissolved in the riverwater. The TDS ranges from 20 to 2,000 mg/L inrivers and may be higher in groundwater. High levelsin drinking water may cause objectionable tastes andhave laxative effects. Water is tested for TDS becauseexcessive amounts may be unsuitable for aquaticriver life and poor for crop irrigation, in addition tobeing unsuited for drinking water. It may causefoaming or may corrode some metals. The quantityof TDS in a body of water depends on severalfactors, including: the precipitation contributing tothe body of water (Rainwater is almost pure with lessthan 10 ppm TDS.), the type of soil and rock thewater passes over, and human activities. The majordissolved substances found in water that can causethe above problems are the positively charged ions ofsodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron andthe negatively charged ions of chloride, bicarbonate,carbonate and sulfate.

3. Turbidity- Turbidity is the measurement of lack ofwater clarity. Turbidity is the result of suspendedsolids in the water. Suspended solids are variable,ranging from clay, silt, and plankton, to industrialwastes and sewage. A rough measure of turbidity canbe made with a Secchi Disk, but more accuratemeasurements need to be taken with a turbidimeter.Turbidity is measured in NTUs, the abbreviation fornephelometric turbidity unit. A normal range forturbidity in river water has not been established.

Turbidity in drinking water should be less than oneNTU. Water treatment is required for drinking waterwhen there is excessive turbidity. High turbiditywater will appear to be murky or muddy. Turbidity inexcess of five NTUs can be easily detected. Turbidityat that level may not affect health, but watertreatment may be desirable. Excessive turbidity mayinterfere with disinfection processes and is measuredby municipalities to monitor the efficiency of publicwater supply filtration systems used to removeparasites and viruses in water.

4. Alkalinity- Alkalinity is a measure of the quantityof compounds that shift the pH to the alkaline side ofneutrality (above 7) or it is a measure of the capacityof water to neutralize acids. The pH of a normalstream usually falls between 6.5 and 8.5. In thecarbonate-bearing rock of Monroe County, mostalkalinity is due to the presence of the bicarbonate ionwhich is derived from the dissolution of carbonates bycarbonic acid. Minor contributors to alkalinity in thecounty include carbonate and hydroxide ions.Alkalinity is important because it buffers pH changesthat occur naturally during photosynthetic cycles,water exchanges and the addition of acids to water.Raising the alkalinity almost always raises the pH.Alkalinity is measured in parts per million (ppm) ormilligrams per liter (mg/L). If the alkalinity of wateris too high, the water can be cloudy, which inhibitsthe growth of underwater plants. Too high alkalinityraises the pH level, which in turn harms or kills fishand other river organisms.

5. pH- pH is a general measure of the acidity oralkalinity of a water sample. The symbol pH standsfor potential for hydrogen. The pH of water, on ascale of 0 to 14, is a measure of the hydrogen ionconcentration. Water contains both H ions and OHions. Pure distilled water contains equal number of Hand OH ions and is considered neutral (pH 7), neitherbasic or acidic. If water contains more H than OHions the water is considered acidic with a pH lessthan 7. If water contains more OH ions than H ions,the water is considered basic with a pH greater than7. The USEPA standard range is 6.5 to 8.5. Streamwater usually ranges from pH 6.5 (slightly acidic) toa pH of 8.5, an optimal range for most organisms.Rain water by contrast is naturally acidic at about5.6. The pH of a stream affects the organisms livingthere as can be seen from the scale below.

6. Electrical Conductivity - Conductivity is theability of the water to conduct an electrical current,and is an indirect measure of the ion concentration.The more ions present, the more electricity can beconducted by the water. In many cases, there is agood correlation between electrical conductivity andthe Sodium Chloride concentration in water This


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measurement is expressed in microsiemens percentimeter (uS/cm) at 25 degrees Celsius.

7. Chemical Oxygen Demand – this water qualityparameter is a measure of the oxygen equivalent ofthe organic matter susceptible to oxidation by astrong chemical oxidant in water. The organic matterdestroyed by the mixture of chromic and sulfuricacids is converted to carbon dioxide and water. Oftentermed COD, this parameter is expressed in MgO2/l

and it is of paramount importance in water qualitysince if chemicals are present in excess in water, lessoxygen will be available with time for marine lifesuch as fish and aquatic plants.

2.6 Water quality standardsBelow are the current standards of water qualityparameters as used by the Swaziland Water ServicesCorporation (SWSC) and as defined by theSwaziland Water Act, 2003.


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TABLE 1. Standards for drinking water quality

Determinant Unit SWSC Guide Level

Alkalinity (CaCO3)

Chemical Oxygen Demand

Conductivity

Total dissolved solids

pH

Temperature

Turbidity

mg/L

mgO2/L

uS/cm

mg/L

pH Unit

0C

NTU

< 500

< 1800

< 7

< 1000

6.5 - 8.5

12.0 - 25.0

< 1 (only for treated water)

According to Nkambule (2004), the Swaziland WaterQuality Standards although stating some of thevalues as WHO guidelines are essentially a legaldocument defining maximum admissibleconcentration (MAC) so that action can be takenagainst users or suppliers who do not conform withthose standards,this is to achieve sensible equal waterqualities and obligations throughout Swaziland.

Methodology

3.1 Location and background informationNgwenya is one of the smallest but developing townsin Swaziland. Geographically, it is located in thehighveld of Swaziland, about 15 kilometers from thecapital city, Mbabane. It is also one of the majortourist attraction places since it comprises theNgwenya Border Post, which connects to theRepublic of South Africa. Ngwenya used to have aniron ore mine and it was one of the largest mines inthe country but the mine was closed due to depletionof the mineral.

5 km from the border post on the way to Mbabane,there is the Ngwenya Industrial Sites on the righthand side, approximately a kilometer from the mainhighway. The industrial site has been sited at astretch alongside a stream, which joins another small

tributary from Ngwenya Village, before joining theMotshane River. Motshane River flows fromMbuluzi falls and pass the Ngwenya – MbabaneHighway at the junction road to Pigg’s Peak. It flowsbehind Ngwenya Village, alongside a small hillbefore being joined by the stream from the industrialarea.

Between the Industrial Sites and Ngwenya Village,the place is swampy, showing that it contains a lot ofground water which probably contribute to thecatchment of the two small streams. The area is alsocharacterized by diverse species of grasses, shrubs,aquatic plants water fleas, amphibians etc.Adjacent the industrial area and across the stream area group of homesteads. These homesteads use thewater from the small stream for domestic purposessuch as washing, drinking, cooking etc.

Description of study areaThe research project was conducted at the NgwenyaIndustrial Sites where Motshane River runs adjacentto the site. However there are some tributaries whichrun through the industrial site to later on joinMotshane River, hence they bring with them all theirdistinct water qualities (Conto et al, 1996). Samplingpoints were identified at strategic points along theriver course through physical inspection of Motshane

River and all the pertained tributaries, and also withconsideration to different activities taking place in thesurrounding area.

SamplingSampling entails selection and collection of a goodrepresentative sample of the subject being assessed. Itis therefore very important that the best proceduresare followed when carrying out sampling to ensurethat the selection, collection, transportation, storageand analysis of the sample do not alter the true resultsof the selected parameters.

Research DesignThe research design for this research is a purelyexperimental design. It entails identification ofparameters, which was done by filtering out from themain list of parameters those which had a greatbearing to industrial operations. It also entailscollection of representative samples for thoseparameters and laboratory analysis for values of thestated parameters. Findings will be based upon thelaboratory analysis (experiments) of the samples.

Sampling methods 1 liter plastic bottles were used for sample collection.Before that they were washed and rinsed with nitricacid and di-ionised water. This procedure was done toeliminate any concealed pollutants which might haveaffected the quality of the sample.

Sample Collection, Handling and Transportation When collecting the sample it is necessary to ensurethat there is no contamination of the sample resultingfrom hand contact with the inner sample container orfrom external interferences such as dust etc. Samplebottles were sealed immediately after samplecollection. As suggested in the Swaziland WaterServices Quality Inspection Manual (2003), sampleswere immediately taken to the laboratory for analysiswithin eight hours of collection. On arrival at thelaboratory, they were analyzed on the same day. Inextreme cases, samples may be stored in arefrigerator overnight at a temperature of 4ºC andanalyzed the following day, first allowing the sampleto reach room temperature. Sampling bottles forCOD were rinsed with Elga since these samples werehighly qualitative. Samples were labeled according tosite, date of collection, weather conditions, etc.

Sampling points Sampling points for the specified parameters were asidentified on the map (Fig. 3.1). Seven samplingpoints were identified and this was done through aphysical inspection of the tributaries and the mainriver to identify points which can be ideal forsampling. Below is the rationale for the samplingpoints selected:


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Name of Sampling

Point Description of Sampling Point

Point 1 This is the source of a tributary (S1) which pass just through the

industrial area. This was chosen as a control point for the tributary.

Point 2 This point is the source of a tributary (S2) which runs downside

Ngwenya Village to join S1. It was also used as a control point for this

tributary.

Point 3 This is where the two streams (S1 & S2) meet before flowing down as

one tributary (S3) to join Motshane River. This site was sampled to

determine joint water quality for both tributaries.

Point 4 This was the point just before the tributary (S3) joined Motshane River.

Water quality might have changed from Point 3 due to the farming

activities taking place between point 4 and point 3, hence sampling at

this point was considered essential.

Point 5 This is where Motshane River crosses the Ngwenya – Mbabane

Highway (at the bridge). This point was used as a control point because

water from this point was not mixed with any effluents as it originates

from Mbuluzi Falls.

Point 6 This point is just before Motshane River is joined by the tributary (S3).

Water quality might not be the same as in point 5, (Control Point under

the bridge) hence there was a need to sample before Motshane River is

joined by the tributary.

Point 7 About 5 KM from where the tributary (S3) joins Motshane River. This

point was used as a recovery sampling point. Sampling at this point was

done because of the consideration that the river would have effectively

mixed well with any pollutants from upstream.(Carol, 1993)

TABLE 2. Selection of Sampling Points

Sampling time and periodsThe identified sampling points were sampled once aweek for a period of four weeks, with each samplingsession done every Friday. The sampling time wasbetween 12 and 2 pm and this time was selectedsince it was possible to maintain it throughout thesampling period. Two samples were collected fromeach sampling point and this was done in case therewere errors or mistakes in analysis in the laboratory.Hence each sample had a duplicate sample. Also,increasing the number of samples increase theaccuracy of results, hence the repeated sampling.(Canter, 1995)

Laboratory Analysis Physical parameters such as pH, and Temperaturewere analyzed on site and this was done because ofthe convenience offered by the sampling instrumentsfor these parameters which were handy and can becarried on site. Chemical parameters and the rest ofthe physical parameters were analyzed at TheMinistry of Energy and Natural ResourcesLaboratory. The analysis for all parameters was doneusing the “Standard Methods for the Examination ofWater and Wastewater” (19th Edition, AmericanPublic Health Association, Washington).Analysis was made for the following parameters andtheir methods of analysis are stated:


11

Table 3. METHODS FOR PHYSICAL ANALYSIS

PARAMETERS UNITS ANALYSIS METHOD

pH

Temperature

Turbidity

Electrical Conductivity

pH Units oC

NTU

Us/cm

pH Meter (Model phm 62)

Thermometer

Turbidity Meter Model 2100A)

Conductivity Meter (Model 163)

Source 1: Swaziland Water Services Laboratory Manual, 2003

Standard Methods for the examination of water and wastewater (APHA, 19th

Ed. Washington.

Table 4. METHODS FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

PARAMETERS UNITS ANALYSIS METHOD

Chemical Oxygen Demand

Alkalinity

Total Dissolved Solids

Mg/l

Mg/l

Mg/l

Spectrophotometer @ 620nm

Titration

Conductivity Meter (Model 163)

Source 1: Swaziland Water Services Laboratory Manual, 2003

2. Standard Methods for the examination of water and wastewater (APHA, 19th

Ed. Washington.

Results and Discussion This chapter focuses on presentation of both thePhysical and Chemical water quality parametersanalyzed in the assessment of the Motshane Riverwater quality.

The overall presentation of the results showed thatmost of the sampled parameters were within range ofthe water guidelines which are stipulated in theSwaziland Water Act (2003). Only Alkalinity valueswere above the maximum limits. The alkalinity limitwas exceeded only by 7.5 mg/L which is a fairlysmall deviation from the set standard of 500 mg/L.Nevertheless it should be noted that Alkalinity is nota pollutant, but a total measure of the substances inwater that have “acid-neutralizing” ability. The mainsources of natural alkalinity are rocks, which containcarbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide compounds.Borates, silicates, and phosphates may alsocontribute to alkalinity(www.h2ou.com/h2wtrqual.htm, 2005).

Hence the results showed that the overall quality ofMotshane River is within a recommended waterquality range, hence by the time the NgwenyaIndustrial Sites commence operation, this studywould have established both warning and actionlimits for both the industries and pertained authorityover the industrial operations which is the SwazilandInvestment Promotion Authority (SIPA)

FIG.4.1. COMPARISON OF pH MEAN VALUES

Fig. 4.1 above shows the presentation of the mean pHvalues for all the sampled seven sites. The graphshows that the maximum pH was 7.3 from site 4whilst the minimum pH was 7.1 from sampling sites2 and 3. These pH values were within a constant

range in all the sampling sites and this was expectedsince there were no intense activities along the riverwhich would have contributed to major pH changes.According to Carol, 1993, pH is a basic water qualityparameter of importance to virtually all biologicaland chemical processes hence it is important that itsvalues are always within range.


12

TABLE 5. AVERAGE VALUES FOR ALL PARAMETERS OVER FOUR WEEK SAMPLING

SAMPLING SITESPARAMETERS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

pH

Temperature

Turbidity

Electrical Conductivity

Alkalinity

COD

Total Dissolved Solids

7.2

23.25

11.25

83.5

184.75

4.567

34.5

7.08

21.75

13.5

171.75

507.5

4.535

76

7.08

22.5

19.75

134.5

393.5

4.677

80.25

7.3

23.5

12

151

483.75

5.395

75.25

7.1

20.5

19

98.75

307.5

1.305

53.25

7.18

21.25

21.5

95.5

280.5

2.692

39.25

7.18

21.25

22.75

94.75

304.12

1.885

48.75

6

6.2

6.4

6.6

6.8

7

7.2

7.4

7.6

7.8

8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sampling Sites

pH

FIG.4.2 COMPARISON OF TEMPERATUREMEAN VALUES

FIG.4.2 shows the comparison of averagetemperatures which were taken from the samplingpoints over the four week period. The maximumtemperature was 23.5ºC from site 4 whilst site 5 hadthe lowest temperature which was 20.5ºC. Thesetemperature values were within the water quality

standard values stipulated in the Swaziland Water Act(2003). The lower temperature from site 5 wasprobably attributed to the fact that at this samplingpoint, the river was narrow and deep, henceabsorption of solar energy was not spread throughoutthe depth of the river, as compared to site 4 whichwas shallow and wider, hence enabling more heatspread to increase the temperature.(www.h2ou.com/h2wtrqual.htm, 2005)


13

Tem

per

atu

re

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sampling Sites

Tu

rbid

ity

FIG.4.3 left indicates that the recoverypoint has the highest turbidity of 22.75whilst 11.25 was the lowest turbidityfrom site 1. It is worth noting that theturbidity increased as one moved frompoint 5, (the reference point under thebridge) along the Motshane River up topoint 7 (the recovery point). This wasattributed to the variation of soilstructure along the river banks as onemoved down the river. Around point 5,the surrounding area was mostlycomposed of vegetation, hence lessturbidity was contributed to the mainriver, but between point 6 and therecovery point, the surrounding soilstructure changed to soft easilyerodable particles, which increasedturbidity as one moved down the river(Canter 1996).

FIG.4.3 COMPARISON OF TURBIDITY MEAN VALUES

FIG.4.4 COMPARISON OF ELECTRICALCONDUCTIVITY MEAN VALUESThe graph rught shows that the electricalconductivity values ranged between 83.5 and171.75 Us/cm. Site 2 which is the referencepoint for tributary S2 had the largest capabilityfor transferring or carrying metal ions whilst site1 had the least capacity for carrying metal ions.By the time the recovery point was sampled, theelectrical conductivity had reached a level of94.75 Us/cm. This parameter was importantsince it measured the total ions present in thewater and hence its levels work in correlationwith the Sodium Chloride concentrations inwater. The Water Guidelines from the SwazilandWater Act, 2003 show that conductivity valuesshould be below 1800 and hence these valueswere within the stated range.

FIG.4.5 COMPARISON OF ALKALINITYMEAN VALUESFig.4.5 right shows that the alkalinity for site 2was the highest and it had exceeded the maximumlimit of 500mg/L stipulated in the drinking waterquality guidelines from the Swaziland Water Act,2003. The minimum alkalinity was 184.75 fromsite 1. As stated in the literature review, alkalinityrepresents the buffering capacity of the water withrespect to acids and hydroxides additions.Alkalinity is important for fish and aquatic lifebecause it protects or buffers against pH changes(keeps the pH fairly constant) and makes waterless vulnerable to acid rain(www.h2ou.com/h2wtrqual.htm, 2005). Theexcess alkalinity values were probably as a resultof the vast agricultural activities taking placealong the river course. However it is also worth notingthat by the time the water reached the recovery point(site 7), the water had mixed well to produce a withinrange alkalinity value of 304.125 mg/L

FIG.4.6 COMPARISON OF C.O.D MEANVALUESThe Swaziland Water Act, 2003 water guidelinesstate that levels of chemical oxygen demandshall not exceed 10 mgO2/L. from the abovefigure, this means that the chemical oxygendemand for Motshane river was still withinrange since the maximum value was 5.395mgO2/L from site 4 whilst the minimum valuewas obtained as 1.305 mgO2/L from site 5. CODis a very sensitive measure since it determinesthe measure of the oxygen equivalent of theorganic matter susceptible to oxidation by astrong chemical oxidant. This is important to(omit both) aquatic animals since they requireadequate oxygen to successfully carry out theirperspective life cycles such as reproduction.


14

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sampling Sites

Co

nd

ucti

vit

y

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sampling Sites

Alk

ali

nit

y

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sampling Sites

C.O

.D

FIG.4.7 COMPARISON OF T.D.S MEANVALUESThe Swaziland Water Act, 2003 requires totaldissolved solids to be less than 1000 mg/L and fromfig4.7 above, it was appreciable that the maximumTDS value was 80.25mg/L from site 3, with theminimum value being 34.5 from site 1. Though TDScan considerably increase during floods, the valuesfrom fig 4.7 show that even then, with only naturalprocesses taking place along the river the values donot have a potential of exceeding the stated limit of1000 mg/L.

Conclusion and RecommendationsThe results showed that the overall water quality forMotshane River was within an acceptable range. Thisstudy has then created the necessary water qualityreference database which was the main objective ofthe study. It is then upon the responsible localauthority to implement measures which shouldsafeguard Motshane River against industrialpollutants from the established industrial sites. Riverwater quality deserves attention because of itsimplications for affecting the public health, theeconomy and the quality of ecosystems. This studywas also able to meet the main objective which todevelop a database for water quality of MotshaneRiver for creating a reference point to safeguard theriver from pollution by influx from industries in thearea. In addition, the research also identified thoseparameters which are out of limits, evaluated thecurrent water quality status and also recommendedmeasures to safeguard Motshane river againstindustrial pollution.

Recommendations Below is a list of recommendations which has beendeveloped based on the research findings about thewater quality characteristics of Motshane River:

The Swaziland Investment Promotion Authority(SIPA) should make these research findings known toall the industries at Ngwenya industrial sites beforethey start operating. This will work as the firstmonitoring step since polluters will have no excuseof not knowing the current water quality.The Swaziland Environment Authority should on topof the above recommendations furnish all industrieswith copies of the reviewed Swaziland Water Act(2003), which stipulates guidelines and standards forindustrial discharge into receiving waters. This is thesecond step which can help in furnishing informationsuch as water guidelines and standards to industrialinvestors, who in most cases shift the blame to notknowing local standards and guidelines pertainingindustrial discharge into water bodies.The local Environmental authority should also comeup with a very compressive monitoring programmewhich should focus on preventing hazardousdischarges into water bodies, in this case MotshaneRiver. Monitoring programmes should encompassless on action after impact, but instead should havewarning and action indicators in time.The local water authority should shift from the‘polluter pays’ approach and instead use morestringent measures like not renewing contracts forindustries which pollute local rivers.The Ministry of Enterprise and Employment shouldensure that the local environmental authority embarkson intensive environmental impact assessmentprogrammes before bringing in industrial investors.Those industries posing a threat to the environmentshould be turned away rather than compromising theenvironment.The Swaziland government and the appropriateMinistry should facilitate a speedy formation of thewater affairs department since the aboverecommendations can be effected more easily andfaster with such a body in place.


15

Industrial siteunder construction

Ngwenya Village Motshane River

To Mbahane

6

5

Fig 3.2 A site map for study area and sampling points

REFERENCES

1. Canter L. W. - River Water Quality Monitoring.Lewis Publishers, Inc.19952. Carol B. - Quality Assurance and Quality ControlPlan with Water Quality Monitoring, LewisConservation District, December 1993.3. Conto A. et al - A Citizen’s Guide to StreamMonitoring. Ecosystems Education, WashingtonDepartment of Fish and Wildlife, March 1996.4. Manahan S.E – Environmental Chemistry, 7thEdition, Lewis Publishers, 20005. Nkambule S. J, Water Quality, University ofSwaziland, 20046. Swaziland Water Act, Revised Edition 2003 7. Swaziland Water Services Laboratory Manual,20008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Journal -Quality Criteria for Water, EPA#440/5-86-001, 1996.9. Viessman W. & Hammer M. – Water Supply &Pollution Control, Addison Wesley Longman Inc.1998.10. www.bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/watershed/wqterms.html- Basin Water Qualityterminology, January 200511. www.clarkwater.com/wateranalysis.html WaterQuality, March 200512. www.crcwater.org/wqmanual.html -WaterQuality Monitoring - a How to Guide, April 200513. www.ems.psu.edu/HAMS/param.html - WaterQuality Parameters, December 200414. www.h2ou.com/h2wtrqual.htm - ImportantWater Quality Factors, March 2005.

CIEH Campaign for a SmokingBan in England and Wales

Ian Gray is a policy officer at the CharteredInstitute of Environmental Health (CIEH).He has campaigned for a smoking ban in theworkplace. In this article, Ian looks back on20 years of campaigning for a ban on smoking inpublic places as the environmental healthprofession looks forward to their annualconference in September, where the practicalitiesof enforcing the regulations will be high on theagenda

1986It all started 20 years ago in the pages of theEnvironmental Health magazine. The cover of theJanuary 1986 issue of the institute magazine,Environmental Health, showed a woman smokingnext to a man wearing breathing apparatus. It was thefirst time that passive smoking had been reported in aprofessional magazine and it was to herald acampaign that culminated with the surpriseValentine’s Day (14/2/06 ) vote in Parliament thisyear in which MPs supported a ban on smoking inpublic places by 384 votes to 184.Mike Squirrell, the senior scientific officer for LeedsCity Council, first alerted the profession to thepresence of about 3,000 different chemicals incigarette smoke that placed the passive smoker at riskfrom cancer and heart disease. His articlecondemned smoking in public places, saying that itwas an environmental hazard that should be no moreacceptable than a spittoon or an open sewer. But itwould take a lot more persuasion, hard graft andcampaigning before the public health communitywon the argument against the hospitality industry andthe tobacco companies, both fearful of lost earnings. By describing environmental tobacco smoke as anindoor air pollutant from the start, the environmentalhealth profession sowed the seeds for the ban. But atthis early stage an outright ban in public placesseemed too ambitious. Legislation requiringventilation and designated smoking areas were themost anyone then hoped to achieve.All campaigns take time for opinion to coalescearound a cause and the public places smoking banwas no exception. It would take another five yearsbefore the debate over the need for a smoking banwas to take another step forward.1988A report by the consumer magazine “Which” findsthat no-smoking rooms top the list of changes thatpeople would most like to see in public houses. Itbeats the introduction of longer and more flexibleopening hours.


16

Deadline for submission of articles forthe next issue is

1st March 2007

The Hon. Editor, John Stirling, can becontacted at

11 Muirwood Drive

Currie

Edinburgh EH14 5EZ

SCOTLAND

e-mail: [email protected]

1991The campaign is given a fillip as the cancer charitiesweigh in, providing evidence for the first time of adirect link between passive tobacco smoke andcancer. With their endorsement the CIEH (then theIEHO) and Action on Smoking and Health (ASH )are able to shift up a gear. David Pollock, director ofAsh, and IEHO president John Tiffney declare thedebate is moving from whether passive tobaccosmoke is harmful to how to protect the non-smoker.In a joint statement the IEHO and Ash put localauthorities at the heart of the debate by calling onthem to provide information for workers, members ofthe public and employers and providers of publicservices about the dangers of passive smoking. In the same year a joint document is published byAsh and the IEHO providing local authorities with achecklist for reducing passive smoking. Protectingthe health of children proves an unambiguousobjective. Schools are asked to become smoke-freewithin the year while Councils are asked to bansmoking in all of their sports halls, youth clubs andcommunity centres. In fact bans are to beimplemented in all areas controlled by localauthorities where children are likely to be exposed totobacco smoke.The workplace proves a more complicated issue.Industrial tribunal rulings state action on smoking canonly be taken once there has been full consultationwith all staff. The needs of smokers must be takeninto consideration and employees require 12 weeks’notice if there is going to be any change to theircontract.A poll in “The Evening Standard”, a Londonnewspaper reveals that 89 per cent of smokers thinkrestaurants should have non-smoking areas; 49 percent of smokers think there should be no smoking onpublic transport. Fifty per cent claim they would bemore likely to visit a pub if there was a total ban. Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) are asked tovisit local pubs and recommend no-smoking areas,starting with pubs where food is being served. It issuggested that the Heartbeat Eating Award promotesno-smoking areas in restaurants. In the same yearanother EHO, Paul Hooper, and myself work with theHealth Education Authority (HEA) to find out whatcouncils are doing to cut passive smoking.We discover most Councils have policies in place butallow workplace smoking. So the IEHO and HEAjoin forces and produce guidelines for localauthorities. As the biggest employers in the country,employing 2.5 million people in England alone, itwould be a significant start to a workplace ban if theycould be made smoke-free. The HEA reportrecommends a model local authority is needed toshow the way.

1993Hackney council produces Towards a Smoke-FreeEnvironment. Its model policy attracts an award fromAsh and the British Heart Foundation. All the adviceat this stage is that if the Health and Safety at WorkAct (H&SAWA) is used to protect workers frompassive smoking it would be open to a majorchallenge. EHOs argue for tobacco smoke to beincluded in Control of Substances Hazardous toHealth Regulations (CoSHH) and that the LocalAuthority Associations should share the legal costs inthe case of a prosecution testing the H&SAWA. At this stage all campaigners can rely on ispersuading local authorities to follow good practice.The local authority response is patchy. Even when itcomes to prosecuting shopkeepers for selling tobaccoto minors 58 per cent of Councils admit to not havingtaken any prosecutions; the rest claim not to know orfail to answer. Only a handful have taken action.

1998Between 1993 and 1998 councils increasingly adoptsmoking policies in line with the model guidelines.There is also a lot of international activity, especiallyin the US, but the UK government does little toprogress things until the Department of Healthpublishes the report of the Scientific Committee onTobacco and Health, know as the Scoth report. This is a milestone because it states there is no safelevel of exposure and that exposure to environmentaltobacco smoke increases the chances of lung andbreast cancer by 20 to 30 per cent. It recommendsthat “smoking in public places should be restricted onthe grounds of public health”. It also states:“Wherever possible, smoking should not be allowedin the workplace.”Following the Scoth report Health Minister FrankDobson brings out the aptly named white paperSmoking Kills with the stark statistic that smokingkills 13 people an hour in the UK. It sets out thegovernment plans on under-age sales, advertising,taxation, smoking cessation, and environmentaltobacco smoke. At last it looks like the government is going to giveEHOs power by recommending that the Health andSafety Commission (HSC) should consult on a newcode of practice to protect workers from tobaccosmoke. The code would state that the H&SAWA willapply and smoking will not be permitted in theworkplace.However, the white paper shies away from a ban inpubs and restaurants, claiming it would be toodifficult to implement. Instead it introduces the ideaof a voluntary charter with the hospitality industry toencourage smoke-free areas and the use ofventilation. The CIEH comes out in favour of the Approved Codeof Practice (Acop) but dismisses the idea of a charter


17

as unworkable. The Acop is to have a rocky history,being passed backwards and forwards between theHSC and ministers with the hospitality sectorlobbying hard to water it down. In the end it comesto nothing as ministers bow to pressure from the puband restaurant trade.On cue, the hospitality trade introduces the PublicPlaces Charter, launched by public health ministerTessa Jowell. Mike Garton, the then CIEH health andsafety policy officer, opposes the charter. Pubs andrestaurants can comply with the charter just byputting up signage saying that smoking is allowed.The charter is eventually to become totallydiscredited due to lack of compliance with thesmoke-free standards.

1999The consultation on the Acop is published by theHSC. It refers to tobacco smoke as an irritant and acause of physical discomfort. The CIEH consults itsmembers and robustly responds, arguing that tobaccosmoke is far more than just an irritant.A joint seminar is held with the CIEH, Ash and theTUC, Don’t Choke on the Smoke. This becomes alandmark event as it firms up the alliance betweenthe profession, campaigners and trades unions. At the conference Ash launches its research paper, AKiller on the Loose, revealing that 900 officeworkers, 165 bar workers and 145 manufacturingworkers die each year from passive smoke, threetimes as many as die from industrial accidents. The Acop is now seen as dead in the water and thereis solidarity in the renewed call for effectivelegislation. The CIEH publishes new guidelines forlocal authorities, Towards Tobacco-freeEnvironments. Now more than 90 per cent ofcouncils have smoking policies, most require smoke-free areas rather than voluntary restrictions. The CIEH General Council formally adopts a policystating that all workers should be free fromenvironmental tobacco smoke and that ventilation isno alternative to a no-smoking policy. Medicalresearch is being published throughout this time,repeatedly confirming the risk to health ofenvironmental tobacco smoke.

2003Micheál Martin, Ireland’s Minister for Health andChildren, stands up in Wagamama’s restaurant inDublin and announces a nationwide ban on smokingin public places. The Environmental Health Officers’Association of Ireland works to ensure the ban iseffective. Ash and the CIEH begin campaigning for smoke-freelegislation despite being told by ministers and civilservants there is no chance of success. The CIEHjoins a smoke-free coalition of trades unions,politicians, Ash and other campaigners.

2004The smoking in public places ban comes into force inIreland to overwhelming acclaim. Predictions of thecollapse of the hospitality industry prove unfoundedand there is almost 100 per cent compliance. The Achieving Smoke Freedom Tool Kit is launchedjointly by the CIEH and Ash. It calls on localauthorities to be at the heart of local smoke-freeinitiatives and for local politicians to provideleadership ahead of the primary care trusts. Low-costtraining is provided across the country to help EHPsuse the tool kit. The CIEH reveals that more than 2million people are employed in workplaces wheresmoking is allowed and again calls for nationallegislation to ban smoking in all workplaces.In this time a number of local authorities and primarycare trusts go smoke-free. Chains such asWeatherspoons and Greene King launch a rollingprogramme to make their pubs smoke-free. TheCIEH endorses the National Clean Air Award by theRoy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation aimed atsupporting smoke-free pubs.

2005There is increasing talk of pubs and clubs that do notserve food being exempt from a ban. The CIEHargues that this is unworkable, among growingconfusion over what constitutes food. There is alsotalk of a patchwork ban being brought in byindividual local authorities, led by Liverpool CityCouncil. Again, the CIEH argues strongly in supportof national legislation. The move splits the opposition. The hospitalityindustry does not want local bans while the tobaccoindustry would prefer it to be an outright nationalban. Meanwhile John Reid, the health minister,comes out against a total smoking ban.

2006The CIEH is lobbying behind the scenes before theValentine’s Day vote. To many people’s surpriseministers vote in favour of a public places ban by 384votes to 184. In April Scotland goes smoke-free.In July the Smokefree Action coalition, of which theCIEH is a core member, is honoured with a GlobalSmoke-Free Partnership inaugural award foroutstanding campaigning at the 13th WorldConference on Tobacco and Health in Washington,US.Also in July the publication of the draft regulationsfor the Health Act ensure that most enclosed pubicplaces and work places will become smoke-free by2007.

The above article was first published inEnvironmental Health Practitioner August 2006volume11/4/08.


18

The Influence of Knowledge,Attitudes and Practices ofFood Handlers on Food KioskHygiene - Eldoret, Kenya By Kitagwa, William G.1, Bekker Johan L.2 and Onyango, Rosebealla O.3 1. MOI University, Department of Environmental Health, Eldoret, Kenya 2. Tshwane University of Technology, Department of Environmental Health, Pretoria , South Africa. 3. Maseno University, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno, Kenya. ABSTRACTThe study was conducted from October to December2003 in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya to assess theinfluence of knowledge, attitudes and practices offood handlers in food kiosks in relation to foodhygiene. The data collection tools werequestionnaires for food handlers(n=61) working infood kiosks and consumers(n=63) of kiosk food,sanitary evaluation of premises(n=30) as well asbacteriological tests of water, food contact surfaces,food handlers hands and throat swabs of foodhandlers. Results showed that the majority of foodhandlers did not receive any form of food hygienetraining and therefore do not have a high level ofgeneral food hygiene knowledge hence theirbehavioral practices were not conforming tominimum health standards. Most of the foods did notmeet the sanitary standards presented by the Kenyanlegislation. With the exception of water samplesanalysed, all other samples tested positive for totalmicrobial count, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcusaureus and Salmonella. Food handlers tested positivefor Staphylococcus aureus in their throats, while with75% of food handlers, this organism was found ontheir hands. A further finding that should be of greatconcern to law enforcing bodies is the fact that all ofthe kiosks owners and food handlers had a fear ofbeing removed or victimized and therefore thisdirectly impacted on the attitude and subsequenttranslation into negative practices by food handlers.

Key words: Food handler, Food kiosk, hygiene,knowledge, attitudes, practices

INTRODUCTIONFor a long time in Kenya, food kiosks have been animportant part of the food industry which contributessignificantly to the national economy. A food kioskcan be defined as a temporary structure within whichfood is prepared, handled, stored and sold for thepurpose of generating income (Tinker, 1997; Canetand N`Diaye, 1996:4-13, World Health Organization,1996a), and depends on the local eating habits andtrends in lifestyles as well as the economic and legalsystems (Chauliac and Gerbouin, 1994:5). Kioskfood refers to food and beverages prepared and soldby kiosk owners for consumption in the kiosk or

taken away to be eaten elsewhere (Kidiku, 2001;Khubheka, Mosupye and Von Holy, 2000).

The rise in the demand for kiosk food by consumerswith the subsequent expansion of food kiosksglobally is increasingly offering challenges to boththe local authorities and health of consumers. One ofthe challenges is a lack of proper control in thisinformal sector. Kiosk foods are often prepared in anunsanitary environment and stored for long periods inunsuitable conditions before selling (Department ofHealth, 2000:4). Further, due to a lack of resourcesthe Municipality of Eldoret (Kenya) finds it difficultto control and ensure the safety and quality of kioskfood efficiently and effectively. This lack of resources(Nangalama, 2003), hence poses potential health risksto food consumers. The World Health Organisationregards illnesses due to contaminated food as one ofthe most widespread health problems in the modernworld (Mukhola, 2000:1). According to Marriott(1999:3), poor hygiene practices can contribute tooutbreaks of food-borne illnesses such assamonellosis, typhoid and shigellosis. According toVan der Heijden et al. (1999:15), food-borne diseasescause economic and social problems, such as a lossof income, loss of human resources and medical carecosts. In 1985 for instance, salmonellosis wasestimated to have costed the United States $1613 to$5053 million (Van der Heijden et al., 1999:15).

Informal commerce has experienced a dramaticexpansion in the central areas of most Third Worldcities (Crypol, 2002:78; Acho-chi, 2002:65). This is aresult of urbanisation, the high rate of unemployment,low salaries, limited work opportunities and limitedsocial programmes. Many historic city centres in theThird World, for example Nairobi and Eldoret inKenya (Eldoret Municipal Report, 1986a:16) as wellas Delhi in India, retain a thriving and expandinginformal commerce sector because of the demandfrom their low-income inhabitants and due theirstrategic positions (Khopkar,1994:22). As trade infood kiosks expands internationally, food safety canno longer be considered a domestic issue.Furthermore, food security is an integral facet of foodhygiene and nutrition (WHO, 1996b:1).

Although some data is available, little or nothing isknown about the level of knowledge of food handlersand the effect thereof on their attitudes towardspracticing food hygiene and the sanitation of theenvironment in which the food is prepared. Further,the level of knowledge and the subsequent perceptionof consumers regarding food hygiene and food-bornediseases are unknown, hence the need to conduct thisresearch. The research on which this article is basedattempted to determine the level of knowledge,attitudes and practices of food handlers and the level


19

of knowledge and perceptions of consumers on foodhygiene. The results of the research could assist themunicipality of Eldoret or other municipalities withsimilar situations to bring this industry under thecontrol of health authorities and to take remedialaction, as well as to encourage and empower thecommunity with knowledge so as to take charge oftheir own health.

This article explains the method that was used togenerate data regarding the knowledge, attitudes andpractices of food handlers and the knowledge andperceptions of kiosk food consumers. Furthermore,the results of the questionnaire survey, an evaluationof the environment, samples of (food, water, foodpreparation surfaces and the throat of food handlers)are presented. In addition, the article reports on thedata that was analysed and interpreted in order toreach the conclusion and to make recommendations.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThis research was conducted from September toDecember 2003 in the Central Business District ofEldoret Municipality, Uasin Gishu District, RiftValley Province, Kenya. The research was confinedrandomly at selected food kiosks (n=30) thatprepared, cooked and sold cooked beef, cookedchicken cooked fish and raw milk. The researchincluded evaluation of food kiosks; administering ofquestionnaires to food handlers and kiosk foodconsumers; samples of raw milk ,water; cookedchicken; red meat; fish ;food contact surfaces; foodhandlers hands and throat swabs.

Hygiene evaluation was carried out using anevaluation form (n=30) to determine the hygienestatus of both the food kiosks and the surroundingenvironment. The evaluation involved observationsand identification of food hygiene status andinterviews with food handlers on factors that mayhave had a negative impact on food hygiene. Factorsconsidered covered physical structure of food kiosks,food preparation, equipment/furniture, pestinfestation and control, basic services, personalhygiene including medical status and theenvironment.

Separate questionnaires were administered to bothfood handlers (n=61) and kiosk food consumers(n=63).Two food handlers and two kiosk foodconsumers per each kiosk were randomly selected toparticipate. However, one extra food handler andthree extra kiosk food consumers volunteered toparticipate. The purpose of administeringquestionnaire to food handlers was to determine theirknowledge, attitudes and practices with regard tofood hygiene, while the purpose of administeringquestionnaire to kiosk food consumers was to

determine their knowledge, and perceptions withregard to food hygiene. The questionnaires dulycompleted by the support staff were handed back tothe researcher on a daily basis for processing.

Samples of raw milk (n=13); water (n=20); cookedchicken (n=33);cooked red meat (n=32);cooked fish(n=12);food contact surfaces (n=32);food handlershands (n=60); and throat swabs (n=20) werecollected according to the standard method prescribedby (Bekker,2003a: 83; Harrigan, 1998:147;Greenberg,clescent, and Eaton,1992:1.8-2.2 ; andFood Agricultural Organisation,1988:2) and taken formicrobiological analysis. All equipment and utensilswere pre-sterilized (121°C for 15 minutes) inlaboratory. Aseptic techniques were followed duringthe sampling and analysis to prevent contamination.Samples were transported chilled (below 10°C) incooler boxes to laboratory within an hour. Athermometer was placed in the cooler box and thetemperatures were noted on receipt of the samples atthe laboratory (Harrigan,1998:155).Sample detailswere also recorded in order to identify the origin(kiosk, date sample was taken, the samplenumber),nature (type, cooked, raw, contact surface,food handlers hands and throat) and sampler(nameand designation).For water samples, wide mouthed(schott) bottles (100ml) were prepared by adding0.1ml of a 30 % solution of sodium thiosulphate(Na2S2O3) to neutralize chlorine in water(Bekker,2003a:84;De Zuane,1990:394) thereforeallowing the live organisms in the check to grow. Thenumber of samples were determined by theavailability of a particular sample type at the time ofstudy.

The reasons for selecting the abovementioned foodtypes included: they are the most sensitive foods thatcan easily get spoiled due to their high protein andwater content; further, they are classified as high riskfoods (Bekker,2003 a) and also form a good mediumfor pathogenic microorganisms; these foods areclassified as perishable(Bekker,2003b:178;KenyaFood, Drugs and Substances Act, Cap 254 of1992:South African Foodstuffs, Cosmetics andDisinfectants Act of 1972); they are the most popularfoods with food consumers and common on market.The purpose for sampling food was to determine theabsence and presence of bacteria capable to grow at37°C in food and on food contact surfaces.

Samples were analyzed to determine microbiologicalstatus and hygiene status of the food kiosks. Aseptictechniques were used to prevent contamination and toget accurate results. Microbiological analysisincluded aerobic total count, coli form organisms,Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus andsalmonella.


20

Interviews were conducted in addition to thequestionnaire and evaluation form, so as to comparethe response of the self /staff administeredquestionnaire and to check if there was discrepanciesin the evaluation. The interviews were conducted bytrained Environmental Health Officers from EldoretMunicipality. The interviewers were trained/ briefedprior to conducting interviews by the researcher. Thebriefing included: How to conduct interviews andhow to make objective observations regarding foodpractices.

Data was analyzed using social scientist statisticalpackage (S S S P version) and other computersoftware package. Analyzed data was presented oncharts, graphs and tables.

RESULTSDemographics of food handlers and consumers.Of the 61 food handlers working in the food kiosks,that the questionnaire was administered to, 56.8%were female and 43.2% were male with a mean ageof 25 years and a range of 10-45 years. In terms ofeducation, 60.6% had primary school education,while only 39 4% had received education atsecondary school level. The food handlers had anaverage of nine (9) month experience working at thefood kiosk during the time of research. However,60% had some previous experience working in otherfood establishments that included hotels, school

kitchens and eating houses. Few of the food handlersindicated that they had received training in foodpreparation, either at college (6.6%),through on thejob training (4.9%) by a co-worker or a supervisorand attendance of seminars (3.28%).However, noneof the food handlers (n=61) had received any form offood hygiene training and 95% indicated that theyrequire training.

Of the consumers who ate in the food kiosks (n=30)that the questionnaire was administered to 84.1%were males and 15.9% were females with a mean ageof 30 years and a range of 10-45 years. In terms ofeducation, 31.8%of food consumers had receivedprimary education, 39.7% had received secondaryeducation and 26.9%had received tertiary educationwhile 1.6% had received no education at all. Seventysix (76%) of the consumers were working and 89%indicated that they ate regularly in food kiosks.

Knowledge, attitudes and practicesAll food handlers (n=61) were aware that consumerscould be become ill by eating contaminated food.Eighty two percent (82%) and thirty six (36%)associated passing loose stools and vomitingrespectively with food-borne illness. Figure 1 showsthe food-borne illnesses as identified (%) by the foodhandlers in relation to the knowledge and theirprevention.


21

44%

28%

62%

31%

57% 57%

5%3%

5%2%

8%

3%5%

0%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Cholera

Diarrhoea

Typhoid

Brucello

sis

Worm

s

Dysentery

Alle

rgy

Food borne illnesses

Diseases identified Preventability

Figure 1Food borne illness (%) as identified by food handlers in relation to their prevention (%) (n=61)

WaterThe respondents stated the methods used in watersafety as: boiling (61%);use of clean equipment(72%);covering during storage (53%);keptsafely/treated by addition of chemicals(23%) and byfiltration (21%).Observation revealed that this wascontrary to what they practiced. Seventy percent(70%) stored their water in plastic jerry cans and that86% of them were uncovered.30% stored water inbuckets and cooking pots that were uncovered. Thishad a negative impact on the quality ofdrinking/cooking/washing water as the opportunityfor contamination was increased.

Sound food supplyAll food kiosks (n = 30) procured their food supplylocally from the open air markets (mostly livechicken, vegetables and fruits), butcheries, fishvendors and directly from farmers (live chicken,milk, vegetables and fruits). On receiving the foodsupply, no inspection is carried out to determine the

All food handlers were aware that they should bemedically examined and issued with healthcertificates (Kenya Public Health Act, Cap242 of1986). However, only one knew the purpose andimportance thereof.

Consumers Forty six percent (46%) of consumers admittedhaving suffered from a disease after eating food.Forty one percent (41%) and 17% of the respondentsindicated malaria and scabies respectively as food-borne diseases. These responses indicated thatconsumer knowledge regarding food-borne wasinadequate and poor. The researcher was of theopinion that allergies were mistakenly to be scabies.Typhoid was the most commonly food-borne disease(62%).This might be due the frequent incidences oftyphoid in Uasin Gishu district and the borderingdistricts. Consumers identified vomiting(35%),diarrhoea (54%) and loss of weight (14%) asassociated symptoms of food-borne illnesses.

Only 27% 0f food handlers knew that diarrhoea,cholera and typhoid are prevented by treating water.No other preventive methods could be identified forany of the other food-borne illnesses. Figure 1 showsthat knowledge of food-borne diseases was higherthan knowledge on the disease prevention. Therespondents described treatments of diseases insteadof their prevention. This indicated that the concept ofprevention was confused with the concept oftreatment. Prevention was an unknown concept andcould be linked to the low level of awareness of thecauses of diseases.

They too knew that it was essential for them to havea good personal hygiene. However they did not knowthat putting on a uniform was for safer food kiosks.Ninety three (93%) were aware that it was necessaryfor them to wash hands before handling food (57%)after visiting toilet,(48%) during handling of differentfoods. Seventy two percent said they wash theirhands using cold water, soap and then dry them with

a towel. However from observation 95% foodhandlers never washed their hands as claimed. Thehigh level of knowledge in hand washing and its lackin translation to practice of the studied food handlersmight be attributed to lack of hand washing facilities,toilets and negative attitude. These are in correlationwith improper food handling practices of foodhandlers.

Forty percent (40%) of food handlers were able toidentify sources of hand contamination such as handgreeting of people, touching dirty surfaces, handlingof raw and cooked food. However, none could relatedirty hands and their practices with food-bornedisease transmission, despite the fact that 50%identified ways of food becoming unfit for humanconsumption as shown in table 2 below. This clearlyindicated that there was a lack of knowledgeregarding food-borne illnesses and preventionthereof.


22

Table 2: Sources of food contamination (%) as identified by food handlers (n=61)

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION FREQUENCY

Dirty equipment/utensils 32 (52.45%)Poorly cooked food 30 (49.18%)Foreign matter 25 (40.98%)Stale food 20 (32.78%)Food handlers 17 (27.86%)Poor storage/uncovered 9 (14.75%)Food ingredients 8 (13.11%)Contaminated water 4 ( 6.56%)Raw food 3 ( 4.92%)Don’t know 1 ( 1.64%)

suitability and hygiene status thereof. The foodsupplies are deemed to be fit for human consumption.

Food preparationThe study established that all the foods wereprepared, handled, cooked and stored in the foodkiosks, with the exception of soft drinks, cakes andbread that required no further preparation. All thefood kiosks (n = 30) prepared their foods in themorning with the exception of beans which was lefton a stove (Jiko) to cook overnight.

WashingObservation revealed that washing of the target foods(fish, red meat and chicken), vegetables and fruitsoccurred in the same pots (sufurias) used forcooking. The cleaning/washing of these pots wasdone by using the same water several times; thereforeincreasing the chance of cross-contamination(Marriott, 1999:55-65; Davies and Board, 1998:158;Lawrie, 1998: 121), including allergens from e.g.fish, fruits and vegetables (McSwane, Rue andLinton, 2000:71; Van der Heijden et al., 2000:454-457). In general the washing was doneunsatisfactorily and without regard to consumers withfood allergic reactions (anaphylaxis).

Cutting and choppingCutting and chopping was done using the sameboards or tables for both raw and cooked food. Thispractice increases the chance of cross contamination(Marriott, 1999:55-65; Davies and Board, 1998:158;Lawrie, 1998: 121).

Cooking and holdingAll of the food kiosks cooked their foods on charcoalstoves (Jikos) at high temperatures and includedfrying (meat, fish, chicken and chips), using re-usedoil (100% of food kiosks) and boiling (milk, fish,meat, vegetables). For the purpose of this study thelevels of dioxins and acrylamides which may formduring high temperatures and re-using oil were notmeasured.

Tasting of food during cooking is a common practiceduring food preparation. This practice may howeverserve as a source of cross contamination (Marriott,1999:55-65; Davies and Board, 1998:158; Lawrie,1998: 121). Table 3 shows methods of tasting food asindicated by food handlers.


23

Table 3: Methods of tasting food (5) indicated by food handlers (n = 61)

METHODS OF TASTING FOOD FREQUENCY (%)

Putting portion on plate and tasting it 80.60%Putting portion on palm and licking it 16.10%Licking the cooking spoon and washing it 1.64%Licking the cooking stick/spoon 0%By dipping finger in food and licking it 0%No response 1.64%

Observations however revealed that most of them puta small portion on the palm of their hands and lick itwithout washing their hands thereafter. This practicemay result in cross contamination of foodThe Kenya Food, Drugs and Chemical SubstancesAct, (Cap 254 of 1992) requires that storage (hot andcold) of food shall be under such conditions as to

prevent contamination, including development ofpathogenic or toxigenic micro organisms or both.Thirty seven percent (37%) of the food kiosks keptfood on stoves (Jikos).

The cooked foods in the kiosks were found to bekept at the temperatures as indicated in Table 4.

Table 4: Holding temperatures (ºC) of cooked food in food kiosks (n = 30)

FOODSTUFF HOLDING TYPE LOWEST (ºC) HIGHEST (ºC) MEAN (ºC)

Beef Hot 56.6 93.1 74.9Cold 24.2 43.1 33.7

Chicken Hot 52.4 92.6 72.5Cold 25.3 46.1 35.7

Fish Hot 56.2 83.4 69.8Cold 39.6 40.0 39.8

Milk Hot 64.5 75.1 69.8Cold 22.5 37.6 30.1

From the above it was clear that the cooked food thatwas kept hot was kept at a temperature (above 63ºC)that prohibited the growth of micro-organisms(McSwane and Linton, 2000), and therefore compliedwith the Kenyan legal requirements. However, foodthat was kept cold was kept at temperatures thatranged within the “danger zone” (between 7ºC and63ºC) and therefore ideal for the support of microbialgrowth.

StorageFrom observation, 93.3% of the food kiosks (n = 30)did not have proper storage facilities (dry, cold andhot) for both raw and cooked foods. Both raw andcooked foods were stored together in displaycounters, on tables or in pots on the floors in thekitchen None of the food kiosks covered the cookedfoods properly, hence exposed them to contaminationfrom the environmental pollutants like heavy metalsfrom industrial activities (automobileworkshops/garages), aerosols, soils, insects, microorganisms, dust and automobile exhaust (Marriott,1999:55-65; Davies & Board, 1998:158; Lawrie,1998: 121).

ServingNone of the food kiosks allowed customers to servethemselves. Only 5% used utensils (forks and tongs)to serve the food while the remaining ones servedfood by bare hands. This practice increased thechance of cross-contamination of food (Marriott,1999:55-65; Davies & Board, 1998:158; Lawrie,1998: 121).

Role of Environmental Health Officer.Both the handlers and the consumers were aware thatthe environmental health officers, employed by themunicipality of Eldoret were responsible for foodcontrol, including inspection of premises, sampling offood for analysis and condemnation of food unfit forhuman consumption. Ninety eight percent (98%) ofthe food handlers indicated that they recognized andappreciated the services of environmental healthofficers. All consumers reacted positively on beingadvocates for healthy kiosk foods and indicated thatenvironmental health officers should be vigilant inenforcing the laws and regulation that govern sale offood.


24

98

%

2%

10

0%

0%

98

%

2%

98

%

2%

98

%

2%

98

%

2%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Yes No Yes No

Foodhandlers Food consumers

Dis

trib

utio

n in

%

Visit & Inspect sale of food

Condemn & dispose of unsafe food

Take samples & prosecute offenders

Figure 2 Duties of the environmental health officer

ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION OF FOODKIOSKS The general environmental sanitation in which foodkiosks operate was found to be poor and not incompliance with the general hygiene standards(Kenya Food, Drugs and Chemical Substances Act,Cap 254 of 1992; Kenya Public Health Act, Cap 242of 1986) and therefore does not support food hygieneprinciples.

LocationThe food kiosks (n = 30) were located in areas thathad high density activities such as automobileworkshops/garages, petrol stations, welding, patchand painting units, motor parks, railway stations,market places, construction sites and governmentinstitutions (hospitals, courts, schools etc.). Thesurrounding areas were found to be unpaved, leadingto uncontrolled dust during the dry season andstagnant water and muddy conditions. Thiscircumstance made maintenance of hygiene in foodkiosks very difficult and hence created a source offood contamination (Alli, 2004:94; Bekker,2003b:19; South African Bureau of Standards,2001:8; Food and Agricultural Organization,1997:12; Kenyan Public Health Act, Cap 242 of1986; South African Act 63 of 1977).

Physical structure-hygiene aspectsSeventeen of the thirty (56.67%) of the food kioskswere found to be crude temporary structures whosewalls and roofs are constructed of corrugated ironsheets and structural timber members and did notcomply to the legal requirements (Kenya PublicHealth Act, Cap 242 of 1986). The remaining 13(43.33%) consisted of a dining area that was of apermanent nature complying with the legalrequirements and a semi-detached kitchenconstructed in the same manner as with thementioned seventeen kiosks. Forty percent (40%) offood kiosks (including the permanent structures) hadworn out floors especially in the kitchen which weremostly wet. This created potential sources of foodcontamination.

Waste handlingIn general the handling of waste was poorlymanaged.

Solid wasteNone of the food kiosks were in possession of properwaste receptacles (dust bins) with lids. However,solid waste was collected and stored in gunny bags,plastic bags, cartons, boxes and uncovered jerry cans(plastic or tin) in the kitchen or outside immediatelyoutside the door. No proper storage facilities wereprovided and therefore this encouraged solid waste tobe thrown into the nearby bush, streets, sidewalks,

gutters, open manholes, service ducts, streams orrivers. With the majority of the food kiosks (n = 30),it was evident that this waste handling practicesattracted pests such as flies, rodents, dogs, cats(National Board of Experts-HACCP, TheNetherlands, 2002:31-32; McSwane, Rue and Linton,2000:300). Further, wastes improperly disposed ofmay be detrimental to the environmemt (Umoh andOdoba, 1999).

Liquid wasteObservation during the study period revealed that79.2% of food kiosks (n = 30) disposed of wastewater around the open yard and 10.8% disposed of itin the sewer line and 10% directed into the nearbystream. Liquid waste disposed of in this mannermade the yards unsightly, wet and resulted in theattraction of pests such as flies and cockroaches(National Board of Experts-HACCP, TheNetherlands, 2002:31-32; McSwane, Rue and Linton,2000:300).

Sanitary facilitiesFifty (82%) of the food handlers (n = 61) indicatedthat they did not have toilets while 11 (18%)indicated that they had. Observation howeverrevealed that 93.3% of the food kiosks (n = 30) hadno form of toilet dedicated to the food kiosk, whileonly 6.7% had some form (limited structure) of atoilet in the yard. Food handlers indicated that theyused the neighbourhood toilets such as the municipalpublic toilet or the railway station toilets. A smallnumber (1.64%) indicated that they do not use thetoilet at all while on duty. The general reasons given for not having the toiletincluded:

The temporary nature of the kiosk;The land tenure-ship;The municipal bye-laws do not allow the provision of pit latrines in areas that are serviced by a sewer line;Financial constraints, andRegular harassment and demolitions by the local authorities.

It was clear from observations made by participatingEnvironmental Health Officers that none of the fewtoilets were well maintained and cleaned. Lack ofsanitary facilities like toilets are correlative withimproper food handling

Hand washing facilitiesImprovised hand washing facilities without hot waterwere provided for use by both food handlers andconsumers by 90% of the food kiosks (n = 30), whilethe remaining 10% did not have any hand washingfacilities. Most (66.7%) of the hand washing facilitieswere not supplied with soap but only provided it onrequest. Reasons given for not providing soap at the


25

facility included rampant theft and abuse of soap byconsumers. However, when provided it ranged frompowdered washing soap to bars of soap which werenot of food grade (Bekker; 2003b:114). The fact thatan improvised hot water hand washing facility wasprovided indicated that food handlers knew that itwas necessary to provide such facilities in the foodestablishments. Lack of hot water in these handwashing facilities might be attributed to theirignorance, lack of adequate knowledge on sources offood contaminants and money driven attitude. Lessthan half (48%) of those food kiosks that had handwash facilities provided hand towels (fabric) fordrying of hands but in all instances were found to bedirty and wet. This was a potential source of foodcontamination.

Equipment and utensilsIn general most of the equipment, utensils andsurfaces that came in direct contact with the foodwere found to be worn out (cracked, chipped, dented,rusty). Observation by participating EnvironmentalHealth Officers revealed that equipment; utensils andwork surfaces were washed without any soap in coldwater that had already been used several times. Therinsing water was also re-used several times. Washing

utensils/crockery with soap reduced the level ofbacteria. However some gram negative bacilli suchas salmonella typhi are resistant to soap made fromunsaturated fatty acids while staphylococcus aureussurvive for 20 minutes.

Pest controlNone of the food kiosks had pest control programs.Rodents were observed in 13.3% of the food kiosks,while flies were seen in all the food kiosks. Thepresence of pests was as a result of food leftovers andincreased the chances of food contamination.

MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSISSamples of water (n = 12), cooked beef (n=32),cooked chicken (n=33), cooked fish (n=12), raw milk(n=13), food contact surfaces (n=32), food handlershands (n=60) and throat swabs (n=20) were taken formicrobiological analysis.

WaterAs previously discussed the water is mainly (85%)obtained form communal municipal taps, while theremaining 15% is purchased from water vendors, theorigin of the water is unknown. Figure 3 shows theresults obtained for the water samples taken.


26

0

5

10

15

Microbial

growth

E. coli Staph

aureus

Salmonella

+Ve

-Ve

+Ve -Ve

Figure 3 Microbial growth (+ve versus -ve) at 37∞ C (n=12)

Water obtained from the municipal taps was found tobe of a good standard and no microbial growth couldbe obtained. This mainly is due to the effectivetreatment of the water. However, the water is thenput into containers as previously indicated wherecontamination may take place. The negative resultsindicate that the municipal water treatment workswere effective.

FoodMicrobiological comparison (%) between cookedbeef, cooked chicken and fried fish

Figure 4 compares (%) the microbiological growth(+Ve) (37 °C) between cooked beef, cooked chickenand fried fish.

There were 70% cooked beef, 52% cooked chicken,75% cooked fish, 8% milk and 0% water positivesamples. This might be attributed to: abuse oftemperature, handling of food at ground level,washing utensils/hands using dirty water, preparation,cooking, storage of food using dirty utensils; coolingand reheating of food resulting into the proliferationof bacteria; poor hygiene practice of food handlers;

poor cooking methods; possible cross contaminationbetween raw and cooked foods. For nil negativefried food samples meant that high temperatures usedin frying are capable of destroying micro organisms.

Raw milkFigure 5 illustrates the microbiological growth (+Veversus –Ve) (37 °C) obtained for raw milk.


27

68.8%65.6%

62.5%

37.5%42.2%

30.3%

54.5%

24.2%

50.0%

41.6%

33.3% 33.3%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Microbial growth +Ve E. coli +Ve Staph aureus +Ve Salmonella +Ve

Beef Chicken Fish

Figure 4Comparison (%) of the microbial growth (+ve) (37ºC) between cooked beef, chicken and fried fish

01

0 0

1312

13 13

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Total count E. coli Staph aureus Salmonella

+Ve

-Ve

Figure 5Microbiological growth (+ve versus -ve) at 37ºC for raw milk (n=13)

For 8% milk, positive samples might mean obtainingmilk from reliable supplies and boiling it to thecorrect temperature, or due to (what was alleged)formalin and hydrogen peroxide being used inenhancing the keeping quality of milk.

Contact surfacesContacts surface samples were analyzed to determinethe hygiene status of food contact surfaces, foodhandlers hands and the effectiveness of cleaningthereof. All of these surfaces were analyzed for Totalcount and Staphylococcus aureus. Table 5 shows theresults obtained for the different surfaces.


28

Table 5:Microbial growth (+Ve versus –Ve at 37°C) on food contact surfaces and food handler’s hands

Surfaces Microbial growth Staphylococcus aureus+ve -ve +ve -ve

Tables (n=12) 12 (100%) 0 12 (100%) 0Pots (n=4) 4 (100%) 0 3 ( 75%) 1 (25%)Chopping boards (n=16) 16 (100%) 0 16 (100%) 0Hands (n=60) 42 (100%) 0 42 ( 70%) 18 (30%)

The general microbial growth obtained was toonumerous too count (TNTC). The test forStaphylococcus aureus was a qualitative test henceno enumeration was done. Staphylococcus aureus isassociated with food handlers and was found to bepresent on all the working surfaces, thus a clearindication of cross contamination. From this it isclear that the hygiene status of all the food contactsurfaces and hand hygiene are unsatisfactory and thatthe cleaning is not effective at all. As previouslyindicated, cleaning is done with re-used water,without proper soap and hand washing facilities arenot adequate.

Throat swabs As Staphylococcus aureus normally is present in thenose and throats of human beings and thereforeassociated with food handlers, throat swabs weretaken to determine the presence thereof in the throatsof the food handlers. Table 4.9 indicates the resultsobtained from the food handlers that gave permissionfor the samples to be taken.

Table 6Results of the presence of Staphylococcus aureus (+Ve versus –Ve) (37°C) in the throats of food handlers

(n = 20)

S. aureus (+ve) S. aureus (–ve)12 8

This is a clear indication that two thirds of the foodhandlers were tested positive for Staphylococcusaureus, therefore increasing the chance forcontamination of the food from the food handlers.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions There was significant breach between food hygieneand safety and the translation of a wide knowledge offood handlers to actual practices. This was primarilyattributed to financial considerations being more of apriority than food safety (Kotcheval andTerryl,1985:7).Most food handlers and their familiesare totally reliant for their financial support on foodkiosk enterprises (Khubeka et al.,2001:127; Mosupyeand Von Holy,1999:1278-1284). It is quite restrictive

for them to put food safety considerations before theeconomic needs (Kotcheval and Terryl,1985:7). The food kiosks enterprise involves very importantelements of sustainable urban development(Gnamnon-Adiko, 1996:11 – 14; Winarno and Allain,1991), including the convenient location of servicepoints and low input technology and offers jobopportunities for both males and females (Tinker,1997; Canet and N’Diaye, 1996). Food handlers inthese food kiosks depend largely upon local businessconditions and provide essential low cost,nutritionally wholesome food (Winarno and Allain,1991); hence the question of its abolition cannotarise. Consequently there is a critical consideration ineconomic planning and development in Eldoret aswell as in other areas in Kenya.

RecommendationsAlthough the improvement of the kiosk food industryis complex in nature, the following recommendationsare made:Due to the serious public and environmental concernsarising from this study, the lack of governmentalpolicies and protocols regarding food kiosks and thesubsequent enforcement (including the provision ofresources) need to be addressed as a matter ofurgency. It is clear that food kiosks cannot be wishedaway and that this industry should be supported as itcontributes to employment and the general economyof Eldoret. Therefore the findings of this researchshould be brought to the attention of the governmentat all levelsThe municipality of Eldoret has the responsibility ofmonitoring sanitary standards in food kiosks. Thisresponsibility cannot be relegated because of thecountry’s economy and the lack of EnvironmentalHealth Officers. Political figures should be sensitisedon the need for upholding sanitary standards as well-informed politicians can better influence food kioskoperators in their wards and constituents(Pfannhauser and Reinhart, 2000:5; Venatesh andDavis, 2000:187)Town planning strategies to make provision for thekiosk food industry (and other informal sectors) thatinclude zoning and the provision of properinfrastructure (water, sanitation, waste disposal and electricity) should be formulated andimplementedA program, initiated by all levels of government toimprove the current structures and the environmentshould be sought for in collaboration with the foodkiosk operators. Crude structures should over aperiod of time be replaced with more permanentstructures that make proper provision for ventilation,illumination, storage facilities, hand wash facilities,waste disposal and toilets (Kenyan Public Health Act,Cap 242 of 1986)Training in food hygiene is essential for foodhandlers because of the health and financial riskassociated with poor food hygiene (McSwane, Rueand Linton, 1998:3). Adequate training strategiesshould be established, implemented and maintainedto improve the knowledge and resulting attitude and practices of food handlers and food consumersThe Eldoret Municipality’s Environmental HealthDepartment should intensify health educationregarding food hygiene to both food handlers and consumers (Venatesh and Davis, 2000:187)Means to address the suspicion / fear for removalwith food kiosk operators should be found in order toassure stability in this industry, thereby improving onthe attitude and subsequent cooperation of the foodkiosk operators and the enforcing officers

Although not the objective of this study, it wasobserved that cooking oil is re-used for foodpreparation at high temperatures. It is thereforerecommended that the effect thereof on the cookingoils and subsequent health hazards be researched(Uwalaka and Matsuo, 2002:1-2)

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ACHO-CHI, C. 2002. The mobile street foodservice practice in the urban economy of Kumba,Cameroon. Singapore journal of TropicalGeography, 23(2) 2002, 131-148.BEKKER, J.L. 2003. Food safety and analysislaboratory manual. Pretoria: Technikon PretoriaPressBEKKER, J.L. 2003. Principles of food hygiene andsafety. Pretoria: Technikon Pretoria Press.CHAULIAC, M. & GERBOIUN-RENDLE, P. 1994.Children in the tropics. Street food, (213):5-41(s.l:s.n)CRYPOL, L. et al. 2002. Fast food service on highschool campuses. Results from the 2000 CaliforniaHigh School fast food survey. Journal of Schoolhealth, Feb 2002, Vol. 72 issue 2, P79, 5P 5 charts.Available at:(http://web/2.epnet.com/delivery.asp?tb=_1&_Ug=dbs+0+1n-us+sid+3291F...Accessed 2003/08/06 05:33:34DAVIES, A & BOARD, R. 1998. The Microbiologyof meat & Poultry. London: Blackie Academic andProfessional, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI8HN,UK.Department of Health Directorate: 2000. FoodControl – July 2000 – South Africa.DE ZUANE, JOHN. P.W. E. 1990. Drinking waterQuality standards and Controls. New York. VanNostrand Reinhold.Eldoret Municipality Report. 1986. Eldoret, Kenya.Food and Agriculture organization of the UnitedNations. 1988. Report of an FAO ExpertConsultation: Jogia Karta. Indonesia 5-9 December1985 (s.l:s.n)Food, Drugs and Chemical Substances Act, cap 254.Laws of Kenya: Government printers. Nairobi,Kenya.Food handler safety Byte 5TM. 2003. Safe hands: Aone-two punch:Available at: (http://www.foodservice.com/food-safety/fb5.cfm Accessed: 2003/08/11Food Safety. Available at: (http://www.fmi.org/facts-figs/foodsafety.pdf) Accessed: 30/03/2004GREENBERG, A.E; CLESCENT, L.S; and EATON,A.D. 1992. Standard Methods for the Examinationof water and waste water. 18th ed. Washington DC2005. America Public Health Association.


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HARRIGAN, W.F. 1998. Laboratory Methods inFood Microbiology. 3rd ed. London, California:Academic Press.KHOPKAR, S.M. 1994. Environmental PollutionAnalysis. New Delhi 110064: JaJ Press, Manyapuriphase I.KOREN, H. 1991. Handbook of EnvironmentalHealth and safety – principles and practices. Vol. 1,2nd ed. Chelsea, M148118: Lewis Publishers Inc.KOCHEVAL, H.L & TERREL, M.E. 1988. Foodservices Planning: Layout and Equipment. 3rd ed.MARRIOT, N.G. 1999. Principles of foodsanitation. 4th ed. Gaithersburg: Aspen publications.McSWANE, D, RUE, N. 7 LINTON, R. 2000.Essentials of food safety and sanitation. 2nd ed. NewJersey: Prentice Hall Inc.MOSUPYE, F.M & VON HOLY, A. 1999.Microbiological quality and safety of ready-to-eatstreet vended foods in Johannesburg, S.A. Journal offood protection 62, 1278-1284.MUKHOLA, S.M. 2000. Factors influencing thesafety and quality of street food in rural areas.Nangalama, 2003 – Personal interviewPFAANHAUSER, W. & REICHHART, W. 2003.Consumer attitude and food choices: Instute Nationalde la Recherche Agronomique 147 rue de France.Available at: (www.flair-flow.com)Accessed: 16/04/2004Public Health Act, cap 242. Laws of Kenya:Government Printers. Nairobi. Kenya.South African food stuffs Cosmetics and DisinfectantAct, 1972 (Regulation 1138, 1990).UMOH, V.J. & ODOBA, M.B. 1999. Safety andquality evaluation of street foods sold in Zaria,Nigeria. Food control, 9-14.UWALAKA, E. & MATSUO, H. 2002. Impact ofknowledge, attitude and beliefs about aids on sexualbehavioral change among college students in Nigeria:the case of the University of Nigeria Nsukka.Available at:(http://www.africaresource.com/war/vol3.2/uwalaka-matsuo.html)Accessed: 15/04/2004VAN DER HEIJDEN, K. et al. 1999. Internationalfood safety handbook. New York: Marcel Dekker,Inc.VENATESH, V. & DAVIS, F.D. 2000. A theoreticalextension of the Technology acceptance model: Fourlongitudinal field studies. Management science. Vol.46, no 2 Feb 2000.World health organization. 1996. Essential safetyrequirements for street-vended foods. 2nd revised ed.Document Who/FNU/FOS/96.7: World HealthOrganization. Geneva. 1996.World Health organization. 1996. Guidelines forstrengthening a National food safety programmes.1996.Networking Patterned on the Environment

Networking Patterned on theEnvironment

By Fred O’Brien, Honorary Vice President(Ireland) of IFEH

Some years back the National Association of AdultEducation of Ireland held a workshop at the LakesideHotel, Killaloe. Some 45 people from differentbackgrounds, principally in the fields of adulteducation and environmental science, came togetherand outlined and discussed their approaches todeveloping a course in adult education on “Caring forthe Environment”.

At the Killaloe workshop before very long it becameapparent that the great variety of perspectives andattitudes present could result in much disagreement.The variety of viewpoints and the depth of feeling onissues discussed had the potential to create asignificant barrier to communication and cooperation.In addition to the differences of opinion on what hasbeen termed “soft science” there was a variety ofscientific disciplines present with different concerns,approaches and priorities.

At an early stage it appeared to me that thedifferences in approach presented insurmountableobstacles. But I was wrong. On the afternoon of thesecond day we were taken on a guided tour of NorthClare, and visited the area known as the Burren, aunique environment where Arctic and Mediterraneanplants and other life forms thrive. As we walked theroad and the land of the area the backgrounds of thedifferent participants came into play in interpretingthe environment that we were observing.Agriculturalists, botanists, geologists, ecologists, thosefamiliar with the local history and culture and otherscompleted a picture of what we were looking at.

Finally I found myself with a small group lookingdown on a patchwork of ground about the size of atabletop. It contained perhaps a hundred or moretypes of plants with all variety of beautiful flowers,and, within these, a mix of living creatures, includinginsects, spiders and worms.

Having experienced this patch of the environment interms of its great diversity and overall unity, in whichinterconnections, interrelationships andinterdependencies revealed the importance of eachelement and the significance of the overall pattern, Iwas struck by the fact that a group of people couldform a network, the model of which was theenvironment itself. Each member of this diversegroup had an important contribution to make and ournetworking was of a pattern of nature.


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The environment itself is a unifying force and theenvironmental health global stewardship challenge isan opportunity to establish a form of networkinglocally and internationally to the significant benefit ofthe world community. Human beings aredistinguished by a special and complementarycapacity for service, which, when properly exercised,can renew the quality of the environment andpromote the well being of all peoples. It is necessary

to break down the barriers between the socialpartners influencing environmental health, and topromote a science of the heart where thecomplementary capacity for service in eachindividual is recognized, appreciated and encouraged.

The foregoing was a personal story that the authorexperienced and contributed in part to the ‘HealingCycle’ and ‘Pattern in Nature’ flowcharts set out below.


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Environmental Health Stewardship

develop pattern ofhuman relationships

- informed by -

pattern disclosed in nature

relationships between

individuals, and the communityfamilies, of the whole family

representative bodies of humankind and states

based on

environmental health ‘science’ andinternational principles of human justice

Healing Cycle

Bone Break Earthquake� �

Blood Flow Tsunami� �

Communication Communication� �

Damage/Response Damage/Response� �

Cells with Humans withGenetic Code Act Caring Imprint Act

Healing Process

Presentation to REHIS by Malta Association – Bernard Forteath, John Stirling, Hadrian Bonello (Malta) and Mike Halls

Kia Regner, HonoraryP.R.O., and outgoingPresident, Jerry Chaka

The Australians take over Dublin Jerry Chaka, Mary Harney, Ireland's Minister for Health & Childrenand Colm Smythe

726-9210 E&HI Volume 8 No. 2 2006 ISSN 1 Environment and ... · Cover Photograph: Trinity College,...

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