3481260 NZ General Rescue Manual 2006

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General Rescue Manual

March 2006


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Table of contents

General Rescue Manual March 2006 i

Table of contents

1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 11.1 Purpose ......................................................................................................... 11.2 Definition of USAR......................................................................................... 12 General rescue background........................................................................ 32.1 Objectives...................................................................................................... 32.2 The aim of rescue .......................................................................................... 32.3 Functions ....................................................................................................... 32.4 The psychology of rescue.............................................................................. 32.5 Rescue workers ............................................................................................. 42.6 Personal traits of the rescue worker............................................................... 52.7 Personal behaviour........................................................................................ 62.8 Team composition.......................................................................................... 62.9 Activation ....................................................................................................... 72.10 Deployment.................................................................................................... 73 Safety in training and operations............................................................... 83.1 Objectives...................................................................................................... 83.2 Introduction.................................................................................................... 83.3 The responsibility for safety ........................................................................... 83.4 Strategies to improve safety .......................................................................... 93.5 Basic precautions......................................................................................... 103.6 Personal protective equipment (PPE).......................................................... 103.7 Rescue fall protection .................................................................................. 113.8 Casualty safety ............................................................................................ 123.9 Confined space operations .......................................................................... 123.10 Moving in an unknown environment............................................................. 133.11 Searching a darkened room......................................................................... 143.12 Moving on stairs........................................................................................... 153.13 Vehicle safety............................................................................................... 153.14 Equipment safety ......................................................................................... 153.15 Public utility hazards .................................................................................... 163.16 Correct lifting techniques ............................................................................. 163.17 Team lifting .................................................................................................. 173.18 Warning signals ........................................................................................... 174 Incident ground actions ............................................................................ 194.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 194.2 Incident management .................................................................................. 194.3 Initial action strategies ................................................................................. 204.4 Site control................................................................................................... 204.5 Rescue by stages ........................................................................................ 25


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4.6 Continuing action ......................................................................................... 284.7 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 284.8 Crush injuries ............................................................................................... 294.9 Debris clearance.......................................................................................... 294.10

When debris clearance is necessary ........................................................... 30

4.11 Methods of debris clearance........................................................................ 304.12 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 304.13 The appreciation process............................................................................. 314.14 Introduction to Search and Victim Marking .................................................. 324.15 Disaster victim identification (DVI) ............................................................... 344.16 Suspicious circumstances............................................................................ 344.17 Conduct at the scene ................................................................................... 345 Ropes.......................................................................................................... 365.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 365.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 365.3 Types of rope............................................................................................... 365.4 Synthetic ropes ............................................................................................ 375.5 Kernmantle Construction ............................................................................. 375.6 Characteristics of Static Kernmantle Rope .................................................. 385.7 Characteristics of rescue ropes.................................................................... 385.8 Breaking force.............................................................................................. 395.9 Safe working load (SWL) ............................................................................. 395.10

Care and maintenance................................................................................. 39

5.11 Washing ropes............................................................................................. 405.12 Inspection .................................................................................................... 405.13 Retiring a rope ............................................................................................. 415.14 Terminology ................................................................................................. 425.15 Rope packaging........................................................................................... 435.16 Identification................................................................................................. 445.17 Record systems ........................................................................................... 445.18 Climbing tapes ............................................................................................. 455.19 Construction................................................................................................. 455.20 Size.............................................................................................................. 465.21 Abrasion....................................................................................................... 465.22 Tape strength............................................................................................... 465.23 The use of tape............................................................................................ 465.24 Care and maintenance................................................................................. 475.25 Safety........................................................................................................... 475.26 Flexible steel wire rope ................................................................................ 475.27 Safe working load (SWL) ............................................................................. 475.28 Construction................................................................................................. 485.29 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 485.30 Inspection of steel wire rope ........................................................................ 48


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Table of contents

General Rescue Manual March 2006 iii

5.31 Storage of steel wire ropes .......................................................................... 496 Knots........................................................................................................... 506.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 506.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 506.3 Stopper knots............................................................................................... 506.4 Figure 8 knots .............................................................................................. 506.5 Figure 8 knot (Single figure 8)...................................................................... 516.6 Figure 8 on a bight (Double figure 8) ........................................................... 516.7 Rethreaded figure 8 ..................................................................................... 516.8 Figure 8 joining knot (Figure 8 bend) ........................................................... 526.9 Double figure 8 on a bight (Anchor 8 or Industrial 8).................................... 536.10 Round turn and two half hitches................................................................... 536.11 Alpine butterfly ............................................................................................. 546.12 Double fishermans knot .............................................................................. 546.13 Prusik knot ................................................................................................... 556.14 Clove hitch................................................................................................... 556.15 Friction hitch................................................................................................. 566.16 Joining ropes................................................................................................ 567 Ladders....................................................................................................... 577.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 577.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 577.3 Construction................................................................................................. 577.4 Terminology ................................................................................................. 587.5 Extension ladders ........................................................................................ 597.6 Step ladders................................................................................................. 597.7 Inspection of ladders.................................................................................... 607.8 Maintenance of ladders................................................................................ 607.9 Single rescuer ladder raise .......................................................................... 607.10 Erecting and extending the ladder (2 rescuer) ............................................. 617.11 Erecting and extending the ladder (3 rescuer) ............................................. 617.12 Angle of ladder when raised ........................................................................ 627.13 Overlaps ...................................................................................................... 637.14 Securing ladders.......................................................................................... 637.15 Securing the head of the ladder................................................................... 637.16 Securing the foot of the ladder..................................................................... 637.17 Halving ladders ............................................................................................ 647.18 Ladder climbing............................................................................................ 647.19 Rules of 3..................................................................................................... 657.20 Helping a casualty down a ladder ................................................................ 658 Managing casualties.................................................................................. 668.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 66


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8.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 668.3 START ......................................................................................................... 668.4 Labelling ...................................................................................................... 678.5 Consumer Code of Rights- Health and Disability Commission .................... 689 Stretchers ................................................................................................... 699.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 699.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 699.3 Folding or pole stretchers ............................................................................ 699.4 Board rescue stretchers............................................................................... 709.5 Basket stretchers ......................................................................................... 719.6 Wrap-around stretchers ............................................................................... 719.7 Blanketing the stretcher ............................................................................... 729.8 Blanketing - Lateral/Recovery position......................................................... 729.9 Loading the stretcher ................................................................................... 739.10 The four rescuer method.............................................................................. 739.11 Blanket lift (four or six rescuers)................................................................... 749.12 Clothing lift (Three rescuers)........................................................................ 759.13 Webbing bands (Five rescuers) ................................................................... 759.14 Specialist lifting/loading devices................................................................... 769.15 Summary of stretcher types and uses.......................................................... 769.16 Lashing the casualty to the stretcher ........................................................... 769.17 Lashing the folding stretcher........................................................................ 779.18

Lashing - Lateral/Recovery position............................................................. 77

9.19 Lashing - Board rescue stretcher................................................................. 789.20 Alternate Board rescue stretcher lashing ..................................................... 789.21 Securing a basket stretcher with securing straps......................................... 799.22 Securing a basket stretcher by lashing ........................................................ 799.23 Improvised casualty harness ....................................................................... 809.24 Moving a stretcher over uneven ground....................................................... 809.25 Moving a stretcher in restricted spaces........................................................ 819.26 Improvised stretchers................................................................................... 8210 Stretcher based rescue techniques ......................................................... 8410.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 8410.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 8410.3 Definitions.................................................................................................... 8410.4 Additional equipment ................................................................................... 8510.5 Low angle rescue techniques ...................................................................... 8510.6 Attachment of the line .................................................................................. 8510.7 Creation of the friction/catch...................................................................... 8710.8 Limited High angle rescue techniques ......................................................... 8710.9 Guide lines................................................................................................... 8810.10 Single point lower......................................................................................... 88


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10.11 Two point lower............................................................................................ 8910.12 Four point lower ........................................................................................... 9010.13 Ladder Slide................................................................................................. 9110.14 Ladder Hinge ............................................................................................... 9311 Non-stretcher based rescue techniques.................................................. 9411.1 Objectives.................................................................................................... 9411.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 9411.3 Vertical Lift Knot........................................................................................... 9512 Improvised casualty movement................................................................ 9612.1 Objectives:................................................................................................... 9612.2 Introduction.................................................................................................. 9612.3 One rescuer techniques............................................................................... 9612.4

Two rescuer techniques............................................................................... 98

13 Anchors and holdfasts .............................................................................10013.1 Objectives...................................................................................................10013.2 Introduction.................................................................................................10013.3 Natural anchors...........................................................................................10013.4 Constructed anchors...................................................................................10013.5 Improvised anchors.....................................................................................10313.6 Precautions in operations ...........................................................................10313.7 Selection of anchors ...................................................................................10313.8 Sling loading angles....................................................................................10413.9 Attachment to anchors................................................................................10513.10 Safety summary..........................................................................................10614 Pulley systems and lifting........................................................................10714.1 Objectives...................................................................................................10714.2 Introduction.................................................................................................10714.3 Terminology ................................................................................................10714.4 Types of pulleys..........................................................................................10814.5 Characteristics of the lightweight rescue pulley ..........................................10814.6 Constructing pulley systems .......................................................................10914.7 Types of pulley systems..............................................................................10914.8 Mechanical advantage................................................................................10914.9 Precautions in use ......................................................................................11014.10 Lift/Lower rope rescue devices ...................................................................11014.11 Commercial pulley systems ........................................................................11114.12 Drum systems.............................................................................................11114.13 Standard procedures for use ......................................................................11114.14 Levers .........................................................................................................11214.15 Fulcrum blocks............................................................................................11214.16 Lifting ..........................................................................................................112


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15 Additional general rescue equipment .....................................................11315.1 Objectives...................................................................................................11315.2 Introduction.................................................................................................11315.3 Karabiners ..................................................................................................11315.4

Accidental gate opening..............................................................................114

15.5 Concerns with screwgate karabiners ..........................................................11415.6 Karabiner usage..........................................................................................11415.7 Shackles .....................................................................................................11515.8 Safety in operation......................................................................................11515.9 Generators..................................................................................................115 15.10 ELCBS and RCDS ....................................................................................11615.11 Power output of the generator ....................................................................11615.12 Precautions in operations ...........................................................................11715.13 Electrical safety precautions .......................................................................11715.14 Generator maintenance and regular checks ...............................................11815.15 Generator storage.......................................................................................11815.16 Lighting .......................................................................................................11915.17 Positioning lighting......................................................................................119


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Section 1: Introduction

General Rescue Manual March 2006 1

1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose

The purpose of the General Rescue Manual is to provide guidelines for standardmethods of training for General Rescue techniques in New Zealand. It is written toaccompany the USAR Awareness Student Manual and reference to this manual ismade frequently.

The development of the USAR structure in New Zealand has provided the impetusfor the review in 2004 of the General Rescue Manual. This, with an increasedemphasis on safety, has meant some techniques have been modified, others deletedor replaced. Interestingly, some of the core skills developed over the years in NewZealand have stood the test of time and are a credit to the pioneers of general rescue

in New Zealand.

USAR Awareness and General Rescue combine to provide rescue workers with arange of core skills to safely and effectively locate, extract and rescue victims from avariety of events. It is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather provide a frameworkfor the development of individual rescue workers, and ultimately rescue teams.

NOTE: This manual has been developed to support and accompany practicaltraining sessions delivered by suitably qualified trainers.

1.2 Definition of USARAn integrated multi agency response which is beyond the capability of normal rescuearrangements, to provide initial medical care and removal of entrapped persons fromdamaged structures or other environments in a safe and expeditious manner.

New Zealand has made some significant steps in the development of the USARstructure in recent years. The USAR Awareness Manual covers more about thehistory and structure of USAR in New Zealand, but of particular note are:

The USAR Tier System

The Responder certification (Orange Card)

USAR Registered Response Teams and USAR Taskforces.

Individuals receive Responder certification, and an Orange Card when they havecompleted recognised, unit standard based training in USAR Awareness, the Co-ordinated Incident Management System (CIMS), First Aid and General Rescue.

A USAR Awareness course should, in most cases, be completed in conjunction withtraining in General Rescue.


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2 General Rescue Manual March 2006

A Registered New Zealand Response Team is a team of people who have acollective level of skill (based on Responder certification) have met the minimumequipment requirements and have Standard Operating Procedures.

A USAR Taskforce is a national team of Taskforce Technicians plus support and

specialists.

A Task Force Technician is a person trained to carry out specialist structural collapserescue. More information on USAR Responders, Technicians and Specialists can befound by visiting www.usar.govt.nz.


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Section 2: General rescue background


2 General rescue background

2.1 Objectives

On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General RescueManual individuals:

should know:

The aim of rescue

and demonstrate awareness of:

the 3 categories of rescue workers

personal traits of the rescue worker

some important areas of personal behaviour related to rescue

2.2 The aim of rescue

To save the greatest number of lives in the shortest possible time and to minimisefurther injury to people and damage to property.

2.3 Functions

Common rescue functions include:

Access to, and the support and removal of, trapped people in the course ofrescue operations.

Assistance with the recovery of the dead (managed and conducted by NZPolice).

Provision of support on request to other services, authorities or specialistteams.

WARNING NOTE:

In order to achieve the aim of rescue, all rescuers must be trained inbasic life sustaining first aid to recognised standards.

2.4 The psychology of rescue

A moments reflection is all that is needed to realise that any situation requiring arescue operation, by definition is one which contains either dangerous or potentiallydangerous elements.

People tend to react differently to danger, but the most general responses areanxiety and fear, perhaps the most powerful of all emotions. It must be remembered

that it is not just the victim who faces the danger; in order to rescue the victim therescuer must first enter the site of the dangerous situation and face the same danger.


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Even if the main danger has struck and passed, additional dangers are still oftenpresent. The difference between the victim and the rescuer is that the rescuer isbetter able to cope with, or handle, the situation. This is because the rescuer has theknowledge and the resources to minimise risk and remedy the situation.

It is normal to be anxious and feel fear in the face of danger. These are emotionalreactions common to both victim and rescuer. Many other emotional responses maybecome manifest during a rescue situation - pity, disgust, contempt, pride, concern,and many more. These are often exaggerated beyond all reason by the urgency andpressures of the situation, thus lowering the efficiency of the overall operation.

The rescuer must be aware of the psychological needs of the victims, not just theirphysical needs, and be prepared to meet these psychological needs.

2.5 Rescue workersAn event requiring rescue operations will usually create three categories of rescueworkers:

Category 1 SurvivorsThe immediate reaction of survivors in a major incident, once they have discoveredthat they are not injured, is to help their neighbours and families. They often do notknow what to do, but obviously it is a serious situation and thus they feel they mustdo something.

These good intentions could aggravate the conditions of those being helped to thepoint where the loss of life may be greater than it should be. They could also get inthe way and interrupt the functioning of trained rescue teams. However, uninjuredand slightly injured survivors could well be the only hope of survival for many victims(e.g. if toxic gases, dangerous chemicals, fire, or danger of fire exist at the site of theemergency). The first group to commence rescue work at a site consists of thosesurvivors still physically capable of doing so. The potential for good is enormous butthe danger inherent in rescue work by untrained personnel is also enormous.

Category 2 Untrained personnelThe second wave of rescue workers is drawn from people either witnessing the

event from the immediate vicinity, or are drawn to the site by curiosity and a desire toassist the victims. Although not quite as emotionally involved as the survivors, thedanger inherent in utilising untrained personnel is still a factor which must beconsidered. On the positive side, they often bring necessary resources with them andcan be effective if brought under control and properly supervised.

Unfortunately, a large number of the curious are just that. They have no desire tohelp, but just look. They get in the way, shout advice, and generally add to theexcitement of the site the very thing that is least needed, especially from thestandpoint of victims.


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Category 3 Trained personnelThe last group to arrive at the scene is the trained rescuers: Police, Fire, CivilDefence, etc. It takes some time for various emergency services to mobilise andarrive at the scene. The quicker they can arrive, the less time there will have been forthe first two groups to aggravate the situation and create more dangers to surviving

victims and themselves. The well-trained team will know what to do, and how toutilise the available resources and untrained personnel in efficiently carrying out thenecessary tasks in a manner that will not further endanger anyone.

Note: Experience overseas shows that up to 80% of rescues are carried out bycategory 1 and 2 personnel. Category 3 personnel rescue 15% with the last 5%being rescued by highly trained specialist teams such as USAR Taskforces.

2.6 Personal traits of the rescue worker

Rescue work is not an easy task, nor is it necessarily a glamorous one. Certainly notall people are suited to such work. Physical fitness, personality, and emotionalstability are all factors in determining ones suitability.

Ideally, the rescuer will have the following qualities:

Interest-A genuine interest in rescue work, not just because of peer pressure,trying to impress etc.

Training- The will to continually undergo training to maintain a professionalstandard.

Cooperation- Rescue work is usually a team effort, hence cooperation with

others is vital. Dependability- The lives of victims and team members rely on the rescuer.

Initiative- The nature of rescue operations is such that it is often impossible toclosely supervise each team member. Each must be able to see what needsdoing, set priorities and do the tasks at hand.

Versatility- Each situation is unique. An individual must be able to apply awide range of skills and knowledge to new situations.

Physicalfitness- Rescue work of any kind is physically demanding and oftencontinues for long periods. Any physical limitations must be recognised andtaken into consideration.

Leadership qualities- Required by all rescuers at various times and tovarying degrees. Through the capable leadership of trained rescuers, manymore untrained personnel may be utilised.

Control over fears and phobias- It is important that rescuers know what theycan and cannot do. Part of this knowledge consists of being aware of anyphobias. It is also vital that the leader of a rescue team knows of any phobiasin team members. Some phobias that could seriously affect a rescuer andwhich may be identified in training are:

o The fear of the sight of blood (Hemophobia)o

The fear of heights (Acrophobia)o The fear of confined spaces (Claustrophobia)


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o The fear of water (Hydrophobia)

Good dress and bearing-Appearance should instill confidence in others.

2.7 Personal behaviourThe conduct of individuals says a lot about their psychological makeup andpersonality. The nature of rescue work is such that it is particularly important thatpersonal conduct does not aggravate matters, but rather assists in creating a feelingthat the situation is in competent hands, and everything possible is being done torescue and care for the victims. Bad behavior by an individual, e.g. bad language,reflects negatively on the whole team and its leadership.

A few of the more important general areas of conduct or behaviours follow:

AttitudeA serious, professional attitude must be maintained to gain

confidence and support. Arrogance and superiority create instant antagonism.Loud talking, joking, and horseplay reduce credibility; they create a feeling ofresentment and disgust and add to the confusion, thus hindering the work andadding to the state of anxiety of the victims. Rescuers cannot considerthemselves professional if they add to the confusion by loud shouting orfrantic gestures.

EmotionsEmotions are hard to control in the best of circumstances. In adisaster the control of emotions is a very difficult task but every effort must bemade to prevent emotions from influencing good judgement and competence.Regardless of the excitement and the severity of the incident, the rescuermust be able to remain calm, and be sympathetic without becoming

emotionally involved.

CourtesyCourtesy, tact, and good judgement are vital if the rescue task isto be completed quickly and effectively. Courtesy must be given to allconcerned.

ConfidentialityDuring rescue activities and training there may be timeswhen rescuers will see and hear things which will be deemed confidential. It isessential that they understand this, be professional and do not discuss thesematters with others.

A Code of Ethics for rescue workers is currently being developed by the International

Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) and when finalised should be usedas a guiding document.

2.8 Team composition

Team composition will be determined by the various organisations within each areaon the basis of safe accomplishment of set tasks. Regardless of the teamcomposition, a team leader must be appointed. A team of 6 8 members is requiredfor effective general rescue teamwork. Teams may be larger, but these are often splitinto squads of 6-8 rescuers to allow them to be easily managed.


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2.9 Activation

Each team should have a callout system established, and have determined the timenecessary to ensure a full team response. This system should include such details

as: Who calls out the team

Who will be responsible for them

Where to report

What functions the team will perform

What equipment to take

Likely duration of task or event.

2.10 DeploymentOn call-out, teams should clearly state to the organisation requesting their supportdetails of accommodation and any feeding assistance that may be required. Ifpractical, each team should be self-sufficient in the provision of food for the first 24hours.

Note: Minimum requirements for team number, structure, activation and deploymentare established for teams wanting to register as a New Zealand ResponseTeam.


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Section 3: Safety in training and operations


3 Safety in training and operations

3.1 Objectives

On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General RescueManual individuals:

should know:

Who is responsible for safety at training and rescue operations

Demonstrate awareness of:

Safe Person Concept or Risk Assessment Management System

Safe lifting techniques

Practically demonstrate a technique for, in an unknown environment: opening a door

climbing stairs

searching a darkened room

3.2 Introduction

The task of rescue involves the training of individuals and teams in a variety of skills,some of which, unless properly carried out, may well prove dangerous to the

individual rescuer, the team, casualties, or bystanders. In all cases, the safety ofrescuers is of prime importance.

It is therefore necessary, particularly in the early stages of training and exercises, topay a great deal of attention to safety measures, and to emphasise the need tostrictly observe and enforce these measures.

WARNING NOTE:

All rescue training and operations must be carried out with due regard to

safe work practices, occupational health and safety requirements, andcodes of practice and guidelines.

Many of the safety precautions to be observed are merely common sense.Unfortunately, they are so basic and simple they are often overlooked.

3.3 The responsibility for safety

Safety is the principal consideration in any rescue activity and it is the responsibilityof each rescuer to ensure that safety procedures and Occupational Health andSafety requirements are followed, instructions observed, and operations carried outwith a minimum of risk.


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There are a number of guidelines, codes of practice, regulations, and procedures thatrelate to safety, and to operational aspects such as critical incident stress, and riskmanagement. These are constantly being amended and updated it is theresponsibility of organisations to keep their procedures and policies in line with the

current guidelines, codes of practice and regulations. Reference to the most relevantof these are made throughout this manual, and were correct at the time of printing.

Additionally, individual services have procedures for the management of thesefactors, and for determining individual and organisational responsibilities. All of thesefactors must be taken into account in the management of rescue activities.

This section covers the key points of safety in training and operations as they affectthe rescuer, the casualty, or the bystander. Specific safety points will be covered witheach rescue technique, as they affect how the particular rescue technique isconducted.

3.4 Strategies to improve safety

There are a number of strategies/systems that have been developed to improve thesafety of rescue operations. No matter what system is used, the objectives are thesame: Identify hazards and risks and take steps to:

eliminate

isolate or

minimise the risk

For example:

Risk Assessment Management System (RAMS)RAMS is a process where the activities planned to be undertaken are evaluated fortheir hazard/risk and the steps that can be taken to reduce the risk are identified in asystematic way.

Safe Person Concept (SPC)The safe person concept provides a framework for the application of the riskassessment and management process. It is used extensively by the New ZealandFire Service, and can easily be adapted for the general rescue environment.

The SPC uses a 5-step risk assessment and review:

1. Identify potential hazards and risks

2. Likelihood - what is the likelihood of these occurring - certain, very likely,unlikely or rare

3. Consequences - what are the likely consequences - catastrophic, major,moderate or insignificant

4. Level of risk - what is the level of risk? Risk = likelihood x consequence

5. Actions - what actions can be taken to eliminate, isolate or minimise the risk.


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This is often presented in a table:

eg for General Rescue Training

Potentialhazard

Likelihood(Certain, Very

Likely, Unlikely,Rare)

Consequences(catastrophic, Major,

Minimal, Low)

Level of risk(Extreme, High,

Mod, Low)

Actions to betaken

Rope breaking Rare Major Moderate All ropes used to

meet standard (M)

Only approved

knots used (M)

3.5 Basic precautions

Safety Officers should be appointed for any rescue activity. Team Leaders andSafety Officers are responsible for safety at all times, but every team member needsto be aware of their responsibility to raise safety concerns at any time. The ordersgiven by these officers are to be obeyed without question or delay, as they are vital tosafety. In general, the Safety Officer should not undertake any other role - their focusis on safety.

Equipment must be regularly and carefully checked both before and after use.Ropes can wear and rot, batteries can corrode equipment, and machinery can breakdown. Faulty equipment can cost lives.

Any faulty or suspect equipment must be labeled immediately and removed for repairor replacement (e.g. the rope that a rescuer used, inadvertently damaged, but did notcheck, may kill someone next time it is used).

Personnel at risk by working at heights or depths must be protected by properlyestablished and monitored safety lines and systems.

Wherever possible, rescuers should adhere to standard techniques and practices.

In any rescue technique, safety limits and margins have been built in for casualty and

rescuer protection. These must never be ignored or exceeded.

WARNING NOTE:

Under no circumstances is smoking permitted in the rescue environment.

3.6 Personal protective equipment (PPE)

PPE should be issued/made available to each rescuer and is a key in ensuring the

safety of rescue personnel.


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The following is a list of basic PPE for rescue workers - consistent with USARAwareness Student Manual:

Helmet

Whistle Full-length clothing

Headlamp

Torch

Goggles

Dust masks

Gloves

First aid kit

Knife or shears

Boots

Hearing protection

Knee and elbow pads (advised for USAR Awareness)

It is important that each piece of PPE is appropriate for the task being undertaken,and meets the appropriate AS/NZ or international standard.

Helmets, in particular, must be worn at all times of risk, whether great or small.All safety equipment must be maintained and replaced in accordance with themanufacturers recommendations.

3.7 Rescue fall protection

Rescue personnel who work in situations where they could fall three meters or moreare required, under the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992 to protectthemselves from this potential fall. Consideration should also be given at heights ofless than three meters if the result of the fall could lead to an injury.

Personnel should wear a harness if there is a potential risk of falling. This harnessshould meet the requirements of AS/NZS 1891.1: 1985 Safety Belts and Harnesses

or equivalent standard, and preferably be of the full body type.

As there are many types of harnesses available including sit harnesses, fall arrestharnesses and rescue harnesses. Advice should be sought when deciding on whattype of harness you require.

Fall protection can be provided under two basic categories. The first of these is fallprevention where the person is restricted from gaining access to the edge where theycould fall, i.e. guardrails or a length of line attached to an anchorage and the personsharness which is short enough to stop them reaching the edge. The second methodis fall arrest where some device is used to stop a person from hitting a lower surfaceafter a fall i.e. using a shock absorbing lanyard or rope grabbing device.


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For further information regarding safe work at height the Occupational Safety andHealth Services Guidelines for the Prevention of Falls should be consulted.

3.8 Casualty safety

The safety of casualties is very important. Every effort, including the use of protectiveequipment, must be made to ensure that casualties come to no further harm once arescue team arrives at the scene.

WARNING NOTE:

Horseplay or casual handling of casualties is unsafe and must not betolerated.

For the sake of realism in training it is an advantage to use live casualties inexercises and drills. Teams should bear in mind the added safety required whendealing with heights, water, and contaminated areas, where dummy casualties maybe substituted. In most cases, it is only by handling live casualties in training andexercises that rescuers will appreciate the problems they will encounter onoperations.

3.9 Confined space operations

WARNING NOTE:

Confined spaces are very dangerousActivities in a confined space must only be undertaken by appropriately

trained and qualified personnel.

In rescue operations, many environments may fall within the definition of confinedspaces as laid down in Standard ASNZ 2865:2001 (Safe Work in Confined Spaces).

A confined space is defined as an enclosed or partially enclosed space which:

Is at atmospheric pressure during occupancy Is not intended or designed primarily as a place of work

May have restricted means for entry and exit

May have an atmosphere which contains potentially harmful levels ofcontaminant

Does not have a safe oxygen level

May cause you to be buried.

Rescue activities in such environments must be carried out with particular regard to

the problems of breathing in dangerous atmospheres.


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The RAPID programme, has produced a self-paced training module for confined

space awareness.

RAPID is a join initiative of the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management(MCDEM) and the Local Government Industry Training Organisation (LGITO).

3.10 Moving in an unknown environment

When in strange surroundings and unable to see, the safest course of action is towork by touch. The need for caution is obvious and accidents can be avoided byremembering a few simple points:

If you do not know what is behind the

door into a room, check the temperatureof the door with the back of your hand.

If it is hot to touch, do not open the door,as the temperature inside is excessiveand/or a fire may be exacerbated.

The procedure for opening a door that

opens away from the rescuer, if they areunsure what is on the other side.

The rescuer is bent over so that themajority of their weight is over their backleg. This position reduces the likelihood ofthe rescuer being pulled into the room if thedoor tries to swing all the way open in thecase of strong wind or a difference in airpressure.

The procedure for opening a door that opens

towards the rescuer, if they are unsure what

may be on the other side.

The rescuers front foot is placed firmly onthe floor about 20-30cm away from thedoor. This prevents the door swinging allthe way open in the case of strong windor a difference in air pressure. It allowsthe rescuer to close it if the environment

appears to be too hazardous to enter.


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WARNING NOTE:

Rescue workers should only enter smoke/dust filled room if required fortheir evacuation from a building during an emergency situation.

If you need to leave a smoke-filled room,crawl on your hands and knees. In thisposition you are below dangerous heatedgases and the bulk of the smoke.

You will also be above toxic, heavier-than-air gases that may have beengenerated by burning plastics andnatural materials.

If moving in upright position, shuffle, dont walk. The weight of the body should bekept poised on the rear foot until the advancing foot has tested that it is safe to moveforward; do not lift the feet from the ground they should slide forward as this willhelp detect obstructions and dangers.

As you move forward raise your free hand in front of your face, lightly clenched, withthe back uppermost, to feel for obstructions. If the back of your hand touches a live

electric wire, shock will throw it clear. Your hand will not grasp the wire as it would if itwere open.

3.11 Searching a darkened room

Make a complete circuit of the room,keeping close to the wall.

Feel under, and on, objects (beds, etc).

Open and feel inside cupboards,wardrobes, divans, and below other piecesof furniture

If a complete circuit is made in this way, inan average sized room, there should be little danger of a victim being missed.

As a final precaution, the room should be crossed diagonally to make sure thatno-one is lying in the centre.

In a larger open-plan area (office, etc.), adopt this method with diagonals tothe centre of the room from each corner. Partitions and furniture will also

hamper movement.


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3.12 Moving on stairs

When ascending or descending stairs, keep close to the wall, since the treads willusually bear weight at this point even though their centre may be weakened. It maybe safer, particularly in darkened environments, to go down stairs backwards. This

allows the rescuer to test the load bearing capacity of the next step before puttingtheir full weight on it.

If there is any doubt as to the strength of the stairs, allow only one person on eachflight at any one time. The balustrade should be used with caution; it may have beenweakened and may collapse if any weight is applied to it. If a stairway has beenseriously damaged, use sections of extension ladders to improvise a stairway.

3.13 Vehicle safety

Emergency vehicles must be driven by an authorised driver in accordance with theRoad Transport Act, particularly with regard to the use of warning lights and sirens.Vehicles and trailers must be maintained in a road-worthy condition, and regularchecks and inspections should be made.

Upon arrival at an accident scene, the rescue vehicle must be positioned with dueregard to the site hazards, and warning devices must be used to protect the teamand the vehicle.

The aim of a rescue team is to assist the public in time of need, and this shouldalways be kept in mind when the team is traveling to an emergency. Little can bedone for original casualties if the rescue team is involved in an accident en-route.

3.14 Equipment safety

There is a range of equipment that may be appropriate for specific situations. Allequipment should be used in close compliance with the manufacturers operatinginstructions, and the following basic safety rules for rescue tools and equipmentshould be followed:

Safety goggles and gloves must be worn when using power tools or

hammering pickets.

Careful safety consideration must be given before any modification ofequipment, or method of use, is attempted.

Only blades, fuel, oil, hydraulic fluid, and parts that are recommended by themanufacturer should be used.

Petrol driven motors must never be refueled while they are hot, and they mustbe kept apart from fuel supplies and casualties.

All specific safety procedures for rescue equipment must be adhered to, andregular and careful safety checks must be carried out both before and after

use.


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3.15 Public utility hazards

Public utility hazards pose a range of safety issues for rescuers. The followinginformation is taken from the USAR Awareness Student Manual (pg 38):

The disruption of gas, water and power services will further complicatea rescue at a collapse incident. The escape of gas causes two areas ofconcern. The first is the displacement of oxygen in a confined spaceand the second the potential for an explosive mixture.With the displacement of oxygen, the victims and rescuers could beovercome by the lack of oxygen. Ventilation or the use of breathingapparatus will assist, butatmospheric monitoring is essential to ensure a safe workingenvironment.If there is a risk of fire or explosion, cutting off the source of ignitionand providing

safe and effective ventilation can reduce this threat.

Note: Constant monitoring of air quality throughout the rescuecan reduce the likelihood of explosion that would cause furthercasualties and greater injury.

Due to the additional weight and the possibility of trapped victimsdrowning, water used for fire fighting purposes or from a ruptured pipemust be kept to a minimum and not allowed to accumulate. Watersoaked debris can also make manual removal efforts more demandingfor rescuers.Gas and water meters operating can indicate if either hazard is leakingor flowing and are usually situated at an isolation point.In order to monitor Environment and Situational Hazards, a SafetyOfficer should be part of each rescue team. The Safety Officers dutiesinclude:

monitoring the scene for unsafe conditions and acts

warning team members of impending danger

ensuring crews are rotated as required

monitoring the location of the team and its mission

3.16 Correct lifting techniques

At all levels of rescue and training operations, rescuers will be required to lift, haul orpush loads, and must be trained to handle these tasks properly and safely wheremechanical aids are not available or useable.

As the thigh muscles are stronger than those of the arms, back, or abdomen, itfollows that these are the muscles that should be used for safe lifting.


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The sequence of actions for lifting a load is:

1. Assess need (is there another way?)

2. Assess ability- get help if necessary

3. Clear path

4. Extend before you bend

5. Keep back straight

6. Use legs

7. Keep load close

Dont twist

Dont walk backwards

Dont step over things

Loads should be lowered in a reversal of the lifting techniques.

3.17 Team lifting

Team lifting is carried out using the same individual techniques already described,but with team discipline and control.

When the team is in position, the Team Leader, or when lifting a casualty, arescuer at the head end, gives the preparatory order: PREPARE TO LIFT.

Any rescuer not ready to lift must call: STOP, and the Team Leader/rescuermust wait until all is in order. In the absence of any such response, the TeamLeader/rescuer will give the order: LIFT.

On this command, all rescuers lift their portion of the load by the techniquealready described, slowly, and in unison.

As with the individual technique, lowering a load is the reversal of theprocedure with the Team Leader/rescuer using the commands: PREPARE TOLOWER,and LOWER.

3.18 Warning signals

INSARAG have developed a series of internationally accepted signals for use inrescue operations the signals detailed below are the same as those taught inUSAR Awareness.


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Action Required Signal

Evacuate 3 short blasts

Cease operations 1 long blast

Resume operations 1 long blast, followed by 1 short

Signals can be given using portable air horns, vehicle horns and whistles.

The evacuation signal should be relayed by members of the team to ensure thateveryone has heard it.

Note: ASTM Rope Rescue and other signal systems exist that conflict with theabove.


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Section 4: Incident ground actions


4 Incident ground actions

4.1 ObjectivesOn completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General RescueManual individuals:

Should be able to give a brief description of the:

principles that apply when setting up a Site Control

stages of rescue (REPEAT)

roles and responsibilities in relation to the dead

4.2 Incident managementThe first team arriving at an incident site will, at least initially, assume control. Thiswill require the set-up of an Incident Management System. The type of IncidentManagement System used will depend on many factors including:

Size of the incident

Number of agencies involved

Location of the Incident Control Point (ICP)

When a multi-agency response may be expected, then the use of a CoordinatedIncident Management System (CIMS) is appropriate. CIMS is a separate course andis recommended for all personnel involved in emergency management.

For a situation only requiring one team a Site Control system may be moreappropriate using the command structure already established for the team.

Whatever system is established, some basic principles apply including:

Personnel entry control system

Development of regular situation reports

Casualty tracking system Recording of key information normally done on incident control whiteboards.

A team command system will also be required when the team is tasked to do onecomponent at a larger incident.


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4.3 Initial action strategies

Following the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Okalahoma City, a series ofinitial action strategies were developed. These need to be considered at the initial

stage of the incident response: Constantly gather information

Set up communication quickly

Limit supervisory staff

Establish inventory control system

Centralise logistics

Determine length of incident

4.4 Site controlSite control will be set up in a suitable area close to the event. The Site Control Areais a vital area to ensure the efficient and effective control and management of anevent.

Site Control can be set up anywhere where it is safe from the effects andinfluence of the event and it must be at an appropriate location to work from.

Site Control will manage and control the personnel at the event site.

It will handle information flow both in and out of the event and take care of allsafety issues.

It will be responsible for situation reports being sent and received from theIncident Control Point (ICP).

Site Control in general is responsible for the efficient running of the event site.

It is a good idea to cordon off the Site Control Area, make it visible, wellidentified and easy to find.

Identifying the Site Control Area well saves time for personal entering the event area.

In any major event all actions taken at Site Control will be under the guidance of theIncident Controller (IC) who will be working to an Incident Action Plan, all instructionsreceived from the ICP must be acted on.

The only variation to this is if there is no ICP established, in that case the first toarrive at the event will be responsible to set up Site Control, secure the site and starton an initial Incident Action Plan.

4.4.1 Tasks required for setting up Site Control

Safety OfficerA Safety Officer must be appointed to take care of safety issues at an event.


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The Safety Officer will be responsible for all safety issues that may effect teammembers and casualties at the event site. This will include being responsible forchecking on any movement of walls, rubble material etc, and looking out for hazardseither present or evolving that could be a danger to personnel or casualties. TheSafety Officers responsibility is the safety of all personnel and casualties at the event

site and the Safety Officer must not get involved with other tasks such as rescue etc.

Note: A Safety Officer may also be required at the Safe Forward Point and/or atoperational sites of teams.

Information boardsSufficient information boards will be required to display all information such as: -

Registration Information.

Situation Reports.

Reconnaissance Information.

Map.

Incident Action Plan.

RegistrationAll personnel entering Site Control must be registered in and out and a permanentrecord kept.

A record must be kept of team members entering the event scene as well. This isparticularly important with team members entering into the danger areas of the event.

Reconnaissance teams and rescue teams must be accounted for.

The information required is: -

Name of the person entering.

The team or organisation they belong to.

Time in.

The time they registered out of the Site Control Area.

Stipulate the importance to register in and out when leaving the site.

Some form of registration may also happen at the Safe Forward Point.

Situation reportsSituation reports are a vital part of site control, they should be sent direct to the ICPon a regular basis.

It is imperative that the ICP be kept informed about the status of the event.

Requests for resources will be included in the situation reports and the reports should

be done at fifteen-minute intervals, sooner if necessary.


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Only relevant information should be sent and the content of the reports documented.

Any medium (radio, runner, phone etc) can be used to deliver reports.

Situation reports will include: -

The number of the report.

Information sent.

Time sent.

Method sent.

All incoming information from the recipient e.g. the ICP, must be documented.

ReconnaissanceReconnaissance teams will be deployed and information gained will be recorded.This information will be used in the Incident Action Plan and all necessary relevantinformation relayed back to incident control.

Record all relevant information on the map such as hazards encountered, location offound casualties, landmarks and any dangers.

Record all relevant information on the information board and keep a permanentrecord as well.

MapA map of the event area must be made. It must be precise and show as much detail

as possible and highlight known features, landmarks and any other relevantinformation. It is also important to show where hazards are on the map and identifyany other dangers that could affect both rescue team member and casualties. Showon the map the location of all known identified casualties and their condition, Green,Red, etc. This will save time for future teams going to rescue them. Add landmarks tothe map, these will act as reference points for those entering the event.

Highlight on the map the location where the Site Control has been set up and send acopy to the Safe Forward Point, this will aid personnel entering the event area to findthe Site Control after deployment from the Safe Forward Point (SFP).

Incident Action Plan (IAP)The plan to rescue the maximum number of casualties in the shortest possible time.

If a team is the first to arrive at an event and the event is not under control from anICP, the team will need to start to create an Incident Action Plan. The plan is basedon information gathered from all sources since the onset of the event.

The plan will be taken over by the Incident Controller as soon as an ICP has beenestablished providing the size and nature of the event warrants it.

Incident Control will be in operation at all major events.


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The plan will initially be oral instructions but as the management of the incidentbecomes organized, written plans will be created and administered by the IncidentManagement Team (IMT).

The plan must be achievable and establish the incident objectives.

The Incident Action Plan will: -Describe the overall operational objectives and strategiesEnsure continuity of control operationsProvide for effective use of resourcesIdentify total anticipated resources

Safe Forward Point (SFP)The Safe Forward Point is the area where arriving personal and equipment assemblebefore being deployed into the event proper.

It is important to remember that registration in and out is done at both the SafeForward Point and at Site Control. The Safe Forward Point will be established at asafe location near to the event. It may be inside or just outside the inner cordon.

The primary function of the Safe Forward Point is a place where teams andresources will assemble safely at an event.

Security will be undertaken at the Safe Forward Point and a safety officer must beappointed to take responsibility for safety issues at the Safe Forward Point.

Factors to consider when establishing the site are. Access to the event for all services.

Safety in the area selected. (Is it safe from all hazards)?

Is it safe from the factors causing the event?

Protection from the elements.

Large enough to cater for manpower, equipment and casualties.

SecuritySecurity personnel should be deployed to ensure that only authorised persons enterthe Safe Forward Point and Inner Cordon.

Only personnel wearing and equipped with all personal safety gear may enter theinner cordon.

It is important to establish security as soon as possible, utilize some of the firstpersonnel to arrive for this task.

Security is important to deter unwanted people from the site who could hinder orimpede the rescue process.


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Casualty handling and triageAn area will need to be set up to manage and treat the casualties being brought outof the event.

Although it is not the responsibility of the Safe Forward Point it is often located near

by.

Triage, treatment and care of the casualties is necessary before and until removal bythe professional services.

A register will be required for all the casualties processed. The information requiredwould be: -

Name of the casualties.

Condition and nature of injuries, Red, Yellow, Green, Black.

Treatment and care given.

Time received.

Time the casualties left the casualty handling area.

Documentation for all casualties treated will be necessary.

4.4.2 Other areas to consider

Staging area: -

An area where resources will be accumulated, this should be well away from theadministration and casualty handling area.Such things as trailers, rescue equipment, vehicles etc will be located there.

Welfare area: -An area where the welfare of all the personnel involved with the event can be cateredfor.Food, water, shelter and a rest area will need to be provided.

A welfare area may have been established outside the event area, however if thishas not been done a welfare area must be established to cater for all personnel and

casualties being effected by the event.

Weather:-Weather conditions will influence an event. Weather reports must be obtained andweather conditions considered. Cold and wet weather will have a detrimental effecton all personnel and casualties.

Time of day:-Depending on the time of day an event takes place. Rescue Personnel arriving at anevent could require specific resources such as lighting and water etc.


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Plan ahead to make sure that all the required resources are requested and are inplace well before it is too late.

4.4.3 Timeline for site control

1. The inner cordon may or may not have been established by the ICP for theevent.

If it hasnt it is important to establish the inner cordon on arrival at the eventand secure the area.

2. The first personnel to arrive will start setting up Site Control.

3. The area for Site Control will be defined taking into consideration factors suchas suitably and safety.

4. Registration area to be established.

5. Casualty handling area to be established.

6. Resource and Welfare areas to be established.7. Information boards put in place for: -

Map (showing hazards, victim location, landmarks, dangers, site controllocation)

All information received including reconnaissance.

Incident Action Plan. (Planning will start immediately)

Situation reports sent to and received from the ICP.

Hard copies should be made of all information written on any of the boards.

8. A Safety Officer appointed as soon as possible.

9. Reconnaissance teams deployed.10. Incident Action Plan (now becoming more precise and detailed)

11. Deployment of rescue team and equipment etc.

12. Prepare to receive and treat casualties.13. Removal of casualties for professional treatment.

4.5 Rescue by stages

No set of rules can be devised to give leaders specific guidance on how to tackle

every job, but by proceeding in stages in accordance with a regular plan they are lessliable to overlook important points and more likely to appreciate, and organise,appropriate action.

R.E.P.E.A.T.

This method of Rescue by Stages is consistent with the International Search AndRescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) rescue response guidelines.


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R Reconnaissance & Survey

E Elimination of Utilities

P Primary Surface Search & Rescue

E Exploration of all Voids & Spaces

A Access by Selected Debris Removal

T Terminate by General Debris Control

REPEAT is explained in more detail in the USAR Awareness Manual, but it isappropriate to highlight the key content of this document:

1. Reconnaissance & survey

This is the initial activity undertaken upon arrival at a scene. It includes theresources available to the Team, including personnel, equipment, localexpertise, level of training, size and complexity of task, etc. It also takes intoaccount external factors including the weather conditions, external andsubsequent threats, structure of building/s, surface conditions, etc.

Information gained from this activity should be used to compile a masterrescue plan of the area or site, where victims, resources, hazards, access,

egress, etc. are shown.

Reconnaissance is an ongoing activity, and is not completed until the operationis finished. Reconnaissance is:

C ContinuousA AccurateR Rapid, andT Thorough.

It is essential that every member of a rescue team be trained inreconnaissance. In many instances the Team Leader will be responsible for a

number of tasks, and personnel deployed must be capable of conductingreconnaissance and of reporting observations.

All sources should be exploited to obtain information regarding casualties,damage, and likely hazards.

The acronym TCHARD (or D-CHART) has been used to describe thereconnaissance summary.


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T TaskC CasualtiesH HazardsA Access/ExitsR Resources available

D Damage extent

2. Elimination of utilities

All utilities must be evaluated and controlled for the safety of all those involved.It does not involve any treatment to, or rescue of, victims, as the main need isfor information at this stage. (It is expected that some rescue activities will betaking place simultaneously.)

3. Primary surface search & rescue

Surface and lightly trapped victims should be removed as quickly and safely, aspossible.

Extreme care must be taken during this phase to ensure that rescuers do notbecome victims. It is at this stage that many of the techniques in Chapters 9,10and 11 of this manual will be put to use.

Where a number of structures have to be searched, it is vital to adopt adisciplined Priority Structure Assessment (PSA). The hazard marking system,and the victim marking system must be applied at this stage.

4. Exploration of all voids and spaces

All voids and accessible spaces created as a result of the event must beexplored for live victims.

Audible call systems can be used during this phase, e.g. line and hail searchtechnique (as described in Urban Search And Rescue (USAR) Category 1,Awareness).

WARNING NOTE:

Only suitably trained dog units, or specially trained rescue personnelshould be used in void and space searches.

5. Access by selected debris removal

The use of special tools and/or techniques may be necessary after locating avictim. It may be necessary to remove only certain obstructions to gain accessto the victim. Information gained from the reconnaissance can be helpful during

this phase.


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Local knowledge and/or expertise may assist in the identification of possiblevictim location, and also areas where structural safety is a concern. Thisknowledge may come from building wardens, survivors, engineers, etc.

Areas that have been identified by search dogs, or the use of electronic search

equipment will be given priority at this stage.

It would be unusual for heavy equipment to be used during this phase. Anexception would be when information indicates the possibility of other victimslocated where a large amount of debris is obstructing operations. The decisionto use heavy equipment during this phase must be given serious consideration,especially when there is a possibility that live victims are still in the debris.

6. Termination by general debris removal

This is usually conducted after all known victims have been recovered andaccounted for.

4.6 Continuing action

Having made decisions and deployed personnel, Team Leaders must ensurereconnaissance is continued with a view to allocating priorities for the furtherdeployment of resources.

Rescuers deployed on a particular building, damaged by blast or natural causes,

should make careful observation of how that building has collapsed. The art ofrescue lies in being able to identify and exploit, all debris formations such as voidsetc, which can be used to facilitate access to casualties once their whereabouts havebeen fixed by firm information or inference.

All rescuers should attempt to locate and identify the parts of the building, especiallythose parts where reconnaissance indicates casualties are likely to be. This willprovide a rough idea of where casualties might be found in relation to the variousparts of the damaged structure.

At times such as this, a leader will need to call upon all accumulated experience andtraining and combine them with effective decision-making.

4.7 Precautions in operations

In the interest of safety to both trapped victims and rescuers, a thorough appreciationmust be made before any rescue operation is commenced. The main safetyconsiderations are as follows:

Do not move any debris in contact with the collapse without assessing itsimportance to the stability of the site.

Always stabilise a collapse with shoring before entering a void.


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Entry and rescue procedures for confined spaces must comply with theprovisions of ASNZ 2865:2001.

Always appreciate the forces and their possible direction of movement in alltypes of collapse.

Pack and support vertically, horizontally, and laterally whenever and whereverpossible.

In all materials used, consider their strength in relation to the loads to whichthey will be subjected.

Any disaster will invariably result in ruptured electrical water, gas, and sewerlines and, although these will be primarily the responsibility of the public utility,it is essential that rescue personnel be trained to deal with such problems inthe initial stages.

4.8 Crush injuriesIt should be remembered that casualties may be found who have suffered severecrush injuries. These people will be suffering from shock and their breathingpassages may be clogged by the dust contained in the debris. Rescuers must takeimmediate steps to provide a clear airway for such casualties and treat for shock.

People trapped in debris and suffering from crush injuries need urgent, expertmedical attention. These victims should be treated, if possible, before release fromentrapment.

4.9 Debris clearance

Two methods by which people trapped under a pile of debris can be extracted are:

By clearance of debris, ie: by removing the debris piece by piece until thecasualties are uncovered and freed.

By the construction of tunnels and linking of voids (complying with confinedspace rules)

If anyone survives at all, inside or under a large pile of debris after a building hascollapsed, it is because some heavy timber, steel or concrete (a floor, or other portion

of the structure) has fallen or remained fixed, in such a way as to protect this personfrom the main impact and weight of the debris. Furniture can sometimes protect acasualty. Unless something of this kind has happened, it is unlikely that the casualtywill survive. This protection may be of a very unstable nature, and, unless great careis exercised, it may collapse.

The chances of an internal collapse occurring can be minimised only by disturbingthe debris as little as possible during rescue operations, and by making sure that, asone portion of the debris is removed, the remainder is not dislodged and allowed toslide or fall.


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Careful observance of these principles reduces the risk of further injury to trappedpeople, resulting in greater speed in the rescue operation. The ideal is speed withsafety.

4.10 When debris clearance is necessaryIf no information is available regarding the approximate position of people trapped indebris, efficient rescue can only be effected by total debris clearance. The essentialdifference between debris clearance as a rescue operation and debris clearance toclear a site is that, so long as there is a reasonable chance of recovering casualtiesby debris clearance, it must be carried out by rescue teams with the goal of rescuingany trapped victims that may remain. Rescue services must continue at work until itis certain that nobody is still alive, and that the responsible officer (usually theIncident Controller), according to the response arrangements, decides thatoperations can be discontinued.

4.11 Methods of debris clearance

When debris clearance is undertaken for rescue purposes, the debris shouldbe moved clear of the demolished building, and not merely from one part ofthe site to another.

Debris can be removed by hand or by using other receptacles found on thesite. In a confined space or over obstacles, it is best to form a human chain.

It may sometimes be necessary when clearing debris, to cut a lane through itto reach a casualty. Great care must be taken in so doing, to ensure that thesides of the lane do not collapse. These can be made safe, where necessary,by a simple form of shoring.

4.12 Precautions in operations

Exercise care in the use of edged tools in debris clearance.

Debris close to casualties should always be removed by hand.

Rescuers must wear gloves.

Rescuers must not climb over debris during the clearing operation unless

absolutely necessary. Debris should be withdrawn only when it is certain that no further collapse will

be caused.

Heavy equipment should be operated only at the direction of the officer incharge.

Movement of major debris elements must be carefully coordinated.


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4.13 The appreciation process

The appreciation process is a simple method of problem solving which is effective inrescue situations. It involves the logical assessment of the situation, and thereconnaissance, and results in the formation of the workable plan.

The appreciation process consists of six steps:

Step One Define the problemThe problem to be solved, or task to be accomplished, must be clearly defined. Theproblem may be too large or complex to be easily tackled, and may be divided into anumber of manageable elements, each with a set aim.

Step Two State the aimThe aim is a clear statement of what the team has to achieve in order to solve theproblem. The aim must be clear, concise, achievable, and expressed in positive

terms. The aim will form the mission statement in an operational briefing and shouldbe as simple as: To rescue the casualty from the bottom of the lift shaft.

Step Three Consider the factorsFactors are points relevant to the problem that has to be solved. Some factors thatmay have to be considered in an operational situation are:

Number and location of casualties

Time and space

Topography

Weather

Available resources, both personnel and equipment

Support requirements and availability

Communications

Logistics

Priority of tasks.

Each factor will lead to one or more logical deductions, so that the leader should bein a position to say: If this is the case then

Factors in an appreciation may be set out as in the following example:

Factor The casualtys legs are trapped under a heavy steelbeam.

Deduction The rescue team must use cutting and liftingequipment to free the casualty.

Each factor should be thoroughly examined and care should be taken not tointroduce irrelevant facts into the examination.


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Step Four Determine courses openAll possible courses that will attain the aim and that are practical must be consideredin the Courses Open segment. Only facts dealt with in the Factors should beconsidered and no new material should be introduced at this stage.

Step Five Decide on best courseAt this stage, a choic

3481260 NZ General Rescue Manual 2006

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