3481260 NZ General Rescue Manual 2006 (1)

8/8/2019 3481260 NZ General Rescue Manual 2006 (1)

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General Rescue ManualMarch 2006


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Table of contents

Table of contents1 1.1 1.2 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Purpose ........................................

................................................................. 1 Definition of USAR ......................................................................................... 1 General rescue background........................................................................ 3 Objectives ...................................................................................................... 3 The aim of rescue .......................................................................................... 3 Functions ....................................................................................................... 3 The psychology ofrescue .............................................................................. 3 Rescue workers ............................................................................................. 4 Personal traits of the rescue worker............................................................... 5 Personal behaviour

........................................................................................ 6 Team composition.....................................................

..................................... 6 Activation .............................

.......................................................................... 7 Deployment.................................................................................................... 7 Safety in training and operations ............................................................... 8 Objectives ...................................................................................................... 8 Introduction .................................................................................................... 8 The responsibility for safety ........................................................................... 8 Strategiesto improve safety .......................................................................... 9 Basic precautions...............................................

.......................................... 10 Personal protective equipment (PPE) .......................................................... 10 Rescue fall protection .................................................................................. 11 Casualty safety ............................................................................................ 12 Confined space operations .......................................................................... 12 Moving in an unknown environment............................................................. 13 Searching a darkened room......................................................................... 14 Moving on stairs........................................................................................... 15 Vehicle safety............................................................................................... 15 Equipment safety ......................................................................................... 15 Public utility hazards .................................................................................... 16 Correctlifting techniques ............................................................................. 16 Team lifting .................................................................................................. 17 Warning signals ........................................................................................... 17 Incident ground actions ............................................................................ 19 Objectives .................................................................................................... 19 Incident management .................................................................................. 19 Initial action strategies ................................................................................. 20 Site control ................................................................................................... 20 R

escue by stages ........................................................................................ 25


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Table of contents

4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30ii

Continuing action ......................................................................................... 28 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 28 Crush injuries ............................................................................................... 29 Debris clearance .......................................................................................... 29 When debris clearance is necessary ........................................................... 30 Methods of debris clearance ........................................................................30 Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 30 The appreciation process............................................................................. 31 Introduction to Search and Victim Marking .................................................. 32 Disaster

victim identification (DVI) ............................................................... 34 Suspicious circumstances............................................................................ 34 Conduct at the scene ................................................................................... 34 Ropes.......................................................................................................... 36 Objectives .................................................................................................... 36 Introduction .................................................................................................. 36 Types of rope ............................................................................................... 36 Synthetic ropes ............................................................................................ 37 Kernmantle Construction ............................................................................. 37 Characteristics of Static Kernmantle Rope ................

.................................. 38 Characteristics of rescue ropes...........

......................................................... 38 Breaking force.....

................................................................................

......... 39 Safe working load (SWL) ...........................................

.................................. 39 Care and maintenance......................

........................................................... 39 Washing ropes ...

................................................................................

.......... 40 Inspection .......................................................

............................................. 40 Retiring a rope ...............

.............................................................................. 41 Terminology ................................................................................................. 42 Rope packaging ........................................................................................... 43 Identification................................................................................................. 44 Record systems ........................................................................................... 44 Climbing tapes ............................................................................................. 45 Construction................................................................................................. 45 Size.............................................................................................................. 46 Abrasion....................................................................................................... 46 Tape strength............................................................................................... 46 The use of tape ............................................................................................ 46 Care and maintenance................................................

................................. 47 Safety.....................................

...................................................................... 47 Flexible steel wire rope .............................................................


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................... 47 Safe working load (SWL) .................................

............................................ 47 Construction....................

............................................................................. 48Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 48 Inspection of steel wire rope ........................................................................ 48General Rescue Manual - March 2006


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Table of contents

5.31 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 77.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.187.19 7.20 8 8.1

Storage of steel wire ropes ....................................................

...................... 49 Knots.................................................

.......................................................... 50 Objectives .......

................................................................................

............. 50 Introduction ..................................................

................................................ 50 Stopper knots...............

................................................................................50 Figure 8 knots .............................................................................................. 50 Figure 8 knot (Single figure 8)...................................................................... 51 Figure 8 on a bight (Double figure 8) ...........................................................51 Rethreaded figure 8 ..................................................................................... 51 Figure 8 joining knot (Figure 8 bend) ..........

................................................. 52 Double figure 8 on a bight(Anchor 8 or Industrial 8).................................... 53 Round turn andtwo half hitches................................................................... 53 Alpine butterfly ............................................................................................. 54 Double fishermans knot .............................................................................. 54 Prusik knot ................................................................................................... 55 Clove hitch ................................................................................................... 55 Friction hitch................................................................................................. 56 Joining ropes................................................................................................ 56 Ladders....................................................................................................... 57 Ob

jectives .................................................................................................... 57 Introduction .................................................................................................. 57 Construction................................................................................................. 57 Terminology ................................................................................................. 58 Extension ladders ........................................................................................59 Step ladders................................................................................................. 59 Inspection of ladders.................................................................................... 60 Maintenance ofladders................................................................................ 60 Single rescuer ladder raise .......................................................................... 60 Erecting and extending the ladder (2 rescuer) ............................................. 61 Erecting and extending theladder (3 rescuer) ............................................. 61 Angle of ladder when raised ........................................................................ 62 Overlaps ...................................................................................................... 63 Securing ladders .......................................................................................... 63 Securing the head of the ladder ................................................................... 63 Securing the foot of the ladder ..................................................................... 63 Halving ladders ............................................................................................ 64 Ladder climbing............................................................................................ 64 Rules of 3.........................................

............................................................ 65 Helping a casualty down a ladder ................................................................ 65 Managing casualties........................................................


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.......................... 66 Objectives .......................................

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8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10

Introduction ...................................................................

............................... 66 START .......................................

.................................................................. 66 Labelling

................................................................................

...................... 67 Consumer Code of Rights- Health and Disability Commission .................... 68 Stretchers ................................................................................................... 69 Objectives .................................................................................................... 69 Introduction .................................................................................................. 69 Folding or pole stretchers ............................................................................ 69 Board rescue stretchers............................................................................... 70 Basket stretchers .....................................

.................................................... 71 Wrap-around stretchers ............................................................................... 71 Blanketing the stretcher ............................................................................... 72 Blanketing - Lateral/Recovery position......................................................... 72 Loading the stretcher ................................................................................... 73 The four rescuer method.............................................................................. 73 Blanket lift (four or six rescuers)................................................................... 74 Clothing lift (Three rescuers)........................................................................ 75 Webbing bands (Five rescuers) ................................................................... 75 Specialist lifting/loading devices................................................................... 76 Summary of stretcher types and uses....

...................................................... 76 Lashing the casualty to the stretcher ........................................................... 76 Lashing the folding stretcher ........................................................................ 77 Lashing - Lateral/Recovery position............................................................. 77 Lashing - Board rescue stretcher ................................................................. 78 Alternate Board rescue stretcher lashing ..................................................... 78 Securing a basket stretcher with securing straps......................................... 79 Securing a basket stretcher by lashing ........................................................ 79 Improvised casualty harness ....................................................................... 80 Moving a stretcher over uneven ground....................................................... 80 Moving a stretcher in restricted spaces........................................................ 81 Improvised stretchers................................................................................... 82 Stretcher based rescue techniques ......................................................... 84 Objectives .................................................................................................... 84 Introduction .................................................................................................. 84 Definitions ....................................................................................................84 Additional equipment ................................................................................... 85 Low angle rescue techniques ...................................................................... 85 Attachment of the line ..................................................................................85 Creation of the friction/catch ................................................

...................... 87 Limited High angle rescue techniques .................

........................................ 87 Guide lines ........................

........................................................................... 88 S


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ingle point lower......................................................................................... 88

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10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16

Two point lower.................................................................

........................... 89 Four point lower ................................

........................................................... 90 Ladder Slide.....

................................................................................

............ 91 Ladder Hinge ...................................................

............................................ 93 Non-stretcher based rescue techniques.................................................. 94 Objectives .................................................................................................... 94 Introduction .................................................................................................. 94 Vertical Lift Knot........................................................................................... 95 Improvised casualty movement................................................................ 96 Objectives: ..................................................

................................................. 96 Introduction ..............................................................................................

.... 96 One rescuer techniques..................................................

............................. 96 Two rescuer techniques.........................

...................................................... 98 Anchors and holdfasts

.............................................................................100Objectives ...................................................................................................100 Introduction .................................................................................................100 Natural anchors...........................................................................................100 Constructed anchors...................................................................................100 Improvised anchors.....................................................................................103 Precauti

ons in operations ...........................................................................103 Selection of anchors ...................................................................................103 Sling loading angles....................................................................................104 Attachment to anchors ................................................................................105 Safety summary ..........................................................................................106 Pulley systems and lifting ........................................................................107 Objectives ...................................................................................................107 Introduction .................................................................................................107 Terminology ................................................................................................107 Types of pulleys ..........................................................................................108 Characteristics of the lightweight rescue pulley ..........................................108 Constructing pulley systems .......................................................................109Types of pulley systems..............................................................................109 Mechanical advantage ................................................................................109 Precautions in use ......................................................................................110 Lift/Lower rope rescue devices ...................................................................110 Commercial pulley systems ........................................................................111 Drum systems .............................................................................................111 Standard procedures for use ...........................................................

...........111 Levers ..........................................................

...............................................112 Fulcrum blocks...............

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Lifting ..........................................................................................................112


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15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17

Additional general rescue equipment .....................................................113 Objectives ........................................................

...........................................113 Introduction ....................

.............................................................................113Karabiners ..................................................................................................113 Accidental gate opening..............................................................................114 Concerns with screwgate karabiners ..........................................................114 Karabiner usage..........................................................................................114 Shackles .....................................................................................................115 Safety in operation ......................................................................................115 Generators..................................................................................................115 ELCBS and RCDS ..........................

..........................................................116 Power output of the generator ....................................................................116 Precautions in operations ...........................................................................117 Electrical safety precautions .......................................................................117 Generator maintenance andregular checks ...............................................118 Generator storage.......................................................................................118 Lighting .......................................................................................................119 Positioning lighting ......................................................................................119

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Section 1: Introduction

11.1

IntroductionPurpose

The purpose of the General Rescue Manual is to provide guidelines for standard methods of training for General Rescue techniques in New Zealand. It is written to accompany the USAR Awareness Student Manual and reference to this manual is made frequently. The development of the USAR structure in New Zealand has providedthe impetus for the review in 2004 of the General Rescue Manual. This, with anincreased emphasis on safety, has meant some techniques have been modified, others deleted or replaced. Interestingly, some of the core skills developed over the years in New Zealand have stood the test of time and are a credit to the pioneers of general rescue in New Zealand. USAR Awareness and General Rescue combineto provide rescue workers with a range of core skills to safely and effectivelylocate, extract and rescue victims from a variety of events. It is not intended

to be exhaustive, but rather provide a framework for the development of individual rescue workers, and ultimately rescue teams. NOTE: This manual has been developed to support and accompany practical training sessions delivered by suitablyqualified trainers.

1.2

Definition of USAR

An integrated multi agency response which is beyond the capability of normal rescue arrangements, to provide initial medical care and removal of entrapped persons from damaged structures or other environments in a safe and expeditious manner. New Zealand has made some significant steps in the development of the USAR st

ructure in recent years. The USAR Awareness Manual covers more about the historyand structure of USAR in New Zealand, but of particular note are: The USAR TierSystem The Responder certification (Orange Card) USAR Registered Response Teamsand USAR Taskforces.

Individuals receive Responder certification, and an Orange Card when they have completed recognised, unit standard based training in USAR Awareness, the Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS), First Aid and General Rescue. A USAR Awareness course should, in most cases, be completed in conjunction with training in General Rescue.


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A Registered New Zealand Response Team is a team of people who have a collectivelevel of skill (based on Responder certification) have met the minimum equipment requirements and have Standard Operating Procedures. A USAR Taskforce is a national team of Taskforce Technicians plus support and specialists. A Task Force Technician is a person trained to carry out specialist structural collapse rescue

. More information on USAR Responders, Technicians and Specialists can be foundby visiting www.usar.govt.nz.

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Section 2: General rescue background

22.1

General rescue backgroundObjectives

On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General RescueManual individuals: should know: The aim of rescue and demonstrate awareness of: the 3 categories of rescue workers personal traits of the rescue worker some important areas of personal behaviour related to rescue

2.2

The aim of rescue

To save the greatest number of lives in the shortest possible time and to minimise further injury to people and damage to property.

2.3

Functions

Common rescue functions include: Access to, and the support and removal of, trapped people in the course of rescue operations. Assistance with the recovery of the dead (managed and conducted by NZ Police). Provision of support on request toother services, authorities or specialist teams.

WARNING NOTE: In order to achieve the aim of rescue, all rescuers must be trained in basic life sustaining first aid to recognised standards.

2.4

The psychology of rescue

A moments reflection is all that is needed to realise that any situation requiring a rescue operation, by definition is one which contains either dangerous or potentially dangerous elements. People tend to react differently to danger, but the most general responses are anxiety and fear, perhaps the most powerful of allemotions. It must be remembered that it is not just the victim who faces the danger; in order to rescue the victim the rescuer must first enter the site of thedangerous situation and face the same danger.


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Even if the main danger has struck and passed, additional dangers are still often present. The difference between the victim and the rescuer is that the rescueris better able to cope with, or handle, the situation. This is because the rescuer has the knowledge and the resources to minimise risk and remedy the situation. It is normal to be anxious and feel fear in the face of danger. These are emo

tional reactions common to both victim and rescuer. Many other emotional responses may become manifest during a rescue situation - pity, disgust, contempt, pride, concern, and many more. These are often exaggerated beyond all reason by theurgency and pressures of the situation, thus lowering the efficiency of the overall operation. The rescuer must be aware of the psychological needs of the victims, not just their physical needs, and be prepared to meet these psychological needs.

2.5

Rescue workers

An event requiring rescue operations will usually create three categories of rescue workers: Category 1 Survivors The immediate reaction of survivors in a majorincident, once they have discovered that they are not injured, is to help theirneighbours and families. They often do not know what to do, but obviously it isa serious situation and thus they feel they must do something. These good intentions could aggravate the conditions of those being helped to the point where theloss of life may be greater than it should be. They could also get in the way and interrupt the functioning of trained rescue teams. However, uninjured and slightly injured survivors could well be the only hope of survival for many victims(e.g. if toxic gases, dangerous chemicals, fire, or danger of fire exist at thesite of the emergency). The first group to commence rescue work at a site consists of those survivors still physically capable of doing so. The potential for good is enormous but the danger inherent in rescue work by untrained personnel is

also enormous. Category 2 Untrained personnel The second wave of rescue workers isdrawn from people either witnessing the event from the immediate vicinity, or are drawn to the site by curiosity and a desire to assist the victims. Although not quite as emotionally involved as the survivors, the danger inherent in utilising untrained personnel is still a factor which must be considered. On the positive side, they often bring necessary resources with them and can be effective ifbrought under control and properly supervised. Unfortunately, a large number ofthe curious are just that. They have no desire to help, but just look. They get in the way, shout advice, and generally add to the excitement of the site the very thing that is least needed, especially from the standpoint of victims.

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o The fear of water (Hydrophobia) Good dress and bearing- Appearance should instill confidence in others.

2.7

Personal behaviour

The conduct of individuals says a lot about their psychological makeup and personality. The nature of rescue work is such that it is particularly important thatpersonal conduct does not aggravate matters, but rather assists in creating a feeling that the situation is in competent hands, and everything possible is being done to rescue and care for the victims. Bad behavior by an individual, e.g. bad language, reflects negatively on the whole team and its leadership. A few ofthe more important general areas of conduct or behaviours follow: AttitudeA serious, professional attitude must be maintained to gain confidence and support. Arr

ogance and superiority create instant antagonism. Loud talking, joking, and horseplay reduce credibility; they create a feeling of resentment and disgust and add to the confusion, thus hindering the work and adding to the state of anxiety of the victims. Rescuers cannot consider themselves professional if they add to theconfusion by loud shouting or frantic gestures. EmotionsEmotions are hard to control in the best of circumstances. In a disaster the control of emotions is a very difficult task but every effort must be made to prevent emotions from influencing good judgement and competence. Regardless of the excitement and the severity of the incident, the rescuer must be able to remain calm, and be sympathetic without becoming emotionally involved. CourtesyCourtesy, tact, and good judgementare vital if the rescue task is to be completed quickly and effectively. Courtesy must be given to all concerned. ConfidentialityDuring rescue activities and training there may be times when rescuers will see and hear things which will be de

emed confidential. It is essential that they understand this, be professional anddo not discuss these matters with others. A Code of Ethics for rescue workers iscurrently being developed by the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group(INSARAG) and when finalised should be used as a guiding document.

2.8

Team composition

Team composition will be determined by the various organisations within each area on the basis of safe accomplishment of set tasks. Regardless of the team composition, a team leader must be appointed. A team of 6 8 members is required for effective general rescue teamwork. Teams may be larger, but these are often splitinto squads of 6-8 rescuers to allow them to be easily managed.

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Section 2: General rescue background

2.9

Activation

Each team should have a callout system established, and have determined the time

necessary to ensure a full team response. This system should include such details as: Who calls out the team Who will be responsible for them Where to report What functions the team will perform What equipment to take Likely duration of task or event.

2.10 DeploymentOn call-out, teams should clearly state to the organisation requesting their support details of accommodation and any feeding assistance that may be required. If practical, each team should be self-sufficient in the provision of food for the first 24 hours. Note: Minimum requirements for team number, structure, activation and deployment are established for teams wanting to register as a New Zealand Response Team.


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Section 3: Safety in training and operations

33.1

Safety in training and operationsObjectives

On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General RescueManual individuals: should know: Who is responsible for safety at training and rescue operations Demonstrate awareness of: Safe Person Concept or Risk Assessment Management System Safe lifting techniques Practically demonstrate a techniquefor, in an unknown environment: opening a door climbing stairs searching a darkened room

3.2

Introduction

The task of rescue involves the training of individuals and teams in a variety of skills, some of which, unless properly carried out, may well prove dangerous to the individual rescuer, the team, casualties, or bystanders. In all cases, thesafety of rescuers is of prime importance. It is therefore necessary, particularly in the early stages of training and exercises, to pay a great deal of attention to safety measures, and to emphasise the need to strictly observe and enforce these measures. WARNING NOTE: All rescue training and operations must be carried out with due regard to safe work practices, occupational health and safety requirements, and codes of practice and guidelines. Many of the safety precautionsto be observed are merely common sense. Unfortunately, they are so basic and simple they are often overlooked.

3.3

The responsibility for safety

Safety is the principal consideration in any rescue activity and it is the responsibility of each rescuer to ensure that safety procedures and Occupational Health and Safety requirements are followed, instructions observed, and operations carried out with a minimum of risk.8 General Rescue Manual March 2006


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There are a number of guidelines, codes of practice, regulations, and proceduresthat relate to safety, and to operational aspects such as critical incident stress, and risk management. These are constantly being amended and updated it is the responsibility of organisations to keep their procedures and policies in linewith the current guidelines, codes of practice and regulations. Reference to th

e most relevant of these are made throughout this manual, and were correct at the time of printing. Additionally, individual services have procedures for the management of these factors, and for determining individual and organisational responsibilities. All of these factors must be taken into account in the managementof rescue activities. This section covers the key points of safety in trainingand operations as they affect the rescuer, the casualty, or the bystander. Specific safety points will be covered with each rescue technique, as they affect howthe particular rescue technique is conducted.

3.4

Strategies to improve safety

There are a number of strategies/systems that have been developed to improve thesafety of rescue operations. No matter what system is used, the objectives arethe same: Identify hazards and risks and take steps to: eliminate isolate or minimise the risk For example: Risk Assessment Management System (RAMS) RAMS is a process where the activities planned to be undertaken are evaluated for their hazard/risk and the steps that can be taken to reduce the risk are identified in asystematic way. Safe Person Concept (SPC) The safe person concept provides a framework for the application of the risk assessment and management process. It isused extensively by the New Zealand Fire Service, and can easily be adapted forthe general rescue environment. The SPC uses a 5-step risk assessment and review: 1. Identify potential hazards and risks 2. Likelihood - what is the likelihoodof these occurring - certain, very likely, unlikely or rare 3. Consequences - w

hat are the likely consequences - catastrophic, major, moderate or insignificant4. Level of risk - what is the level of risk? Risk = likelihood x consequence 5. Actions - what actions can be taken to eliminate, isolate or minimise the risk.


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This is often presented in a table: eg for General Rescue Training Potential hazardRope breaking

Likelihood

(Certain, Very Likely, Unlikely, Rare)

Consequences(catastrophic, Major, Minimal, Low)

Level of risk(Extreme, High, Mod, Low)

Actions to be takenAll ropes used to meet standard (M) Only approved knots used (M)

Rare

Major

Moderate

3.5

Basic precautions

Safety Officers should be appointed for any rescue activity. Team Leaders and Safety Officers are responsible for safety at all times, but every team member needs to be aware of their responsibility to raise safety concerns at any time. Theorders given by these officers are to be obeyed without question or delay, as t

hey are vital to safety. In general, the Safety Officer should not undertake anyother role - their focus is on safety. Equipment must be regularly and carefully checked both before and after use. Ropes can wear and rot, batteries can corrode equipment, and machinery can break down. Faulty equipment can cost lives. Anyfaulty or suspect equipment must be labeled immediately and removed for repairor replacement (e.g. the rope that a rescuer used, inadvertently damaged, but did not check, may kill someone next time it is used). Personnel at risk by workingat heights or depths must be protected by properly established and monitored safety lines and systems. Wherever possible, rescuers should adhere to standard techniques and practices. In any rescue technique, safety limits and margins have been built in for casualty and rescuer protection. These must never be ignored orexceeded. WARNING NOTE: Under no circumstances is smoking permitted in the rescue environment.

3.6

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

PPE should be issued/made available to each rescuer and is a key in ensuring thesafety of rescue personnel.

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The following is a list of basic PPE for rescue workers - consistent with USAR Awareness Student Manual: Helmet Whistle Full-length clothing Heales Dust masks Gloves First aid kit Knife or shears Boots Hearing protection Knee and elbow pads (advised for USAR Awareness)

It is important that each piece of PPE is appropriate for the task being undertaken, and meets the appropriate AS/NZ or international standard. Helmets, in particular, must be worn at all times of risk, whether great or small. All safety equipment must be maintained and replaced in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.

3.7

Rescue fall protection

Rescue personnel who work in situations where they could fall three meters or more are required, under the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992 to protect t

hemselves from this potential fall. Consideration should also be given at heights of less than three meters if the result of the fall could lead to an injury. Personnel should wear a harness if there is a potential risk of falling. This harness should meet the requirements of AS/NZS 1891.1: 1985 Safety Belts and Harnesses or equivalent standard, and preferably be of the full body type. As there are many types of harnesses available including sit harnesses, fall arrest harnesses and rescue harnesses. Advice should be sought when deciding on what type of harness you require. Fall protection can be provided under two basic categories.The first of these is fall prevention where the person is restricted from gaining access to the edge where they could fall, i.e. guardrails or a length of lineattached to an anchorage and the persons harness which is short enough to stop them reaching the edge. The second method is fall arrest where some device is usedto stop a person from hitting a lower surface after a fall i.e. using a shock a

bsorbing lanyard or rope grabbing device.


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For further information regarding safe work at height the Occupational Safety and Health Services Guidelines for the Prevention of Falls should be consulted.

3.8

Casualty safety

The safety of casualties is very important. Every effort, including the use of protective

equipment, must be made to ensure that casualties come to no further harm once arescue team arrives at the scene. WARNING NOTE: Horseplay or casual handling ofcasualties is unsafe and must not be tolerated. For the sake of realism in training it is an advantage to use live casualties in exercises and drills. Teams should bear in mind the added safety required when dealing with heights, water, and contaminated areas, where dummy casualties may be substituted. In most cases,it is only by handling live casualties in training and exercises that rescuers w

ill appreciate the problems they will encounter on operations.

3.9

Confined space operationsWARNING NOTE: Confined spaces are very dangerous Activities in a confined spacemust only be undertaken by appropriately trained and qualified personnel.

In rescue operations, many environments may fall within the definition of confined spaces as laid down in Standard ASNZ 2865:2001 (Safe Work in Confined Spaces). A confined space is defined as an enclosed or partially enclosed space which: Is at atmospheric pressure during occupancy Is not intended or designed primarily as a place of work May have restricted means for entry and exit May have an at

mosphere which contains potentially harmful levels of contaminant Does not havea safe oxygen level May cause you to be buried.

Rescue activities in such environments must be carried out with particular regard to the problems of breathing in dangerous atmospheres.

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The RAPID programme, has produced a self-paced training module for confined spaceawareness. RAPID is a join initiative of the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management (MCDEM) and the Local Government Industry Training Organisation (LGITO).

3.10 Moving in an unknown environmentWhen in strange surroundings and unable to see, the safest course of action is to work by touch. The need for caution is obvious and accidents can be avoided byremembering a few simple points:

If you do not know what is behind the door into a room, check the temperature ofthe door with the back of your hand. If it is hot to touch, do not open the door, as the temperature inside is excessive and/or a fire may be exacerbated.

The procedure for opening a door that opens away from the rescuer, if they are unsure what is on the other side. The rescuer is bent over so that the majority of their weight is over their back leg. This position reduces the likelihood of t

he rescuer being pulled into the room if the door tries to swing all the way open in the case of strong wind or a difference in air pressure.

The procedure for opening a door that opens towards the rescuer, if they are unsure what may be on the other side.

The rescuers front foot is placed firmly on the floor about 20-30cm away from thedoor. This prevents the door swinging all the way open in the case of strong wind or a difference in air pressure. It allows the rescuer to close it if the environment appears to be too hazardous to enter.


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3.12 Moving on stairsWhen ascending or descending stairs, keep close to the wall, since the treads will usually bear weight at this point even though their centre may be weakened. It may be safer, particularly in darkened environments, to go down stairs backwards. This allows the rescuer to test the load bearing capacity of the next step b

efore putting their full weight on it. If there is any doubt as to the strengthof the stairs, allow only one person on each flight at any one time. The balustrade should be used with caution; it may have been weakened and may collapse if any weight is applied to it. If a stairway has been seriously damaged, use sections of extension ladders to improvise a stairway.

3.13 Vehicle safetyEmergency vehicles must be driven by an authorised driver in accordance with theRoad Transport Act, particularly with regard to the use of warning lights and sirens. Vehicles and trailers must be maintained in a road-worthy condition, andregular checks and inspections should be made. Upon arrival at an accident scene, the rescue vehicle must be positioned with due regard to the site hazards, and

warning devices must be used to protect the team and the vehicle. The aim of arescue team is to assist the public in time of need, and this should always be kept in mind when the team is traveling to an emergency. Little can be done for original casualties if the rescue team is involved in an accident en-route.

3.14 Equipment safetyThere is a range of equipment that may be appropriate for specific situations. All equipment should be used in close compliance with the manufacturers operatinginstructions, and the following basic safety rules for rescue tools and equipment should be followed: Safety goggles and gloves must be worn when using power tools or hammering pickets. Careful safety consideration must be given before anymodification of equipment, or method of use, is attempted. Only blades, fuel, oil, hydraulic fluid, and parts that are recommended by the manufacturer should be

used. Petrol driven motors must never be refueled while they are hot, and theymust be kept apart from fuel supplies and casualties. All specific safety procedures for rescue equipment must be adhered to, and regular and careful safety checks must be carried out both before and after use.


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3.15 Public utility hazardsPublic utility hazards pose a range of safety issues for rescuers. The followinginformation is taken from the USAR Awareness Student Manual (pg 38): The disruption of gas, water and power services will further complicate a rescue at a collapse incident. The escape of gas causes two areas of concern. The first is the d

isplacement of oxygen in a confined space and the second the potential for an explosive mixture. With the displacement of oxygen, the victims and rescuers couldbe overcome by the lack of oxygen. Ventilation or the use of breathing apparatus will assist, but atmospheric monitoring is essential to ensure a safe workingenvironment. If there is a risk of fire or explosion, cutting off the source ofignition and providing safe and effective ventilation can reduce this threat. Note: Constant monitoring of air quality throughout the rescue can reduce the likelihood of explosion that would cause further casualties and greater injury. Dueto the additional weight and the possibility of trapped victims drowning, waterused for fire fighting purposes or from a ruptured pipe must be kept to a minimum and not allowed to accumulate. Water soaked debris can also make manual removal efforts more demanding for rescuers. Gas and water meters operating can indica

te if either hazard is leaking or flowing and are usually situated at an isolation point. In order to monitor Environment and Situational Hazards, a Safety Officer should be part of each rescue team. The Safety Officers duties include: monitoring the scene for unsafe conditions and acts warning team members of impendingdanger ensuring crews are rotated as required monitoring the location of the team and its mission

3.16 Correct lifting techniquesAt all levels of rescue and training operations, rescuers will be required to lift, haul or push loads, and must be trained to handle these tasks properly and safely where mechanical aids are not available or useable. As the thigh muscles are stronger than those of the arms, back, or abdomen, it follows that these arethe muscles that should be used for safe lifting.

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The sequence of actions for lifting a load is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Assess need(is there another way?) Assess ability- get help if necessary Clear path Extendbefore you bend Keep back straight Use legs Keep load close

Dont twist Dont walk backwards Dont step over things

Loads should be lowered in a reversal of the lifting techniques.

3.17 Team liftingTeam lifting is carried out using the same individual techniques already described, but with team discipline and control. When the team is in position, the TeamLeader, or when lifting a casualty, a rescuer at the head end, gives the preparatory order: PREPARE TO LIFT. Any rescuer not ready to lift must call: STOP, andthe Team Leader/rescuer must wait until all is in order. In the absence of anysuch response, the Team Leader/rescuer will give the order: LIFT. On this command, all rescuers lift their portion of the load by the technique already described, slowly, and in unison. As with the individual technique, lowering a load is t

he reversal of the procedure with the Team Leader/rescuer using the commands: PREPARE TO LOWER, and LOWER.

3.18 Warning signalsINSARAG have developed a series of internationally accepted signals for use in rescue operations the signals detailed below are the same as those taught in USARAwareness.


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Action Required Evacuate Cease operations Resume operations

Signal 3 short blasts 1 long blast 1 long blast, followed by 1 short

Signals can be given using portable air horns, vehicle horns and whistles. The e

vacuation signal should be relayed by members of the team to ensure that everyone has heard it. Note: ASTM Rope Rescue and other signal systems exist that conflict with the above.

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Section 4: Incident ground actions

44.1

Incident ground actionsObjectives

On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General RescueManual individuals: Should be able to give a brief description of the: principles that apply when setting up a Site Control stages of rescue (REPEAT) roles andresponsibilities in relation to the dead

4.2

Incident management

The first team arriving at an incident site will, at least initially, assume control. This will require the set-up of an Incident Management System. The type of

Incident Management System used will depend on many factors including: Size ofthe incident Number of agencies involved Location of the Incident Control Point(ICP)

When a multi-agency response may be expected, then the use of a Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS) is appropriate. CIMS is a separate course and is recommended for all personnel involved in emergency management. For a situation only requiring one team a Site Control system may be more appropriate using the command structure already established for the team. Whatever system is established,some basic principles apply including: Personnel entry control system Development of regular situation reports Casualty tracking system Recording of key information normally done on incident control whiteboards. A team command system willalso be required when the team is tasked to do one component at a larger inciden

t.


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4.3

Initial action strategies

Following the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Okalahoma City, a series

of initial action strategies were developed. These need to be considered at theinitial stage of the incident response: Constantly gather information Set up communication quickly Limit supervisory staff Establish inventory control system Centralise logistics Determine length of incident

4.4

Site control

Site control will be set up in a suitable area close to the event. The Site Control Area is a vital area to ensure the efficient and effective control and management of an event. Site Control can be set up anywhere where it is safe from the

effects and influence of the event and it must be at an appropriate location towork from. Site Control will manage and control the personnel at the event site. It will handle information flow both in and out of the event and take care ofall safety issues. It will be responsible for situation reports being sent and received from the Incident Control Point (ICP). Site Control in general is responsible for the efficient running of the event site. It is a good idea to cordon off the Site Control Area, make it visible, well identified and easy to find. Identifying the Site Control Area well saves time for personal entering the event area. In any major event all actions taken at Site Control will be under the guidance of the Incident Controller (IC) who will be working to an Incident Action Plan, all instructions received from the ICP must be acted on. The only variationto this is if there is no ICP established, in that case the first to arrive atthe event will be responsible to set up Site Control, secure the site and start

on an initial Incident Action Plan.

4.4.1

Tasks required for setting up Site Control

Safety Officer A Safety Officer must be appointed to take care of safety issuesat an event.

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The Safety Officer will be responsible for all safety issues that may effect team members and casualties at the event site. This will include being responsiblefor checking on any movement of walls, rubble material etc, and looking out forhazards either present or evolving that could be a danger to personnel or casualties. The Safety Officers responsibility is the safety of all personnel and casua

lties at the event site and the Safety Officer must not get involved with othertasks such as rescue etc. Note: A Safety Officer may also be required at the Safe Forward Point and/or at operational sites of teams. Information boards Sufficient information boards will be required to display all information such as: Registration Information. Situation Reports. Reconnaissance Information. Map. Incident Action Plan.

Registration All personnel entering Site Control must be registered in and out and a permanent record kept. A record must be kept of team members entering the event scene as well. This is particularly important with team members entering into the danger areas of the event. Reconnaissance teams and rescue teams must beaccounted for. The information required is: Name of the person entering. The tea

m or organisation they belong to. Time in. The time they registered out of the Site Control Area. Stipulate the importance to register in and out when leaving the site. Some form of registration may also happen at the Safe Forward Point. Situation reports Situation reports are a vital part of site control, they shouldbe sent direct to the ICP on a regular basis. It is imperative that the ICP be kept informed about the status of the event. Requests for resources will be included in the situation reports and the reports should be done at fifteen-minute intervals, sooner if necessary.


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Only relevant information should be sent and the content of the reports documented. Any medium (radio, runner, phone etc) can be used to deliver reports. Situation reports will include: The number of the report. Information sent. Time sent. Method sent. All incoming information from the recipient e.g. the ICP, must bedocumented. Reconnaissance Reconnaissance teams will be deployed and information

gained will be recorded. This information will be used in the Incident Action Plan and all necessary relevant information relayed back to incident control. Record all relevant information on the map such as hazards encountered, location offound casualties, landmarks and any dangers. Record all relevant information onthe information board and keep a permanent record as well. Map A map of the event area must be made. It must be precise and show as much detail as possible andhighlight known features, landmarks and any other relevant information. It is also important to show where hazards are on the map and identify any other dangers that could affect both rescue team member and casualties. Show on the map thelocation of all known identified casualties and their condition, Green, Red, etc. This will save time for future teams going to rescue them. Add landmarks to the map, these will act as reference points for those entering the event. Highligh

t on the map the location where the Site Control has been set up and send a copyto the Safe Forward Point, this will aid personnel entering the event area to find the Site Control after deployment from the Safe Forward Point (SFP). Incident Action Plan (IAP) The plan to rescue the maximum number of casualties in the shortest possible time. If a team is the first to arrive at an event and the event is not under control from an ICP, the team will need to start to create an Incident Action Plan. The plan is based on information gathered from all sources since the onset of the event. The plan will be taken over by the Incident Controller as soon as an ICP has been established providing the size and nature of the event warrants it. Incident Control will be in operation at all major events.

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The plan will initially be oral instructions but as the management of the incident becomes organized, written plans will be created and administered by the Incident Management Team (IMT). The plan must be achievable and establish the incident objectives. The Incident Action Plan will: Describe the overall operational objectives and strategies Ensure continuity of control operations Provide for eff

ective use of resources Identify total anticipated resources Safe Forward Point(SFP) The Safe Forward Point is the area where arriving personal and equipment assemble before being deployed into the event proper. It is important to rememberthat registration in and out is done at both the Safe Forward Point and at SiteControl. The Safe Forward Point will be established at a safe location near tothe event. It may be inside or just outside the inner cordon. The primary function of the Safe Forward Point is a place where teams and resources will assemblesafely at an event. Security will be undertaken at the Safe Forward Point and asafety officer must be appointed to take responsibility for safety issues at theSafe Forward Point. Factors to consider when establishing the site are. Accessto the event for all services. Safety in the area selected. (Is it safe from allhazards)? Is it safe from the factors causing the event? Protection from the el

ements. Large enough to cater for manpower, equipment and casualties. Security Security personnel should be deployed to ensure that only authorised persons enter the Safe Forward Point and Inner Cordon. Only personnel wearing and equipped with all personal safety gear may enter the inner cordon. It is important to establish security as soon as possible, utilize some of the first personnel to arrive for this task. Security is important to deter unwanted people from the site who could hinder or impede the rescue process.


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Casualty handling and triage An area will need to be set up to manage and treatthe casualties being brought out of the event. Although it is not the responsibility of the Safe Forward Point it is often located near by. Triage, treatment and care of the casualties is necessary before and until removal by the professional services. A register will be required for all the casualties processed. The i

nformation required would be: Name of the casualties. Condition and nature of injuries, Red, Yellow, Green, Black. Treatment and care given. Time received. Timethe casualties left the casualty handling area. Documentation for all casualties treated will be necessary.

4.4.2

Other areas to consider

Staging area: An area where resources will be accumulated, this should be well away from the administration and casualty handling area. Such things as trailers,rescue equipment, vehicles etc will be located there. Welfare area: An area whe

re the welfare of all the personnel involved with the event can be catered for.Food, water, shelter and a rest area will need to be provided. A welfare area may have been established outside the event area, however if this has not been done a welfare area must be established to cater for all personnel and casualties being effected by the event. Weather:Weather conditions will influence an event.Weather reports must be obtained and weather conditions considered. Cold and wetweather will have a detrimental effect on all personnel and casualties. Time ofday:Depending on the time of day an event takes place. Rescue Personnel arriving at an event could require specific resources such as lighting and water etc.

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Plan ahead to make sure that all the required resources are requested and are inplace well before it is too late.

4.4.3

Timeline for site controlThe inner cordon may or may not have been established by the ICP for the event.If it hasnt it is important to establish the inner cordon on arrival at the eventand secure the area. The first personnel to arrive will start setting up Site Control. The area for Site Control will be defined taking into consideration factors such as suitably and safety. Registration area to be established. Casualty handling area to be established. Resource and Welfare areas to be established. Information boards put in place for: Map (showing hazards, victim location, landmarks, dangers, site control location) All information received including reconnaissance. Incident Action Plan. (Planning will start immediately) Situation reports sent to and received from the ICP. Hard copies should be made of all information written on any of the boards. A Safety Officer appointed as soon as possible.

Reconnaissance teams deployed. Incident Action Plan (now becoming more preciseand detailed) Deployment of rescue team and equipment etc. Prepare to receive and treat casualties. Removal of casualties for professional treatment.

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

4.5

Rescue by stages

No set of rules can be devised to give leaders specific guidance on how to tackle every job, but by proceeding in stages in accordance with a regular plan theyare less liable to overlook important points and more likely to appreciate, andorganise, appropriate action.

R.E.P.E.A.T.This method of Rescue by Stages is consistent with the International Search AndRescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) rescue response guidelines.


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R E P E A T

Reconnaissance & Survey Elimination of Utilities Primary Surface Search & RescueExploration of all Voids & Spaces Access by Selected Debris Removal Terminate by General Debris Control

REPEAT is explained in more detail in the USAR Awareness Manual, but it is appropriate to highlight the key content of this document: 1. Reconnaissance & surveyThis is the initial activity undertaken upon arrival at a scene. It includes the resources available to the Team, including personnel, equipment, local expertise, level of training, size and complexity of task, etc. It also takes into account external factors including the weather conditions, external and subsequent threats, structure of building/s, surface conditions, etc. Information gained from this activity should be used to compile a master rescue plan of the area or site, where victims, resources, hazards, access, egress, etc. are shown. Reconnaissance is an ongoing activity, and is not completed until the operation is finished. Reconnaissance is: C Continuous Accurate A R Rapid, and T Thorough. It is esse

ntial that every member of a rescue team be trained in reconnaissance. In many instances the Team Leader will be responsible for a number of tasks, and personnel deployed must be capable of conducting reconnaissance and of reporting observations. All sources should be exploited to obtain information regarding casualties, damage, and likely hazards. The acronym TCHARD (or D-CHART) has been used todescribe the reconnaissance summary.

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T C H A R D

Task Casualties Hazards Access/Exits Resources available Damage extent

2. Elimination of utilities All utilities must be evaluated and controlled for t

he safety of all those involved. It does not involve any treatment to, or rescueof, victims, as the main need is for information at this stage. (It is expectedthat some rescue activities will be taking place simultaneously.) 3. Primary surface search & rescue Surface and lightly trapped victims should be removed as quickly and safely, as possible. Extreme care must be taken during this phase toensure that rescuers do not become victims. It is at this stage that many of thetechniques in Chapters 9,10 and 11 of this manual will be put to use. Where a number of structures have to be searched, it is vital to adopt a disciplined Priority Structure Assessment (PSA). The hazard marking system, and the victim marking system must be applied at this stage. 4. Exploration of all voids and spacesAll voids and accessible spaces created as a result of the event must be explored for live victims. Audible call systems can be used during this phase, e.g. lin

e and hail search technique (as described in Urban Search And Rescue (USAR) Category 1, Awareness). WARNING NOTE: Only suitably trained dog units, or speciallytrained rescue personnel should be used in void and space searches.

5. Access by selected debris removal The use of special tools and/or techniquesmay be necessary after locating a victim. It may be necessary to remove only certain obstructions to gain access to the victim. Information gained from the reconnaissance can be helpful during this phase.


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Local knowledge and/or expertise may assist in the identification of possible victim location, and also areas where structural safety is a concern. This knowledge may come from building wardens, survivors, engineers, etc. Areas that have been identified by search dogs, or the use of electronic search equipment will begiven priority at this stage. It would be unusual for heavy equipment to be used

during this phase. An exception would be when information indicates the possibility of other victims located where a large amount of debris is obstructing operations. The decision to use heavy equipment during this phase must be given serious consideration, especially when there is a possibility that live victims arestill in the debris.

6. Termination by general debris removal This is usually conducted after all known victims have been recovered and accounted for.

4.6

Continuing action

Having made decisions and deployed personnel, Team Leaders must ensure reconnaissance is continued with a view to allocating priorities for the further deployment of resources. Rescuers deployed on a particular building, damaged by blast ornatural causes, should make careful observation of how that building has collapsed. The art of rescue lies in being able to identify and exploit, all debris formations such as voids etc, which can be used to facilitate access to casualtiesonce their whereabouts have been fixed by firm information or inference. All rescuers should attempt to locate and identify the parts of the building, especially those parts where reconnaissance indicates casualties are likely to be. Thiswill provide a rough idea of where casualties might be found in relation to thevarious parts of the damaged structure. At times such as this, a leader will need to call upon all accumulated experience and training and combine them with eff

ective decision-making.

4.7

Precautions in operations

In the interest of safety to both trapped victims and rescuers, a thorough appreciation must be made before any rescue operation is commenced. The main safety considerations are as follows: Do not move any debris in contact with the collapse without assessing its importance to the stability of the site. Always stabilise a collapse with shoring before entering a void.

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Entry and rescue procedures for confined spaces must comply with the provisionsof ASNZ 2865:2001. Always appreciate the forces and their possible direction ofmovement in all types of collapse. Pack and support vertically, horizontally, an

d laterally whenever and wherever possible. In all materials used, consider their strength in relation to the loads to which they will be subjected. Any disaster will invariably result in ruptured electrical water, gas, and sewer lines and,although these will be primarily the responsibility of the public utility, it is essential that rescue personnel be trained to deal with such problems in the initial stages.

4.8

Crush injuries

It should be remembered that casualties may be found who have suffered severe cr

ush injuries. These people will be suffering from shock and their breathing passages may be clogged by the dust contained in the debris. Rescuers must take immediate steps to provide a clear airway for such casualties and treat for shock. People trapped in debris and suffering from crush injuries need urgent, expert medical attention. These victims should be treated, if possible, before release from entrapment.

4.9

Debris clearance

Two methods by which people trapped under a pile of debris can be extracted are: By clearance of debris, ie: by removing the debris piece by piece until the cas

ualties are uncovered and freed. By the construction of tunnels and linking of voids (complying with confined space rules) If anyone survives at all, inside orunder a large pile of debris after a building has collapsed, it is because someheavy timber, steel or concrete (a floor, or other portion of the structure) hasfallen or remained fixed, in such a way as to protect this person from the mainimpact and weight of the debris. Furniture can sometimes protect a casualty. Unless something of this kind has happened, it is unlikely that the casualty willsurvive. This protection may be of a very unstable nature, and, unless great care is exercised, it may collapse. The chances of an internal collapse occurring can be minimised only by disturbing the debris as little as possible during rescue operations, and by making sure that, as one portion of the debris is removed,the remainder is not dislodged and allowed to slide or fall.


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Careful observance of these principles reduces the risk of further injury to trapped people, resulting in greater speed in the rescue operation. The ideal is speed with safety.

4.10 When debris clearance is necessary

If no information is available regarding the approximate position of people trapped in debris, efficient rescue can only be effected by total debris clearance.The essential difference between debris clearance as a rescue operation and debris clearance to clear a site is that, so long as there is a reasonable chance ofrecovering casualties by debris clearance, it must be carried out by rescue teams with the goal of rescuing any trapped victims that may remain. Rescue services must continue at work until it is certain that nobody is still alive, and thatthe responsible officer (usually the Incident Controller), according to the response arrangements, decides that operations can be discontinued.

4.11 Methods of debris clearance When debris clearance is undertaken for rescue purposes, the debris should be mo

ved clear of the demolished building, and not merely from one part of the site to another. Debris can be removed by hand or by using other receptacles found onthe site. In a confined space or over obstacles, it is best to form a human chain. It may sometimes be necessary when clearing debris, to cut a lane through itto reach a casualty. Great care must be taken in so doing, to ensure that the sides of the lane do not collapse. These can be made safe, where necessary, by a simple form of shoring.

4.12 Precautions in operations Exercise care in the use of edged tools in debris clearance. Debris close toualties should always be removed by hand. Rescuers must wear gloves. Rescuers mu

st not climb over debris during the clearing operation unless absolutely necessary. Debris should be withdrawn only when it is certain that no further collapsewill be caused. Heavy equipment should be operated only at the direction of theofficer in charge. Movement of major debris elements must be carefully coordinated.

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4.13 The appreciation processThe appreciation process is a simple method of problem solving which is effective in rescue situations. It involves the logical assessment of the situation, andthe reconnaissance, and results in the formation of the workable plan. The appreciation process consists of six steps: Step One Define the problem The problem

to be solved, or task to be accomplished, must be clearly defined. The problem may be too large or complex to be easily tackled, and may be divided into a number of manageable elements, each with a set aim. Step Two State the aim The aim isa clear statement of what the team has to achieve in order to solve the problem. The aim must be clear, concise, achievable, and expressed in positive terms. The aim will form the mission statement in an operational briefing and should beas simple as: To rescue the casualty from the bottom of the lift shaft. Step Three Consider the factors Factors are points relevant to the problem that has to besolved. Some factors that may have to be considered in an operational situationare: Number and location of casualties Time and space Topography Weather Available resources, both personnel and equipment Support requirements and availability Communications Logistics Priority of tasks. Each factor will lead to one or mor

e logical deductions, so that the leader should be in a position to say: If thisis the case then Factors in an appreciation may be set out as in the following example: Factor Deduction The casualtys legs are trapped under a heavy steel beam. The rescue team must use cutting and lifting equipment to free the casualty.

Each factor should be thoroughly examined and care should be taken not to introduce irrelevant facts into the examination.


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Step Four Determine courses open All possible courses that will attain the aim and that are practical must be considered in the Courses Open segment. Only facts dealt with in the Factors should be considered and no new material should be introduced at this stage. Step Five Decide on best course At this stage, a choice mustbe made from one of the possible solutions developed by the appreciation proces

s. If more than one workable solution is produced and the best course is not obvious, the following criteria should be applied to each: Risk Which solution carries the least risk factor in its execution, or the consequence of failure? Simplicity Which is the simplest course? Time If urgency is a factor, which course can be completed in the shortest time? Economy In terms of resources, which solution imposes the least demand? Step Six Plan The plan will result from the choiceof the best course open. That is, it will be the best solution to the problem with the most advantages and the least disadvantages. The plan must be simple, andit must relate directly to the aim. When completed, the plan should be checkedagainst the following test questions: Is the reasoning sound? Is it set out in alogical order? Is everything relevant to the problem? Has anything relevant been left out? Is it free of uncertainties or ambiguities? Is it accurate (position

s, timings and so on)? Has the aim been kept in mind throughout? Can the plan achieve the aim?

4.14 Introduction to Search and Victim MarkingSearch Markings are used to record the actions of a team at a structure. The 1mx 1m preferably International Orange marking is placed at the primary entrance of the structure and is started when the team first arrives. At this stage it will generally cover:Any hazard found in initial size-up

G or NG

Name of Team Time/Date of Start

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A site control system will then be used to gather information on the teams actions, hazards, and other information found eg number of missing people. For generalrescue teams, once primary surface search and rescue is completed then they will summarise the teams actions, any additional hazards found, and some indicationof people still unaccounted for, and place this information on the search markin

g.

(Any hazard found in initial size-up) Additional hazards

G or NG Number of live removed Number of dead removed

Name of Team Time/Date of Start Time/Date of Finish

Persons unaccounted for Location of other victims

Once the team has completed its task and is leaving the site a circle is place around the search marking. Victim Markings are used primarily in the reconnaissan

ce phase to mark potential and confirmed victim locations whenever the victim isnot being immediately removed. They are updated as victims are removed, and canalso be used to identify whether the victims are alive or deceased eg:

VPotential Victim location

VConfirmed victim location

VOnly dead victims

VVictims removed

Search and Victim Marking is covered more thoroughly in the USAR Awareness Student Manual.


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4.15 Disaster victim identification (DVI) Although identification of the dead is a Police responsibility, routine procedures may not be feasible in a major disaster. Police Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) teams, located at various points around the country, will be deployed toa disaster area and may require Civil Defence Emergency Management assistance.

In general, do not remove bodies from the position in which they were found without the agreement of the Police. Nevertheless, a rescuer may be justified in moving a body: o When rescuers would be put at risk if they had to re-enter the damaged building or structure where the body is located. o Where it is necessary inorder to reach an injured person. o Where the body itself might be affected byflooding, fire, or imminent collapse of a building or structure. The exact position in which a body is found may be critical to the identification of that person, particularly if there is extensive mutilation. Where bodies do not have to beremoved from the building or structure for reasons of safety, make a notebook entry of the location of the body and advise the Police as soon as possible. If possible, do not leave the site until the Police have arrived. Where, in the interests of safety, it is considered that bodies should be removed from the exact l

ocation of where the body was found, then the person finding the body must collect all necessary information (including any identity obtained from survivors, and personal belongings found with the body). This should be recorded and attachedto the body.

4.16 Suspicious circumstances If you are i

3481260 NZ General Rescue Manual 2006 (1)

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