31019884 Manual Gramatica Inglesa (4)

GRAMTICA4

GRAMMAR4

WE TRANSPORT IN ENGLISH

1. EL PRESENTE (Simple Present)

Se forma en ingls con el infinitivo del verbo sin to (forma bsica) para todas las personas, a excepcin de la tercera persona singular que aade una -s final:

I workYou workHe worksShe worksIt worksWe workYou workThey work

Variacin de las terminaciones en la tercera persona del singular:

-s,

-ss,

-sh,

-o,

-ch,

-x

-es I go ? She goes

y precedida de consonante ies I study ? he studies

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1.1. Formas Negativa, Interrogativa E Interrogativa-Negativa

Para su construccin se recurre al verbo to do que realiza una funcin auxi-liar. En la tercera persona la forma do cambia a does.

Oraciones negativas:

sujeto + auxiliar + not + forma bsica

I do not workYou do not workHe / she / it does not workWe do not workYou do not workThey do not work

Oraciones interrogativas:

auxiliar + sujeto + forma bsica

Do I work?Do you work?Does he work?Do we work?Do you work?Do they work?

Oraciones interrogativo-negativas:

auxiliar + sujeto + not + forma bsica

Dont you work?Doesnt he work?


1.2. Usos Del Presente Simple

a) Para indicar acciones o estados habituales

He works in an office

El trabaja en una oficina. No se trata de si est trabajando en este momento, sino que lo que se indica es que es una persona que habitualmente trabaja en una officina.

b) Dado que se emplea para indicar acciones o estados habituales, suele acompaarse de los adverbios de tiempo (usually, sometimes, never, etc.).

We never work on Saturday

c) Puede indicar una accin indeterminada en el tiempo:

I speak English

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2. EL PRESENTE CONTINUO (present continuous)

El presente continuo o progresivo se forma con el presente del auxiliar to be y el gerundio del verbo que se quiere conjugar:

2.1. Uso Del Presente Continuo

a) Indica una accin que se est desarrollando en ese momento.

He is working

Est trabajando en este momento.

La diferencia con el presente simple: He works est clara. El presente conti-nuo indica que est trabajando en ese momento concreto. El presente simple indica que habitualmente trabaja pero no sabemos si lo est haciendo en ese momento.

b) Tambin puede indicar una accin planificada que se desarrollar en un futuro. (ver el futuro)

I am working tomorrow

c) Puede indicar una accin habitual que se repite frecuentemente. En este caso, suele acompaarse de adverbios de frecuencia (often, usually, etc.)

She is always working

presente forma negativa forma interrogativa

forma interrogativa-

negativa

I am workingYou are workingHe is workingWe are workingYou are workingThey are working

I am not workingYou are not workingHe is not workingWe are not workingYou are not workingThey are not working

Am I working?Are you working?Is he working?Are we working?Are you working?Are they working?

Arent you working?


2.2. Simple present present continuous

Usamos el Simple Present para hablar de:

Usamos el Present Continuous para hablar sobre:

Cosas que son siempre ciertas

Cosas que ocurren a veces, normalmente, a menudo, etc.

Cosas que estn ocurriendo en el momento de hablar

Cosas que estn ocurriendo o cambiendo actual,ente

Situaciones temporales

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3. EL PASADO SIMPLE (Simple Past)

El pasado simple funciona de manera similar al Presente simple, salvo que empleamos el auxiliar did para todas las personas (incluida la tercera perso-na singular he/she/it). En la forma afirmativa, el auxiliar did no aparece, em-pleando en su lugar la terminacin ed. Esta es la forma de pasado para todos los Verbos Regulares

Existe un amplio conjunto de verbos que no cumplen esta condicin, es decir, para la forma afirmativa no emplean la terminacin ed sino que su forma es irregular. No siguen ninguna regla, por lo que la nica manera de conocer su forma de pasado es aprenderla. Se denominan Verbos Irregulares. (ver lista de verbos irregulares)

3.1. Afirmativa

Sujeto + verbo en pasado

I workedYou workedHe workedWe workedYou workedThey worked

3.2. Negativa

Sujeto + auxiliar de pasado (did) + not + verbo en infinitivo

I did not workYou did not workHe did not workWe did not workYou did not workThey did not work


3.3. Interrogativa

Auxiliar did + sujeto + verbo en infinitivo

Did I work?Did you work?Did he work?Did we work?Did you work?Did they work?

3.4. Uso Del Pasado Simple

a) Para acciones pasadas. Indican el perodo de tiempo durante el que se de-sarroll y complet una accin ya finalizada. Es habitual que vaya acompaa-do de un adverbio de tiempo.

I worked for IBM last year

b) Para expresar una accin indeterminada en el pasado:

They worked hard

c) Para expresar una accin habitual en el pasado

She always arrived late at work

d) Puede servir para expresar una condicin improbable. (ver oraciones con-dicionales)

If she worked here, I would recognize her

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4. EL PASADO CONTINUO (Past Continuous)

Su estructura se forma con el pasado del verbo auxiliar to be + el gerundio del verbo que se quiere conjugar.

I was working

Para la forma negativa se aade la not al auxiliar

I was not working

En la forma interrogativa se invierte el orden del sujeto y el auxiliar:

Were you working?

Uso Del Pasado Continuo

a) Usamos el pasado continuo para decir que alguien estaba haciendo algo en un momento concreto del pasado. Por ejemplo:

Yesterday Tom and Jim played tennis. They began at 10 oclock and finished at 11 oclock.What were they doing at 10.30? They were playing tennis (at 10.30)

They were playing quiere decir que estaban en medio de la partida, haban empezado pero no haban acabado.

El pasado continuo no nos dice si la accin estaba finalizada o no. Compara:

Tom was cooking the dinner. (past continuous)

= estaba a medias y no sabemos si haba finalizado

Tom cooked the dinner. (past simple)

= empez y acab.


b) Para expresar dos acciones que se desarrollan simultneamente

I was working at the office while she was shopping.

c) A menudo usamos el pasado continuo (I was doing) y el pasado simple (I did) juntos para expresar dos acciones que se desarrollan en el pasado, una de las cuales tuvo su comienzo antes que la otra.:

Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.While I was working in the garden, I hurt my back.

Pero para decir que los acontecimientos ocurrieron uno despues de otro usa-mos el pasado simple:

Yesterday evening Tom was having a bath when the phone rang. He got out of the bath and answered the phone.

(Primero sali y despus contesto el telfono)

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5. EL PRESENTE PERFECTO (Present Perfect)

El presente perfecto, se forma con el presente del verbo to have a modo de auxiliar y el participio pasivo del verbo que se conjuga segn la siguiente cons-truccin:

to have + participio del verbo a conjugar

I have workedYou have workedHe has workedWe have workedYou have workedThey have worked

La forma interrogativa, se obtiene anteponiendo el auxiliar al sujeto.

Have you worked?

En la forma negativa se coloca not despus del auxiliar:

He has not worked

La forma interrogativa-negativa tiene la construccin auxiliar + not + sujeto

Havent you worked?

Uso Del Presente Perfecto

a) El present perfect simple conecta / une el pasado y el presente. Si decimos que algo ha ocurrido (has happened), pensamos del pasado y del presente a la vez como si hiciesemos un puente del pasado al presente.

I have lost my pen

b) A menudo usamos el presente perfecto para dar una informacin nueva o para anunciar un acontecimiento reciente

Ive lost my key. Can you help me look for it?


c) El presente perfecto y el pasado simple. El presente perfecto siempre nos dice algo sobre el presente:

Un cliente llama y pregunta por Mr. Dean. Decimos:

He has gone to the conference (y ahora est ah)

El pasado simple slo nos habla sobre el pasado:

He went to the conference at 9.00 (no sabemos si todava est ah o no)

Nunca se debe usar el presente perfecto para hablar de acciones que no estn conectadas con el presente

Cervantes wrote El Quijote

d) Usamos el present perfect simple para acciones en el pasado que tienen un significado o relevancia en la actualidad.

A: I have lost my portable computer and I dont have the information you need

(accin en el pasado que tiene un significado ahora)

B: Really?

A: I lost my portable computer last year

(ahora no importa)

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6. EL PRESENTE PERFECTO PROGRESIVO (Present Perfect Continuous)

Tiene la siguiente construccin:

sujeto + presente perfecto de to be + gerundio

forma afirmativa

I have been working

En la forma negativa se coloca not despus del auxiliar:

I have not been working

La forma interrogativa, se construye invirtiendo la posicin del sujeto y el auxi-liar:

Have you been working?

La forma interrogativa-negativa sigue la misma construccin que en el presen-te perfecto

Havent yo been working?

Uso Del Presente Perfecto Progresivo

Se usa cuando se quiere expresar el sentido de la continuidad de una accin que ha comenzado en el pasado, que dura todava en el presente y que incluso puede continuar en el futuro.

I have been working here for two years

(y contino trabajando en la actualidad)


7. TIME EXPRESSIONS (expresiones temporales)

a) Ever and never

El present perfect es usado frecuentemente con esta expresin temporal

Have you ever been to Scotland?Ive never studied English.

b) Just

El present perfect es usado frecuentemente con esta expresin temporal (= acabar de hacer algo)

Ive just finished the report

c) Recently and lately


Ive recently met Mr Green, the sales manager of Speedy Transport

Have you seen Andrew lately?

d) So far


Ive had three pone calls so far this morning and its only eight oclock!

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e) Still, Yet and already

El present perfect es usado frecuentemente con estas expresiones tempora-les

yet - normalmente se utiliza en frases interrogativas y normalmente se colaca al final de la oracin . Se usa cuando esperamos que algo pase en el futuro, no en el pasado ni en el presente.

Have you finished the report yet?I dont think Mathew has finished the report yet.

already - se usa en frases afirmativas e interrogativas y normalmente va de-trs de los verbos auxiliares o modales y delante de los dems verbos. Con already decimos que algo est en el presente o el pasado, no en el futuro. Lo usamos para decir que algo ha ocurrido antes de lo esperado.

Dont forget to finish the report, will you?Yes, Ive already finished the report

Still - se utiliza para hablar de cosas que estn ocurriendo ahora. Normal-mente se situa antes del verbo principal y despus del verbo auxiliar.

It s still snowing

En Ingls britnico yet y already acompaa habitualmente a los tiempos perfec-tos. En Ingls Americano prefieren usar los tiempos pasados.

Compara:

Have you phoned Mr Drew yet? (UK) Did you phone Mr Drew yet? (USA)Ive already phoned him (UK) I already phoned him (USA)


f) Since, for and ago

Since y for se usan para referirse a la duracin de un estado o acontecimiento. El present perfect es usado frecuentemente con estasexpresiones tempora-les.

For - (how long something has lasted) Se usa para decir cunto tiempo ha du-rado una accin. En espaol suele decirse desde hace o durante. Se puede usar para:

Expresar la duracin de un tiempo en el pasado:

He worked as a systems analyst for three years

Expresar un perodo de tiempo que empez en el pasado y dura hasta el pre-sente:

Weve had this computer for about six months.

O con referencia al futuro:

I will be staying in Dubai for two months

Since - (when something started) Se usa como una referencia a un punto de tiempo cuando algo empez. En espaol suele decirse desde o desde que.

We havent heard from you since April.

Since se utiliza despus de la expresin temporal Its + expresin temporal

Its a long time since we saw each other

ago - se utiliza `para sealar cuando ocurrieron los acontecimientos en el pasado haciendo una cuenta atrs hasta el presente

She finished five minutes ago

Comparar:

Ive known Mary since 2001.Ive known Mary for 3 years.I met Mary three years ago.

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g) During and while

During se utiliza para sealar que algo ocurre dentro de un perodo de tiempo. Va seguido de una frase nominal que empieza por the o un posesivo. during

During the week Im extremely busy

While es parecido en significado con during pero va seguido de un sujeto y un verbo mientras

I met Mr Holmes while I was visiting the Trade Centre(=durinng my visit to the Trade Centre)


8. EL PLURAL (plurals)

Como norma general, el plural se forma aadiendo -s a la forma singular:

table 4 tables

EXCEPCIONES

Cuando la palabra termina en s, ss, x, ch, sh se le aade -es al final.

Bus 4 Buses

box 4 boxes

Church 4 churches

Dish 4 dishes

Cuando termina en o precedida de consonante se le aade -es tambin, aunque hay algunas excepciones (palabras de origen no ingls, como pia-no, pianos)

Tomato 4 tomatoes

Potato 4 potatoes

Cuando terminan en y precedida de consonante se sustituye la y por la ter-minacin ies.

lorry 4 lorries

Algunas palabras que terminan en f o fe cambian la f / fe por -ves.

Thief 4 thieves

(Hay algunas excepciones a esta regla, como roof, proof, chief, safe y cliff, que forman el plural aadiendo -s al final de la palabra)

Plurales irregulares

Man 4 men

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Woman 4 womenChild 4 childrenFoot 4 feetTooth 4 teethOx 4 oxenMouse 4 miceGoose 4 geeseLouse 4 licePenny 4 pence

Algunos sustantivos tienen nicamente forma singular:

FishDeerSheep

Algunos sustantivos tienen solamente la forma plural

Goods (mercancias)ScissorsTrousersGlasses (Gafas)PyjamasClothesThanks

En los nombres compuestos (sustantivos formados por dos palabras que juntas toman una significacin nica) solamente el segundo sustantivo toma la forma de plural.

Summer holiday 4 summer holidays

En cambio, cuando se forman con preposiciones o adverbios el plural re-cae en el primer sustantivo.

Brother in law 4 brothers in law

OJO con los adjetivos. Recordad que nicamente tienen forma singular.

Red, Good, Easy, Beautiful ...


9. PREPOSICIONES TEMPORALES

AT

Espacios temporales precisos

at five oclock, at dinner time

I suggest we meet at 4.30.

fiestas - at Christmas

We close down at Christmas.

at night, at weekends

Weve got the results at last. (after a long period of waiting)

ON (punto en el tiempo)

Das y fechas

on Monday

The quality circle meeting is on Wednesday.

on June 1st

The videoconference is on 3rdApril.

on Christmas Day , on a Sunday morning

Please be on time (at the right time, not late.)

IN / During (entre dos puntos de tiempo)

Perodos de tiempo ms largos: meses, estaciones del ao, aos

in August, in spring in the past, in 1985

They employ students in the summer vacationThere was, full employment in the 1960s

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Periodos de tiempo durante los cuales o al final de los cuales algo puede pasar

in five minutesI didnt send my application in time to be considered. (it arrived too late to be considered}

ABOUT (aproximadamente)

The job will take about a week.

AROUND (aproximadamente)

Shell be there around 5 oclock.

BEYOND (limite en la duracin)

Its impossible to extend credit beyond the 60 days agreed.

BY (limite en el tiempo)

The plane leaves at 10 so we must be at the airport by 9 a.m.

FROM (punto de partida en el tiempo)

The exhibition will be open from 1 June.

THROUGH (direccin dentro de un tiempo)

Ill be staying in Chicago May through June. (AmE)I worked all through my lunch-break.

TO (direccin futura)

Its seven minutes to three.There are only two weeks to the symposium.The office is open from 9 to 5.30 (= until)


10. PREPOSICIONES DE LUGAR (Prepositions of place)

About (poscin aproximada)

Ive left the folder lying about somewhere.

Around

The Accounts Department is around the corner.

At (lugar)

At is used when we talk about position at a point

When we regard a place as a point without any real size- we use at. It is a point and the size of the place is not important.

My house is at the third crossroads after the bridgeI live in Bicester

(a place)

The train stops at Bicester

(a point on a journey)

Hes staying at the DorchesterHe spent Saturday afternoon at work

En este punto

Meet somebody at the station

Se considera un punto de encuentro

My sister works at Marks & Spencer

Se refiere al punto en el que trabaja, no al espacio fsico

Ill meet you at Gatwick airport.

At (direccin)

Weve aimed our campaign at the young urban professional.

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Beyond (limite en la direccin)

We cannot transport the goods beyond the Pakistani frontier.

By (cerca de)

The warehouse is by the canal.

From (origen)

The video recorders are imported from Taiwan.

On a line (espacio o linea en dos dimensiones))

Usamos on para decir que algo est tocando o cerca de una linea o algo pare-cido a una lnea (un ro, una carretera)

The calendar is hanging on the wall.Carlisle is on the road to GlasgowThe file is on the desk.

On tambin se usa para hablar de una localizacin fija cerca del agua

Bowness is on Lake WindermereCalifornia is on the Pacific coast.

In (espacio tridimensional)

In se utiliza cuando el entorno es tridimensional

I think I left my tennis racket in the bathroomThe money is kept in the safe.

Tambin se utiliza para sealar la posicin sobre una superficie con valla, muro, etc, de manera que parece cerrada.

Lets picnic in that field over there.

Con reas amplias (paises, regiones, etc)With larger areas

Ive got a cottage in Jersey


(pero on a desert island)

San Francisco is in California.

Through (direction between two points in space)

It can take ages to clear goods through customs.Once were through Rome well be able to drive faster.

To (movement, destination)

I have to go to Rabat next week.The taxi will take you to the airport.

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11. LOS ADJETIVOS (adjectives)

11.1. formacin de adjetivos Adjective formation

Los adjetivos en ingls tienen un nica forma, por lo que no varan ni en funcin del gnero, ni del nmero (singular o plural) del sustantivo al que acompaan:

A big lorry 4 big lorries

Muchos adjetivos no tienen una forma especial:

Rich poor new

An as, podemos reconocer muchos otros adjetivos por sus terminaciones. Esta lista contiene las terminaciones ms habituales:

Contrarios

Hay muchas formas de expresar lo contrario. A menudo usamos prefijos:

Un-

In-

Dis-

Uneconomic

Indirect

dissatisfied

Il-

Im-

Ir-

Illegal

Impossible

irregular

-y

-ly

-al

-ial

Risky

Costly

Professional

Industrial

-ous

-ary

-ic

-less

Famous

supplementary

Strategic

Useless

-ful

-ive

-ent

-ant

Successful

Competitive

Confident

Important

-ible

-able

-ing

-ed

Legible

Payable

Growing

expected


Adjetivos compuestos

Muchos adjetivos se forman uniendo dos o ms palabras por un guin (-)

A high-class market

A top-quality service

An up-market product

A tax-free salary

A price-sensitive market

An up-to-date outlook

A large-volume retailer

A small-scale operation

A down-market product

A long-term po-licy

11.2. Posicion de los adjetivos en la frase

El adjetivo en ingls se sita delante del sustantivo:

A big lorry

Pero en las frases atributivas se coloca detrs del verbo:

The lorry is big.

Cuando varios adjetivos acompaan a un mismo sustantivo, estos adjetivos se colocan siguiendo un orden determinado, que suele ser:

El orden de los adjetivos es habitualmente:

Opinion subjetiva

Caracte-rsticas

calificativas generales (tamao, edad, for-ma, etc.)

Color OrigenComposi-

cion, mate-rial

Utilidad

A nice Large Brown Italian Leather Bag

A fantastic New German Fork-lift Truck

An aggressive American

Marke-ting strategy

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Se suele decir que el orden tiene una lgica que va desde lo ms subjetivo al nombre a lo ms objetivo e inherente:

Que un bolso sea bonito, feo o gracioso es un adjetivo calificativo subjetivo por lo tanto ser el adjetivo ms alejado del nombre. Su composicin es lo ms ob-jetivo e inherente al nombre. Es un bolso de piel, por tanto el adjetivo ir junto al nombre que califica.

11.3. Adjetivos acabados en ing y ed Adjectives ending in ing and ed (bo-ring/bored, etc.)

En ingls se pueden utilizar el gerundio y el participio con funcin de adjetivo:

An interesting bookAn interested customer

Alguien es/est ed si algo es ing

I am interested in art pero

Art is interesting

Interested describe una reaccin

Interesting describe una cualidad que algo tiene

AmazingAmusing

AstonishingBoring

DisappointingDisgusting

EmbarrassingExciting

FascinatingShocking

AmazedAmusedAstonishedBoredDisappointedDisgustedEmbarrassedExcitedFascinatedShocked

AnnoyingDepressingExhaustingFrightening

HorrifyingSatisfying

SurprisingTerrifying

TiringWorrying

AnnoyedDepressedExhaustedFrightenedHorrifiedSatisfiedSurprisedTerrifiedTiredWorried


12. LOS ADVERBIOS (adverbs)

Usamos los adverbios para dar ms informacin sobre verbos y adjetivos

Compara:

The company is efficient (adjective)They work efficiently (adverb)

Muchos adverbios en ingls se forman aadiendo la terminacin -ly al adje-tivo:

Intelligent (adjetivo) 4 Intelligently (adverbio)Bad (adjetivo) 4 Badly (adverbio)

En la formacin de estos adverbios, si el adjetivo finaliza en -y, esta se cambia por -i y se aade la terminacin -ly:

Happy 4 Happily

Posicion de los adverbios

La posicin del adverbio depende de la funcin que desempea en la frase.

Nunca poner un adverbio entre el verbo y un objeto directo

She speaks English very well (not *very well English)

Al principio de la frase

Actually, I think she is wrong

En medio de la frase: antes del verbo principal y despus del verbo auxiliar

We are still waiting for a reply

Al final de la frase

I havent seen Mr Brown lately

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Usamos adverbios y frases adverbiales para decir cmo, donde, cuando y con cuanta frecuencia ocurre algo.

They went a year ago

Algunos adverbios sirven para enfatizar alguna parte de la oracin

They are terribly expensive

Un adverbio puede expresar la opinin del que habla: actually, admittedly, frankly, surprisingly, unfortunately

Unfortunately, I couldnt write you before

No todos los adverbios pueden ocupar distintas posiciones en la frase. Depende de la forma del verbo y de la clase de adverbio. Los adverbios se colocan normalmente en la oracin en el siguiente orden, aunque hay otras posibilidades:

adverbios de modo: se sitan detrs del verbo, o detrs del complemento si lo hubiera

We worked intensively.

adverbios de lugar: se sitan detrs del verbo, o detrs del complemento si lo hubiera

He went upstairs.

adverbios de tiempo: se sitan al principio o al final de la oracin, habitual-mente al final de la oracin, los colocamos al principio para enfatizar.

Tomorrow he will finish the work.He arrived very soon.


adverbios de frecuencia: se sitan delante del verbo, o entre el auxiliar y el verbo principal en las formas compuestas. Con el verbo to be se sitan detrs del mismo

He is always in the office.We have frequently been in Paris.She usually comes to this bar.

- Cuando hay varios adverbios en la misma frase el orden debe de ser:

Modo Lugar tiempo

She has been in Canada since April

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13. VERBOS MODALES (modal verbs)

Can, could, may, might, must, have to, should, ought to and would son ver-bos modales

Los verbos modales no tienen s en la tercera persona singular del pre-sente

She can type

Los verbos modales van seguidos del infinitivo sin to

We may be late

Las preguntas y las oraciones negativas se forman como en los verbos auxiliares

Can you speak Italian?

Los verbos modales tienen significados y usos variados

13.1. Habilidad: Can, could y be able to

a) Usamos Can para expresar que algo es posible o que alguien tiene la habi-lidad para hacer algo. La forma negativa es cant (cannot).

Can you speak any foreign languages?Im afraid I cant come to your party next Friday

Se puede usar Be able to en lugar de can, aunque can es ms habitual: ,

Are you able to speak any foreign languages?

can slo tiene dos formas: can (present) and could (past). Por tanto, para expresar otros tiempos debemos usar be able to:

I havent been able to sleep recently. (can no tiene presente perfecto)Tom might not be able to come tomorrow. (can no tiene forma infiniti-va)


b) Could / Was able to

Usamos could para decir que alguien tena la habilidad general para hacer algo pero si queremos decir que alguin fue capaz de /consigui hacer algo en una situacin concreta usamos was/were able to (not could):

The fire spread through the building very quickly but everyone was able (= consigui / fue capaz ) to escape.

Jack was an excellent tennis player. He could beat anybody. (= tena la habilidad para derrotar a cualquiera en general)

But once he had a difficult game against Alf. Alf played very well but in the end Jack was able to beat him. {= Consigui derrotarlo en esa ocasin concreta)

13.2. Ofrecimientos, invitaciones, permisos: Can, could, may and would

a) Pedir a alguien que haga algo (requests) :

Habitualmente usamos can o could cuando le solicitamos a alguien que haga algo:

Can you wait a moment, please? // Ann, can you do me a favour? // Could you tell me how to get to the station?

Para pedir algo podemos usar Can I have ...? / Could I have ...? / May I have ...?:

Could I have the salt, please?

b) Pedir y dar permiso

Habitualmente usamos can, could o may para pedir permiso para hacer algo:

(on the telephone) Hello, can I speak to Tom, please?

Could I use your telephone? Yes, of course.

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Para dar permiso usamos can o may (pero no could):

You can (or may) smoke if you like.

Usamos can/cant para hablar sobre lo que ya est o no est permitido

c) A veces usamos can para ofrecernos para hacer algo:

(in a shop) Can I help you, madam?

d) Para ofrecer e invitar usamos Would you like ...? (not do you like):

Would you like a Cup of coffee?

13.3. Obligacion: Must y have to

Must se usa para referirnos a obligacin genral presente o futura. No cam-bia la forma

Candidates must be engineering graduates

Must se usa cuando la orden la impone una autoridad oficial o es auto-impuesta

Helmets must be worn on the shop floorI must remember to write Mr Parker

Must not se usa para indicar que algo est prohibido

Passengers must not smoke during take-off

Have to sugiere una obligacin externa, impuesta desde fuera

My boss says I have to finish that report by the end of the week

Do/does not have to se usa cuando no hay obligacin

On Sunday you dont have to go to work. Its a holiday


13.4. Should

Habitualmente usamos should cuando damos o pedimos una opinin sobre algo

Do you think I should apply for this job?

Should se usa para dar consejo y sugerir

You should be in bed

Tambin usamos should para decir que algo no est bien o no es lo que esperamos

You shouldnt smoke here

Ought to se usa a veces en lugar de should

You ought not to smoke

Should se usa tambin para predecir

Shes been studying very hard, so she should pass her examinations

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14. EL FUTURO: Will

a) Usamos will cuando decidimos hacer algo en el instante de hablar

Im too tired to walk home. I think Ill get a taxi.

La forma negativa de will es wont (or will not):

Receptionist: Im afraid Mr Wood cant see you now.

You: Oh, in that case I wont wait.

Habitualmente usamos I think Ill... or I dont think Ill... cuando decidimos hacer algo:

I think Ill stay at home this evening.

b) A menudo usamos will en estas situaciones:

Para ofrecernos para hacer algo:

That bag looks heavy. Ill help you with it. (not I help)

Para acordar o negarse a hacer algo

The car wont start. (= the car refuses to start)

Para prometer hacer algo:

I wont tell Tom what you said. I promise.

Para pedirle a alguien que haga algo (will you...?):

Will you shut the door, please?


c) Usamos will cuando predecimos un acontecimiento futuro o una situacin futura

Tom wont pass his examinations. He hasnt studied

Habitualmente usamos will con estas expresiones: Probably, Im sure, I expect, I think

Ill probably be a bit late this evening.

Do you think well win the match?

d) Will y shall

Shall se puede usar con I y we. La forma negativa es shant (or shall not):

We shall (or we will) probably go to Scotland in June.

I shant (or I wont) be here tomorrow.

Usamos shall y no will en las preguntas shall I ...? and shall we ... para ofrecimientos y sugerencias :

Shall I open the window? (= Do you want me to open the window)

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14.1. When and If sentences (When I do .../ If I do ...)

a) Estudia el ejemplo.

A: What time will you arrive tonight?

B: III phone you when I leave the office.

Ill phone you when I leave the office es una frase que tiene dos partes: Ill phone you (la parte principal) y when I leave the office (la parte del cuando). Es una frase de futuro pero no podemos usar una forma de futuro en la segun-da parte de la frase. Usamos el presente simple.

I will help you when I finish the report

Lo mismo ocurre despus de:

While - after - before - until - as soon as

I will help you as soon as I finish the report

Wait until I come back

b) Despus de if tambin usamos el presente simple para expresar futuro:

Its raining. Well get wet if we go out. {not if we will go)

Cuidado con confundir If y when.

Se utiliza when para expresar algo que seguro que va a ocurrir:

Im going shopping this afternoon. When I go shopping, Ill buy some food.

Se utiliza if (not when) para expresar cosas que es posible que ocurran:

If it rains this evening, I wont go out. {not when it rains)


15. PREGUNTAS NEGATIVAS (Negative questions)

We use negative questions especially:

- to show surprise

Didnt you hear the bell? I rang it four times

- in exclamations!

Doesnt that dress look nice!

- When we expect the listener to agree with us

Havent we met somewhere before?

- Why dont we ? : we use this expression to make suggestions

Why dont we go out for a meal?

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16. EL FUTURO (future tenses)

a. Simple present: programa, horario (por ejemplo, transporte pblico, hora-rios de cine, etc.):

What time does the film begin?The train leaves Plymouth at 10.30 and arrives in London at 13.45Tomorrow is Wednesday.

b. Present Continuous: planes y acuerdos

A: What are you doing tomorrow? (not what do you do)B: Im going to the theatre. (not I go),

Tambin se puede usar la forma going to en estas frases:

What are you going to do tomorrow evening?

c. Going to + infinitivo: intenciones y planes

What are you going to do in Madrid? Im going to meet some important customers

d. Will: decisiones repentinas, promesas, predicciones de futuro, ofrecimien-tos y hechos futuros

It will rain tomorrow (according to the weather forecast): hecho futuro prediccin

I will do my best to finish the report by the end of the week - promesa


17. LOS PRONOMBRES (Pronouns)

Subject and object Pronouns

Possessive adjectives and Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Subject Object Adjective Pronoun

I

You

He

She

It

We

You

They

Me

You

Him

Her

It

Us

You

Them

It belongs to me

My

Your

His

Her

Its

Our

Your

Their

Mine

Yours

His

Hers

-

Ours

Yours

Theirs

A friend of mine

Myself

Yourself

Himself

Herself

Itself

Ourselves

Yourselves

Themselves

Do it yourself

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18. EL COMPARATIVO Y EL SUPERLATIVO (Comparison)

Al igual que en espaol, en ingls cuando queremos comparar dos cosas utili-zamos los adjetivos y sus distintos grados: positivo, comparativo y superlativo.

El grado positivo refiere la forma ms simple:

An old lorry

El grado comparativo refiere una cualidad mayor de una cosa respecto de otra.

My lorry is older than your lorry

El grado superlativo refiere la cualidad en su mayor expresin:

This is the oldest lorry

CLASES DE COMPARACIN

18.1. COMPARATIVO DE IGUALDAD

Se forma con el adjetivo intercalado entre la construccin as...as (tan...como) para frases afirmativas e interrogativas y not as...as o not so...as para las frases negativas.

My lorry is as big as your lorryMy lorry is not as big as your lorry

Si se trata de una comparacin entre dos verbos, podemos usar la expresin as much as (tanto como) tambin en forma negativa

She does not work as much as she should

Si estamos comparando dos sustantivos contables (libros, coches, casas...) uti-lizaremos as many... as, pero si estamos comparando dos sustantivos incon-tables (madera, tiempo, msica...) usaremos la construccin as much...as.

I have as much work as my bossI have as many books as you


18.2. - COMPARATIVO DE INFERIORIDAD

Se forma con el adjetivo intercalado entre la construccin less...than (me-nos...que), aunque es ms usual encontrar la comparacin de igualdad en for-ma negativa (que tiene el mismo significado).

Hes less intelligent than youHes not as intelligent as you (es ms habitual)

Normalmente se emplea less para incontables y fewer para contables

18.3. - COMPARATIVO DE SUPERIORIDAD

Se forma de dos modos:

a. para los adjetivos cortos, aadiendo al adjetivo el sufijo -er para el com-parativo de superioridad y -est para el superlativo.

big 4 bigger 4 the biggest

b. para los adjetivos largos, anteponiendo la palabra more (ms) para el comparativo de superioridad y the most para el superlativo

intelligent 4 more intelligent 4 the most intelligent

Adjetivos cortos

Los adjetivos de una sola slaba

old, older, the oldest

Los de dos slabas que terminan en er, y, le y ow

clever, cleverer, the cleverest

happy, happier, the happiest

narrow, narrower, the narrowest

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Adjetivos largos

el resto de adjetivos de dos slabas y todos los de tres o ms

interesting, more interesting, the most interesting

18.4. COMPARATIVOS Y SUPERLATIVOS IRREGULARES

Algunos adjetivos forman el comparativo de manera irregular

good, better, the bestbad, worse, the worstfar, further, the furthest

18.5. CONSIDERACIONES

Cuando un adjetivo termina en e solamente aade -r y -st para el compa-rativo y superlativo.

large, larger, the largest

Cuando terminan en consonante + y cambian la y por i

easy, easier, the easiest

Si termina en una sola consonante prededida de una sola vocal, duplica la consonante

big, bigger, the biggest

El segundo trmino de la comparacin utiliza la forma than.

He is taller than his brother

La expresin espaola cada vez ms equivale en ingls a los dos compa-rativos del adjetivo.

The film is becoming more and more interesting


19. RACIONES PASIVAS (passive sentences)

Habitualmente usamos las oraciones pasivas cuando queremos omitir quin o qu realizo esa accin porque carece de importancia..

En las oraciones pasivas usamos la forma adecuada del verbo to be (is, are, was, were, had been, etc.) + el participio del verbo principal.

Cuando queremos hacer constar el agente que realiza la accin lo haremos poniendo by

The report was written by Mr Addison

No se debe abusar de las oraciones pasivas porque cargan el texto. Siempre que podamos usar una oracin activa rechazaremos la pasiva. Por ejemplo, en el caso anterior The report was written by Mr Addison, el uso de la oracin pasiva es innecesario, el texto es ms simple as: Mr Addison wrote the report.

El cambio de activa a pasiva es muy sencillo: el verbo to be se pondr en el tiempo que estaba el verbo principal en la oracin activa, el vernbo principal de la oracin activa siempre ir en participio en la oracin pasiva.

Presente Simple

Oracin Activa Pasiva: presente de to be + participioSomebody cleans this room every day This room is cleaned every day

Pasado Simple

Oracin Activa Pasiva: pasado de to be + participioSomebody built this house in 1995 This house was built in 1995Peter built this house in 1995 This house was built in 1995 (by Peter)

Presente Continuo

Oracin Activa Pasiva: presente continuo de to be + participioSomebody is cleaning this room at the moment

This room is being cleaned at the mo-ment

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Pasado Continuo

Oracin Activa Pasiva: pasado continuo de to be + participioSomebody was cleaning the room when I arrived

The room was being cleaned when I arrived

Presente Perfecto

Oracin Activa Pasiva: presente perfecto de to be + participioNobody has not invited Tom to the party

Tom hasnt been invited to the party

Pasado Perfecto

Oracin Activa Pasiva: pasado pefecto de to be + participio

Nobody had told Jim about the change of plans

Jim hadnt been told about the change of plans

Futur: will

Oracin Activa Pasiva: futuro de to be + participioNobody will tell Jim about the change of plans

Jim will not be told about the change of plans

Verbos modales

Oracin Activa Pasiva: verbo modal + infinitivo + par-ticipioWe can solve this problem This room is cleaned every day

The new hotel will be opened next year


20. CONECTORES (Linking words)

Tanto en los discursos orales como en la redaccin escrita, podemos ayudar a nuestros intelocutores a entender el mensaje conectando de forma clara una idea con otra.

20.1. secuencias

first of all

secondly

thirdly

in addition

finally

cuando describimos un proceso podemos usar : first of all, then, when, before that, after (that), next

First, the parts are brought here. Then, they are put into boxes. After that, they are loaded onto containers. And finally, the containers are lifted onto railway wagons.

20.2. aadir informacin

in addition

furthermore

moreover

at the same time

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20.3. introducir razones / resultados

thus

owing to

because of

since

on account of

Consequently

As a result of

Therefore

For instance

due to

20.4. Contrastar

although

despite

however

nevertheless

nonetheless

even so

while / whereas

on the other hand


21. ESTILO INDIRECTO - Reported Speech

Usamos el estilo indirecto cuando queremos relatar lo que otra persona dijo, escribi o pens anteriormente. Podemos relatar o comunicar tanto las afir-maciones como las preguntas..

Estilo indirecto pasado

Estilo directo Estilo indirecto

Simple present

Ann: I am tired4

Simple past

Ann said she was tired

Simple past

Ann: I finished the report yester-day

4

Simple past

Past Perfect

Ann said (that) she finished the re-port the previous day

Ann said (that) she had finished the report the previous day

Present Perfect

Ann: Peter has bought a new car

4Past Perfect

Ann said (that) Peter had bought a new car

Future (will)

Ann: I will help you with the re-port

4Conditional (would)

Ann said (that) she would help me with the report

Can

Ann: I can help you with the re-port

4Could

Ann said (that) she could help me with the report

Orders and requests

Ann: Dont shout

Can you open the door, please?

4

Infinitive

Ann told me not to shout

Ann asked me to open the door

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Preguntas

a) Cuando relatamos una pregunta la debemos escribir como una oracin afirmativa.

Do you speak English?He asked whether / if I spoke English

b) Cuando relatamos preguntas directas que empiezan por do o does, se usa if o whether

Do you know the gross weight?He asked him if he knew the gross weight

c) Las preguntas que empiezan por un verbo modal se transforman de forma similar:

Can you type?She wanted to know /asked if I could type

d) La forma pasada del verbo no es siempre necesaria.

He wanted to know where the post office is


22. ORACIONES CONDICIONALES (Conditional sentences: If)

If introduce una condicin algo puede o no puede ocurrir dependiendo de las circunstancias

a) If + presente simple

If se puede usar para establecer una regla general

If your documentation is incomplete the goods are held up

If tambin se puede usar para especular sobre las consecuencias futuras de un acontecimiento especfico. En este caso el verbo de la segunda parte de la frase se pone en futuro con will

If you help me with my report, I will help you with your balance

Esta primera condicional establece una posibilidad real, casi una promesa

Oracin condicional Consecuencia

If + presente simple presente simple o futuro (will)

b) If + pasado simple

If I found 100$ in the street, I would keep it.

Esta segunda condicional se refiere a una situacin imaginaria

If it stopped raining, we could go outIf I were rich, I would buy a Ferrari

Se puede usar para referirse a situaciones poco probables o imposibles. El verbo de la segunda parte de la frase va precedido de would / should / could / might


If + pasado simple condicional

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c) If + pasado perfecto

Se una la tercera condicional cuando hablamos de cosas que no ocurrieron en el pasado y de las consecuencias que hubieran tenido si hubieran ocu-rrido, estamos refirindonos a situaciones hipotticas, usamos If + pasado perfecto junto con would / could / should / might (+ have + participio)

If I had seen you, I would have said helloIf we had played better, we might have won


If + pasado perfecto condicional perfecto


23. PREFER y WOULD RATHER

a) Prefer to do and prefer doing

podemos usar prefer to do or prefer doing para expresar nuestra pre-ferencias en general

I dont like cities. I prefer to live (or prefer living) in the countryTom prefers to drive rather than travel by train

b) Would prefer (to do)

Usamos would prefer to do para decir lo que alguien quiere hacer en una situacin concreta

Would you prefer tea or coffee?Shall we go by train? Id prefer to go by car

c) Would rather (do) = would prefer to do

Despus de would rather utilizamos el infinitivo sin to

Im tired. Id rather not go out this evening, if you dont mind

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24. ORACIONES DE RELATIVO (Relative clauses)

Una oracin de relativo nos dice a qu persona o cosa se refiere el que habla

a) En una oracin de relativo usamos who para hablar sobre personas

The man is very friendly. He lives next doorThe man who lives next door is very friendly

b) Cuando hablamos sobre cosas usamos that

Gerry works for a company. The company makes typewritersGerry works for a company that makes typewriters

c) Whose se utiliza para sustituir a his/her/their, es un pronombre relativo que indica posesin

We saw some people. Their car had broken downWe saw some people whose car had broken down

d) Whom se suele usar en lugar de who cuando la persona a la que nos refe-rimos es el objeto indirecto del verbo en la oracin de relativo (a quin)

The man was on holiday. I wanted to see the manThe man whom I wanted to see was on holiday

e) Where se usa para hablar sobre lugares

The hotel wasnt very clean. We stayed at the hotelThe hotel where we stayed wasnt very clean

f) Podemos omitir who o that cuando stos son el objeto directo o indirecto del verbo de la oracin de relativo

The man (who) I wanted to see was on holidayIs there anything (that) I can do?


25. Expresar las razones porqu Expressing the reasons why

So that

Esta estructura va acompaada de una forma verbal en presente o futuro

Leave early so that you dont miss the bus

Tambin puede ir acompaadad de un verbo modal

He is learning English so that he can study in the United States

En oraciones de pasado se utiliza would or could

I hurried so that I wouldnt be late

Due to

The failure of the Suggestion Scheme is due to the low level of reward

To

They gave me some money to buy some food

In order to / so as to

I go by air in order to save time

Because of

Se utiliza antes de un nombre o un prononbre

I was worried because Mary was late

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26. EL IMPERATIVO (The imperative)

La forma imperativa en ingls es la misma que la forma infinitiva , para hacer oraciones negativas usamos dont

Call me on Monday Dont call me this evening

Usamos el imperativo para:

Pedir cosas

Give my regards to your boss

Ofrecer comida y bebida

Try these sandwiches. They are delicious

Decirle a alguien que haga algo

Ask for the Western Industrial Park

Dar ordenes

Switch off the lights when you leave

Dar consejos

Be careful


27. Question tags

Las question tags son habitualmente no? o verdad? O possiblemente, no es as?, se utilizan para verificar informacin y para confirmar lo que sospecha-mos

En ingls es frecuente que tras una afirmacin o negacin, la misma persona aada una pregunta corta de signo opuesto:

You have seen the film. Havent you?

Se suele utilizar una question tag negativa tras una afirmacin:

It is very cold. Isnt it?

Y una question tag afirmativa tras una negacin:

It isnt very cold. Is it?

Si el verbo de la oracin principal es un auxiliar o un verbo modal, en la 2question tag se utiliza el verbo verbo en sentido opuesto; es decir si el verbo es afirmativo se pondr en negativo y viceversa

You can finish the report today, cant you?

Con el resto de los verbos, en la question tag se utiliza el tiempo adecuado de to do

You like driving, dont you?You went to London last web, didnt you?

El significado de las question tags va a depender de su pronunciacin: si cae la entonacin indica que simplemente se busca el asentimiento de la otra persona; si, por el contrario, se eleva el tono, entonces se trata de una verdadera pregunta:

She will come later. Wont she? (si se baja el tono, se busca slo el asentimiento del oyente )She will come later. Wont she? (si se sube el tono, se trata de una verdadera pregunta )

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28. Nacionalidades (nationalities)

Terminacin Pas Nacionalidad

-an AmericaBelgiumEgyptGermanyHungaryNorwayRussia

AmericanBelgianEgyptianGermanHungarianNorwegianRussian

-ese ChinaJapanPortugalVietnam

ChineseJapanesePortugueseVietnamese

-i IraqIsraelPakistanSaudi Arabia

IraqiIsraeliPakistaniSaudi

-ish BritainDenmarkFinlandPolandScotlandSpainSwedenTurkey

BritishDanishFinnishPolishScottishSpanishSwedishTurkish

-sc, ch EnglandFranceHollandIrelandWales

EnglishFrenchDutchIrishWelsh

ArgentinaGreeceSwitzerlandThailand

ArgentineGreekSwissThai


29. Nmeros (numbers)

Nmeros Cardinales

1 one2 two3 three4 four5 five6 six7 seven8 eight9 nine10 ten11 eleven12 twelve

13 thirteen14 fourteen15 fifteen16 sixteen17 seventeen18 eighteen19 nineteen

20 twenty21 twenty-one22 twenty-two....30 thirty40 forty50 fifty60 sixty70 seventy80 eighty90 ninety

100 hundred1000 thousand1.000.000 million

Numeros Ordinales

1st first2nd second3rd third4th fourth5th fifth6th sixth7th seventh8th eighth9th ninth10th tenth11eleventh....

20th twentieth30th thirtieth40th forthieth....

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fechas

los aos hasta ahora se decan en dos partes

1998 nineteen ninety-eight

a partir del 2000

2001 two thousand two

a partir del 2010

twenty ten

los das se suelen decir con los ordinales

5/3

the fifth of March


30. Nombres contables e incontables (countable and un-countable)

there is / there are

Se utiliza para decir que algo existe

there is: singular y nombres incontables

there is a very interesting conference next web

there are: plural

there are three new computers at the sales department

some/any

some y any son determinantes y se utilizan con nombres incontables y plurales. Tienen el mismo significado que el artculo indeterminado a/an.

Some y any se utilizan especialmente cuando hablamos de cantidades in-determinadas o indefinidas

I have got some great jazz records

Some se utiliza en frases afirmativas

I need some pencils

Any se usa en preguntas y oraciones negativas

Do you have any pencils?

Sorry, I havent got any pencils

Some se usa en preguntas cuando esperamos una respuesta positiva o cuando queremos motivar a decir si, especialmente cuando ofrecemos o pedimos algo de forma corts

Would you like some coffee?

Could I have some coffee, please?

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Any se usa en oraciones afirmativas que tienen un significado realmente negativo

You never give me any help

Much / many

Much y many se usan habitualmente en preguntas y oraciones negativa

How much money have you got?

How many e-mails did you send to Mr Brown?

Much: para nombres incontables

There is much work to do

Many: para nombres contables

Many of our customers are on holiday

Much y many son muy habituales en oraciones afirmativas despus de too, so, as y con expresiones con very

Celia talks too much

Thank you very much


31. Cartas (letters)

31.1. si la carta se escribe en papel sin encabezamiento, la direccin del remitente se pone en el lado izquierdo, el nombre y la direccin del consig-natario suele ir a la izquierda

31.2. fecha: la fecha se puede escribir de dos maneras

a. september 7th

b. 7th September

Cuidado, en Ingls Britnico 7/10/04 es 7 de septiembre pero en ingls ameri-cano sera 10 de julio

31.3. Saludo

Hay diversas formas de empezar una cartaDear Sir o Madam (si no conocemos el nombre de la persona a la que enviamos la carta)Dear Mr x (si conocemos el nombre)Dear Mrs X (para una mujer casada)Dear Miss X (para una mujer soltera)Dear Ms X (si no conocemos el estado civil de la mujer)Si sabemos el nombre siempre es mejor usarlo

31.4. Cierre

Yours faithfully ( si hemos empezado con Dear Sir / Dear madam)Yours sincerely ( si hemos empezado con Dear + apellido)Otras formas:Yours trulySincerely (yours)Very truly yours

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31.5. Expresiones tiles

Para empezar la carta

Thank you for ...

We acknowledge receipt of your letter of / dated 2nd June

Further to ...

With reference to ...

I am writing to inform / advise you that ../ tell

Informar

This is ....

I am pleased to inform you that / advise

I regret ...

Solicitar algo

Would you please...

Would you be so good as to ... let me know as son as posible

Kindly

I would be grateful if you could ...

Finalizar

If you require further information please do not hesitate to contact us

I look forward to hearing from you soon

An early reply would be greatly appreciated


32. LISTADO DE VERBOS IRREGULARES Selected Irregular verbs

BASE FORM

PAST FORM

PAST PARTICI-PLE

BASE FORM

PAST FORM

PAST PARTI-CIPLE

BeBearBeatbecomebet bid bringbuildbuychoosecostcreepcutdealdodrawdrinkdriveeatfallfeelfightfindflyforbidforecastforgetfreeze getgogrowhave

WasBoreBeatbecamebetbidbroughtbuiltboughtchosecostcrept cutdealtdiddrewdrankdroveatefell feltfought found flew forbade forecast forgot froze got went grew had

BeenBorneBeatenbecomebetbidbroughtbuiltbought chosen costcreptcutdealt donedrawndrunkdriveneatenfallenfeltforbidden forecast forgotten frozen fought found flown got (AmE: gotten) gone grown had

hear hide hit hold hurt keep know lay lead leavelend letLoseMakeMeanmeet pay put quit read ring rise runsay see sell send set shake show shut sink

heard hid hit held hurt kept knew laidled left lent let LostMadeMeantmet paid put quitread rang roseransaid saw sold sent set shook showed shut sank

heard hidden hit held hurt kept known laid led left lent letLostMadeMeantmet paid put quit read rung risen run said seen sold sentset shaken shown shut sunk

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BASE FORM

PAST FORM

PAST PARTICI-

PLE

BASE FORM

PAST FORM

PAST PAR-TICIPLE

sitslide speak spend spread stand steal stick swingtake

satslid spokespent spread stoodstole stuck swungtook

sat slid spoken spent spread stood stolen stuck swung taken

teachtell think throw unders-tand wear win wind write

taughttold thought threw understo-od wore won wound wrote

taught thrown thoughtthrownunderstood worn won wound written


ANEXO

The following is a list of standard phrases that are often used in business let-ters. They have been divided into sections according to their function. The idea is that you can copy them directly into your own business letters. We will add to this section regularly.

Salutations

Dear Sir,Dear Madam,Dear Sir/Madam,Dear Sir or Madam,Dear Mr. / Mrs. / Ms. / Miss / Dr. Smith,

Opening Sentences

With reference to your letter/fax/memo/E-mail of 14th February, .......In reply to your letter of 14th February, .......Further to our telephone conversation of yesterday, ............Thank you for your interest in our company/firm.Thank you for your recent letter/fax/memo/E-mail.Thank you for your recent order.We are pleased to inform you that ......I am happy to tell you that .....We regret to inform you that .....I am sorry to have to tell you that .....Please find enclosed .............I am writing to confirm that .....I am writing to enquire whether .....

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Dealing with problems

Please let us know what has happened to our shipment.I am very sorry to hear about the problems you have experienced and I fully understand your disappointment with the service you received.I apologize for any inconvenience this has caused you.I am sorry for the delay in responding to your letter / E-mail.Please accept our apologies for the delay.I am sorry to inform you that we must cancel our order.I will let you know as soon as I have any further news about the situation.Thank you for your patience.

Chasing Payment

Unfortunately, we have not yet received payment for the above invoice.I regret to have to point out that the above invoice has not yet been paid.

General

I am sure you will find plenty to interest you in the enclosed brochure/ca-talogue. (U.S. catalog)I am sure you will find our prices competitive and our service of the hig-hest standard.If you would like to arrange a meeting to discuss this project please con-tact me on the above number as soon as possible.Please confirm that the above arrangements are acceptable.I can confirm that your order was shipped on 18th June by air freight.

Closing Sentences

If you have any further questions please do not hesitate to contact me personally.We look forward to hearing from you.We look forward to receiving your order.Thank you once again for your efforts.I look forward to meeting you in July.


Closing Phrases

Yours sincerely,Yours faithfully, (only used with Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Dear Sir/Madam)With kind regards,Best regards,

We use reported speech when we want to relate what another person said, wrote or thought on a previous occasion. We can report both statements and questions.

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GRAMMAR HANDBOOK 81

Past Reported Speech

Estilo directo Estilo indirecto

Simple present

Ann: I am tired

4

Simple past

Ann said she was tired

Simple past

Ann: I finished the report yester-day

4

Simple past

Past Perfect

Ann said (that) she finished the re-port the previous day

Ann said (that) she had finished the report the previous day

Present Perfect

Ann: Peter has bought a new car

4Past Perfect

Ann said (that) Peter had bought a new car

Future (will)

Ann: I will help you with the re-port

4Conditional (would)

Ann said (that) she would help me with the report

Can

Ann: I can help you with the re-port

4Could

Ann said (that) she could help me with the report

Orders and requests

Ann: Dont shout

Can you open the door, please?

4

Infinitive

Ann told me not to shout

Ann asked me to open the door


Immediate reported speech

a) When we use reported speech we usually refer to a past situation but so-metimes we may want to tell someone what another person is saying right now e.g. over the phone. We call this immediate reported speech .

Look at this telephone conversation.

MR FORESTI Could I speak to Mr Gardner please?

MRS WILLIAMS Sorry , hes out -can I take a message?

MR FORESTI Yes please. My name is Mr Foresti. Could you tell him Im sorry we havent been able to send him the estimate he requested. Our technician is away at the moment.

MR WILLIAMS Right, Ill tell him when he comes in

(Mr Gardner enters the office.)

MRS WILLIAMS Mr Foresti, could you hold on a moment?

MR FORESTI Yes.

MRS WILLIAMS (to Mr Gardner:) Mr Foresti is on the line. He says hes sorry he hasnt been able to send you the estimate you requested be-cause their technician is away at the moment. ..

The reporting verb says is in the present tense. There are no tense changes required because the conversation is reported at almost the same time as the original conversation itself.

b) It is not always necessary to change the verb if you are reporting something and you feel that is still true.

Mary said (that) she is/was 30 years old

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GRAMMAR HANDBOOK 83

Reporting Questions

e) When reporting a question, we should write it as an affirmative sentence

Do you speak English?He asked whether / if I spoke English

f) When reporting direct questions beginning with do or does, if or whe-ther are used

Do you know the gross weight?He asked him if he knew the gross weight

g) Questions beginning with a modal verb are transformed in a similar way:

Can you type?She wanted to know if I could type

h) Note that the past verb form is not always necessary .

He wanted to know where the post office is

GLOSARIO4

GLOSSARY4


A

ABS (Antilock Braking System) Sistema de frenado antibloqueoacceptance aceptacin acceptance date/time of goods fecha en la que el transportista se hace cargo de la mercanca en el lugar de recogidaaccess acceso accident accidente accident insurance seguro contra accidentesaccount cuenta account balance saldo accounting contabilidadacknowledge (to) admitir, reconocer, acusar recibo de (una carta) additional adicional address domicilio, direccin addressee destinatario adhesive adhesivoadjustment ajuste advance (to) avanzar, adelantar advance against documents anticipo contra los documentosaffordable al alcance del bolsillo AFV (Alternative Fueled Vehicle) Vehculo de abastecimiento alternativo. agency agencia agent agente air filter filtro de aire air ride suspension Suspension airport aeropuerto amend (to) rectificar, enmendaramortization amortizacin amount monto, cantidad annoyance molestia annual anual annul (to) anular applicant solicitante apply (to) pedir, solicitar approved aprobado arrival llegada arrival notice aviso de llegada articulated articulado

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87GLOSSARY

ATC (Automatic Traction Control) Control de Traccin automtico attention atencin auditor interventor auditor authorization autorizacin automatic gearshift transmisin automtica average promedio AVI (Automatic Vehicle Identification) Identificacin automtica del vehculo AVL (Automated Vehicle Location) Localizacin automtica del vehculo awareness concientizacin axle Eje

B

back dorso, parte trasera bad check cheque sin fondo bad service mal servicio bag bolsa, embalaje flexible hecho de papel, plstico, textil, etc. balance balance bale bala, fardo bank banco, banca banker banquero bankers draft letra bancariabar code cdigo de barras barrel barril, tonel, tambor, normalmente hecho de madera barrier barrera barrier material material aislante batch number nmero de remesa bearer portador bearer cheque cheque al portadorbend (to) doblar benefit beneficio better (to) mejorar bill (to) facturar bill of lading conocimiento de embarque blank en blanco blind spot area sin visibilidad blow-out pinchazobobtail tractor camin entero, que no tiene remolque body cuerpo (de un camin)


bodywork carrocera bogie (also spelled bogey) carretn. bottle botellabounced rechazado, rebotado box cajabox-pallet pallet con laterales cerrados brake freno branch sucursal brand name marca break-bulk cargo mercanca expedida en unidades (mercanca palletizada, en cajas, etc.).breakdown averabreakdown truck grabroken roto budget presupuestobulk cargo mercanca suelta bulk packaging sistema de embalaje diseado para contener artculos suel-tos, materiales granulados o lquidos.bulky quantity gnero voluminoso bumper paragolpes bundle bulto, artculos atados con cuerdas, grapas, etc. tensionadasbusiness day da hbil buying-and-selling compraventa by road (transporte) por carretera by sea va martima

C

C.O.D. contra reembolso cab cabinaCabover (Cab-Over-Engine, COE) camin en el que la cabina se situa sobre la maquina. camshaft eje de leva can bote, habitualmente de metal cancel (to) cancelar capacity capacidad car auto, coche cardboard cartn cardboard box caja de cartn

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89GLOSSARY

cargo cargamentocargo weight peso combinado de todas las cargas de un vehculo. carriage vagncarrier transportistacartage company empresa de portes (a nivel local). carton caja de cartn case caja, funda, maleta cash (to) cobrar cash efectivo, al contado cash on delivery pago a la entrega.CDL (Commercial Drivers License) Licencia comercial del Conductorcertificate of origin certificado de origencertified certificado CG (Center of Gravity) centro de gravedad change (to) cambiar chassis chasis chassis weight (curb weight, tare weight) peso del chasis. cheap barato check cheque checking account cuenta corriente ( o cuenta de banco) chemicals materiales qumicos claim (to) reclamar clause clusula clearinghouse cmara de compensacin closing cierre closing salutation despedida clutch embrague clutch pedal pedal de embraguecode cdigo collate (to) cotejar, verificarcollateral colateral collection date/time (earliest/later) fecha/ hora de recogida (desde / hasta) collection of money cobro collide chocarcombined combinado commercial comercial commercial invoice factura comercialcommercial letter carta comercial commodities mercancas, productos


common ordinario comparable comparable compensation compensacin competitive competitivo competitiveness competitividad complaint queja completion realizacin compulsory obligatorio conditions condiciones consignee consignatario consignment expedicin, envoconsignment note aviso de envio. consignor consignadorconsolidated pack bulto comprimido.consumer goods bienes de consumocontainer contenedor, envase containerization poner en contenedorescontingent expenses gastos imprevistoscontraband, smuggling contrabando contract and carriage conditions condiciones de contrato y de portes.contract carrier empresa que transporta mercanca mediante contrato con una o varias empresas de transporte contract contrato convertible convertible conveyance reference referencia de transporteconveyor cinta transportadora, transportadorcopy copia correspondence correspondencia corrugated fiberboard cartn ondulado counterfeited falsificado (o falso) country of destination of goods pas de destino de la mercancacountry of origin pas de origen courteous corts, amable courtesy cortesa cover (to) cubrir coverage cobertura crane gruacrate cajn de embalajecrossed cheque cheque cruzado

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91GLOSSARY

cube (Cubic Capacity) cubicaje current vigente cushioning material material amortiguador (almohadillado, relleno)customer cliente customs aduana customs office despacho aduanero customs officer aduanero

D

daily diario damage dao damaged daado dangerous goods mercancas peligrosas dash guin date fecha dawn madrugada dead-heading llevar un camin sin carga. dear estimado, querido declare (to) declarar declared value for carriage valor declarado del porte defective desperfecto, defectuoso, fallado deferred payment credit (DPC) crdito de pago aplazado deferred payment pago aplazadodefroster descongelador delay demora delayed atrasado delivery entrega delivery instruction instrucciones de entrega.delivery note albarndelivery service Servicio de Entregadelivery time hora de entregademand demandadeparture salida departure date/time, estimated fecha / hora de salida estimadadeposit depsito deposit (to) depositar despatch party parte de expedicin destination destino


detail (to) detallar detect (to) detectar deterioration deterioro devaluation devaluacin develop (to) desarrollar dimensions dimensionesdiscount descuento dispatch (to) remitir, enviar, expedirdissatisfied descontento distance distancia distribution network red de distribucin distributor distribuidor dividends dividendos dock (loading) plataforma (de carga)documentary credit (DC) carta de crdito documental documents documentos documents against acceptance (D/A) documentacin contra aceptacindocuments against payment (D/P) documentos contra pagodomestic nacional domestic transport transporte nacional draft letra de cambio librada por un exportador a su banco presentada junto con los documentos de transporte drawee parte a quin se gira (girado) drawer girador.drawing girodriver conductor, chofer driving conduccin, manejo driving licence permiso de conduccindrum tambor, bidn due date, deadline vencimiento duration duracin duty impuesto

E

ease facilidad easy credit crdito blando EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) Intercambio electrnico dedatoselectronic transfer of funds (ETF) transferencia electrnica de fondos

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93GLOSSARY

elevator ascensor employment contract contrato laboral enclosure anexo endorse (to) endosar engine motor entity entidad entrust (to) encomendar envelop sobre equipment equipo escort (to) escoltar estimate (to) estimar EV (Electric Vehicle) Vehculo elctrico evaluate (to) evaluar excess exceso exchange (to) canjear, cambiar exchange rate precio de cambio expenses gastosexpensive caro expert perito, experto expiration vencimiento, caducidad expired vencido expiry date fecha de vencimiento export exportacinexpress exprs extend (to) extender extension prrroga extraordinary profit beneficio extraordinario

F facilities facilidades factory fbrica fair justo far away lejos fast pronto fastener clip, sujetador, cierrefender guardabarros file documents (to) tramitar filter filtro


finance (to) financiar financial report reporte financiero fine multafire incendio, fuego fix (to) fijar, arreglar fixed fijo fleet flota de transporteflow (of goods) flujo, afluencia de mercancias foodstuff producto alimenticiofootnote nota al pie de la pgina for your service a su servicio foreign extranjero foreign currency divisas fork-lift carretilla elevadora format formato forwarder agente de transporte fragile frgil free of charge sin cargo, gratis freight mercancas o el coste de transporte de las mercancas freight elevator montacargas front-wheel drive traccin delantera funds fondos

G

gas pedal acelerador gasoline tank tanque de gasolina GCW (gross combination weight) peso total de un vehculo combinado cargado gear change palanca de cambiogenerator generador give personal credit (to) fiar go public (to) salir a la bolsa good service buen servicio goods declaration for exportation declarar la mercancia para la exportacin goods identification identificacin de la mercanca.grant (to) otorgar gross bruto gross weight peso brutoguarantee (to) garantizarGVW (gross vehicle weight) peso bruto del vehculo

GLOSARIO94


95GLOSSARY

H

handle (to) manipular, manejar, tratarhandle with care manejar con cuidadohandling manejo handwritten escrito a mano haulage transportehauler transportistahead office, registered office domicilio socialheat seal sellado trmico heavy goods vehicle vehculo de mercancas pesadasheight dimension dimensin en alturahelpful servicial hermetic seal sello hermtico high alto highway autopistahighway code cdigo de circulacinhoist montacargas, gruahook garfohorsepower caballos de fuerza hours-of-service horas de servicio .

I

ignition ignicin, encendido impact (to) impactar, repercutir impolite descorts improve (to) mejorar, perfeccionar in advance por adelantado, anticipado incoming entrante, llegadaincrease (to) subir increase subida, incremento indemnify (to) indemnizar independent trucker camioneero independiente. industrial packaging embalaje industrialinformation for consignee informacin para el consignatario initial payment pago inicial installment cuota


insurance seguro insurance value valor aseguradoinsure (to) asegurar insured garantizado, asegurado interbank interbancario interest inters international trade comercio internacional invoice amount monto de la facturainvoice factura invoice number nmero de facturairrevocable credit carta de crdito irrevocable isothermal vehculo isotermicoissuing bank banco emisor ITS (intelligent transportation systems) sistema de transporte inteligente. jackknife Acodillamiento del remolquejar vasija, tinaja, sistema de embalaje rgido con boca ancha

L

label etiqueta LCV (long combination vehicle) Vehculo combinado largoleasing arrendamiento length dimension dimensin en longitud letter of credit (L/C) carta de crditolicense licencia license plate place de matrculalife vida lift jack gato elevadorlimit lmite line lnea liquidity liquidez livestock ganadoload (to) cargarload cargaloading authorisation number nmero de autorizacin de cargaloan against imports (LAI) Prstamo contra importaciones loan prstamo location, site ubicacin, sitio logbook cuaderno de abordo

GLOSARIO96


97GLOSSARY

logo logotipo long-term plazo largo lorry camin loss prdida lost and found objetos perdidos low bajo lower (to) bajar LTL (less-than-truckload) una cantidad de mercanca que es menor a la nece-saria para la aplicacin de la tarifa de transporte LTL Carrier empresa que consolida cargos menores a multiples destinos en un vehculolubricant lubricante

M

machine mquina machinery maquinaria manufacturer fabricante manufacturing price precio de fbrica margin margen marker marcador market value precio de mercado measurements medidasmerchandise artculo method of payment forma de pago mileage millaje, kilometraje mode of transport modo, mtodo de transportemonetary econmico month mes monthly mensual moratorium moratoria mortgage (to) hipotecar motorway autopistamultimodal multimodal


N

nature of cargo clasificacin general de la mercancia.net neto net weight peso neto .night shift jornada nocturna non-removable head drum tambor con tapa fija non-stop sin parar notice preaviso, aviso

O

on time a tiempo open flat-bed trailer camin abierto con la cubierta cerca del suelo opening apertura operate funcionar, trabajar, dirigiroptimize (to) optimizar order (to) hacer un pedidoout of balance desproporcionado out-of-order fuera de servicio outside financing recursos ajenos outstanding destacado, diferente over capacity sobrecargado overdraft sobregiro overdue vencidoowner-operator trucker camionero independiente.

P

P&D pickup and delivery recogida y entrega packaging embalaje, envase packing embalaje packing list lista de embalajepadded envelope (jiffy bag) sobre acolchadopadding relleno acolchadopadlock candado paid pagado pallet (for fork-lift) palet, tarima

GLOSARIO98


99GLOSSARY

paperboard cartn parcel paquetepay (to) in cash pagar en efectivopay out (to) desembolsar payment instruction (collect/prepaid) ordenes de pago (recogida / prepago)payment pago pedal pedal per unit unitario, por pieza percentage porcentaje performance rendimiento period plazo pick-up/collection date/time fecha, hora de recogidapiggyback semitrailer camin con vagones plataformas pigtail cable cable de cola pile-up (to) apilar place lugar place of departure lugar de salida place of destination destinoplastics film capa de plstico, papel transparente plate placa, matrculaplease (to) complacer pleasurable placentero policy pliza power steering direccin hidrulica preferred preferido premium prima price precio primary packaging primer embalaje private carrier transportista privado product producto productivity productividad profit ganancia profit margin margen de ganancia proforma invoice factura proformapromissory note pagarproof comprobante puncture pinchazo purchase compra


Q

quantity cantidad query (to) preguntar, poner en duda, interrogar

R

range gama rate tarifa raw materials materia primarear trasero reasonable mdico receipt recibo recommended recomendado recyclable reciclable reduction reduccin reefer (refrigerated trailer) camin refrigerante. refund devolucin, reembolsoregistration registro regret sentir, lamentarrejected rechazado relay (Relay Driving) relevo (conduccin de relevo). removable-head drum tambor de tapa movible renew (to) renovar repair (to) reparar replenish (to) reponer request (to) solicitar, pedirrequested routes/routing instructions orden o solicitud de una ruta determi-nadarequested tariff tarifa solicitada.requirement requisito, necesidadreserve reserva resources recursos restriction restriccin restructuring reestructuracin return devolucin revenues ingresos

GLOSARIO100


101GLOSSARY

review revisin revision revisin revocable credit carta de crdito revocable revoke revocar, suspenderring aro risk riesgo road consignment note (CMR) aviso de envio por carreteraroll rollo rough durorude rudo, maleducado runaway truck ramp rampa de emergencia

S

sack saco, costalsafety information informacin de seguridad safety seguridad sale venta sales tax IVA impuestos de ventaschedule programa, horarioscrew driver destornillador screw tornillo seat asiento seat belt cinturn de seguridad secondary packaging segundo embalaje self-financing autofinanciacin semitrailer truck camin semiremolque send (to) enviar senders instruction to carrier instrucciones del consignatario al transportista sending envo service servicio set-up (to) asentarse shipment carga, cargamento, transporte shipment date fecha de transporteshipper transportista, expedidorshipping guarantee (SG) garantia de transporteshipping marks marcas y seales ded transporteshipping note aviso de transporteshipping terms condiciones de transporte


shock absorber amortiguador short term plazo corto shrink wrap envoltura de plastico ajustable sight (payable at) pagadero a la vista sign up (to) suscribir signature firma six-cylinder engine motor de seis cilindros snags facturas irregulares.solvency solvencia solvent solvente sorting clasificacin source fuente spare part repuesto spare tire rueda de repuesto speed velocidad speed limit lmite de velocidadspeedometer velocmetro spring resorte stack (to) apilar stained manchado starter arranque statutory estatutario steering conduccin, manejo steering wheel volante stencil (to) estarcirstock surtido store almacenarstore and forward almacenaje y envio.stretch wrap embalaje elsticostrip (to) sacar, descargarstuff (to) llenar, cargarsum importe supply (to) abastecer suspension suspensin swap bodies

GLOSARIO102


103GLOSSARY

T

take measure (to) tomar medidas tank-pallet pallet cisternateam (driver team) equipo de dos conductores. temperature range oscilacin de temperaturatemperature setting ajuste de la temperaturatemporary transitorio, temporario termination extincin terms of delivery condiciones de entrega .terms trminos, plazos theft robo time tiempo tire neumtico, llanta, goma title ttulo TL (truckload) la cantidad de mercanca necesaria para llenar un camin TL Carrier empresa de transporte que dedica los camiones a un solo cargo to stack apilarTOFC (trailer on flatcar) remolque en batea toll-paying motorway autopista de peajetool herramienta total amount monto total, suma totaltrack and trace seguir y rastrear trade credit crdito comercial traffic lights semforostransfer transferenciatransit transitotransport charges precios de transportetransport packaging embalaje de transportetransport priority prioridad de transporte.trial prueba tri-axle truck camin de tres ejes trip recorder (On-Board Computer) grabador de viaje trolley carretillatruck camin twins (twin trailers) remolques gemelos type tipo typed escrito a mquina


U

ULEV Ultra-low emissions vehicle vehculo de emisiones ultra bajasunbeatable inmejorable under capacity infrautilizacin understanding acuerdounderwrite (to) suscribir, asegurar, garantizar underwriter asegurador, suscriptor unforeseen imprevistounload (to) descargaruntertake emprender, comprometerse

V

V8 engine motor de V ocho valid vlido valve vlvula van camioneta van load carga de la furgonetavariety variedad VIN (vehicle identification number) nmero de identificacin del vehculo. volume volumen.

W

waiting espera warehouse almacn, bodega warehousing almacenaje warranted garantizado water pump bomba de agua waterproof lining forro antiaguaweight (gross) peso bruto wheel rueda wholesaler mayoristawidth dimension dimensin en anchura.windshield parabrisas winery bodega wing mirror retrovisor wirebound box caja con bordes de alambrewithout reason sin razn

GLOSARIO104

31019884 Manual Gramatica Inglesa (4)

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Transcript of 31019884 Manual Gramatica Inglesa (4)