Clemson students engaged in undergraduate research projects

22nd Annual David S. Snipes/Clemson

Hydrogeology Symposium

April 3, 2014

Time BellSouth Auditorium Meeting Rooms 1/2 Meeting Rooms 3/4

7:30 Registration

Geophysics

Moderator: Adam Mangel

Site Management /Bioremediation

Moderator: Rob Workman

Geology, Groundwater and Contaminants

Moderator: Bruce Campbell

8:30

An Introduction to Electro-magnetic Methods for Sub-surface Characterization and Monitoring Moysey, Stephen

Use of Tracer Studies to Im-prove a Site Conceptual Model Clark, Lisa

Development and Application of a Groundwater Flow Model of the Crouch Branch and McQueen Branch aquifers, Ches-terfield County, SC Campbell, Bruce

8:50

Quantification of Spatial Mo-ments of Subsurface Solute Plumes: A Comparison of Geophysical and Direct Sam-pling Approaches Oware, Erasmus

Reading the Groundwater Roadmap: Site Management Strategy at Sangamo-Weston OU1, Pickens, South Carolina Kline, Simon

Occurrence of Ethylene Dibro-mide, Dibromochloropropane, Volatile Organic Compounds, Radium Isotopes, and Radon in Groundwater from the Upper Coastal Plain Aquifers near McBee, SC Landmeyer, James

9:10

The Use of Contextual Data in Artificial Neural Network Target Classification Algo-rithms for GPR Data Mangel, Adam

Zero Liquid Discharge for Wastewater Treatment in Oil Exploration Facilities Workman, Robert

Geometric Properties of Joints in Crystalline Rocks, Carolina Piedmont Schaeffer, Malcolm

9:30

Combined Borehole and Sur-face Geophysical Data to Im-prove Conceptual Site Mod-els Harrigan, Joseph

Adaptive Long-Term Remedia-tion of a Chlorinated Solvent Plume in Georgia Byrd, Jennifer

Geologic Foundation Mapping for Nuclear Safety Related Struc-tures: Case Study from New Nu-clear Project Ferrugia, Gina

9:50 Mitigating Challenges with Geophysics at Complex Sites Plummer, Kelly

Bioremediation of a Chlorinat-ed Ethene Plume at an Active Manufacturing Facility Hollifield, Edward

Metals Concentrations in South Carolina Streams: Statewide, Ecoregion, and Ecobasin Rela-tionships to Land Cover Jones, A. J.

10:10

Evaluating Subsurface Soil Displacement as a Method for Monitoring Area-Averaged Changes in Soil Moisture Thrash, Colby

Optimizing Sustainability and Cost for EVO Injections Alden, David

Assessing Ecological Response to Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Small Streams Jones, A. J.

10:30 Break /Please move to the Main Ballroom

Speaker Schedule April 3, 2014

Time BellSouth Auditorium Meeting Rooms 1/2 Meeting Rooms 3/4

12:00

Energy and Carbon

Sequestration Moderator: Ron Falta

Innovative Remediation Strategies

Moderator: Pat Hicks

Graduate/Undergrad Research

Moderator: Scott Brame

1:00

Subsurface Thermal Energy Storage for Continuous Produc-tion of Electricity Using Con-centrating Solar Power Falta, Ronald

Destruction of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Per-fluoroctanoic Acid (PFOA) Using Activated Persulfate Hicks, Patrick

Characterizing the Effect of Ac-etate and Electron Donor Con-centration on Complete Dechlo-rination of Chlorinated Ethenes under Fe(III)-reducing Condi-tions Haluska, Alex

1:20

Porous Media Compressed Air Energy Storage of Wind Energy in Low Dip Formations of South Carolina Jarvis, Alexandra-Selene

Use of In-Situ Chemical Re-duction and Bioaugmentation to Treat Trichloroethene Groundwater Plume Propst, Brooke

Determining Residual Soil Min-eralogy using X-ray Diffraction Gloersen, Kimberly

1:40

Geologic CO2 Storage Design to Increase Secondary Trapping Cost Effectively Ruprecht, Catherine

From Bench Scale to Full Scale: High Pressure Injection of Calcium Peroxide Slurry Directly into Limestone Bed-rock Rudd, Brantley

Determining Mineral Weather-ing Rates in the Clemson Exper-imental Forest using a Mass Bal-ance Approach Goretoy, Sergey

2:00

Effects of Increased Basin Flux Due to CO2 Storage on Interac-tions between Fresh Saline Groundwater Xie, Shuangshuang

High Resolution Site Charac-terization using US EPA Meth-od 8265 in support of Flux Field Mapping Davis, William

Topographic Effects on Infiltra-tion in Rain Gardens Creighton, Andrea

2:20 Stochastic Parameter Optimiza-tion of Poroelastic Systems Hanna, Alexander

Overcoming the Challenges of Aggressive and Rapid DNAPL Remediation in Saprolite and Fractured Bedrock Maalouf, George

Measuring Soil Moisture in Rain Gardens using Geophysical Methods Good, Daniel

2:40

Forms of Environmental Hy-draulic Fractures in Different Geologic Settings Murdoch, Larry

Bench-scale Testing of Physi-cal Separation Technologies to Evaluate the Remediation of Surficial Soils Impacted with Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Sams, Ricky

Soil Displacement Correlations with Estimates of Evapotranspi-ration using the Penman-Monteith Equation Searcy, Caroline

3:00 Break

Lunch

11:00 Keynote Talk: Groundwater Spreadsheets: Efficient and Practical Resource for Solving Simple and Complex Flow, Pollution, and Environmental Problems, Carlos E. Molano

Time BellSouth Auditorium Meeting Rooms 1/2 Meeting Rooms 3/4

Innovative Remediation

Strategies Moderator: Joe Rossabi

Groundwater and Soil Deformation

Moderator: Larry Murdoch

Carbon Fluxes Moderator: Scott Brame

4:20

Optimized In Situ Chemical Oxidant Delivery Using High Resolution Site Characteriza-tion Data Mazzarese, Michael

Determining Inflows at a Freshwater Wetland in Clem-son, South Carolina Vaughan, Thomas

Soil Carbon Flux on an Area underlain by Biotite Gneiss in the Clemson Experimental For-est Newman, Jasmine

4:40

Effective In-Situ Amendment Injection Requires a Hybrid Approach Moskal, Eric

Characterizing the Effects of Rainfall on Soil Deformation Jackson, Chris

Carbon Dioxide Exchange be-tween the Atmosphere and Lake Hartwell near Clemson, SC Lacy, Nolan

5:15 Mixer at Clemson Outdoor Lab

3:20

Considerations for the Use and Interpretation of Bench-scale Monolithic Leachability Test-ing for Full Scale Implementa-tion of In-Situ Solidification/Stabilization Baumeister, Andrew

Evaluation of the Water Bal-ance and Groundwater Flow in the Hunnicutt Creek Wet-land Thompson, Emily

Carbon Dioxide Efflux in Forest Soil and Topsoil Influenced by Soil Moisture and Temperature Variations Hickok, Katherine

3:40 Electrochemical Remediation Strategies in the Subsurface Rossabi, Joseph

Evapotranspiration Estimation and Water Balance in a Fresh-water Wetland in Clemson, South Carolina Bastian, Brian

Comparison of Till and No-till Agricultural Practices on Car-bon Dioxide Flux from the Soil on an Organic Farm Coffin, Ashley

4:00

Development of Methods that Extend Hydraulic Fracturing Applicability to Contaminated Bedrock Hall, Richard

Analyzing Effects of Baro-metric Pressure and Tempera-ture on Subsurface Displace-ment Miller, Savannah

Soil Carbon Flux from an Area underlain by Amphibolite in the Clemson Experimental Forest Demille, Richard

Workshops 1:00—5:00 PM (You had to sign up for this beforehand to attend) Reconstructing the Earth: A Hands-On Overview of Cross-Borehole Tomographic Imaging Dr. Stephen Moysey Posters Performance of Thin-layer Capping: a Component of an Enhanced Monitored Natural Recovery (eMNR™) Remedy for Soft Organic Creek Sediments Hays, Michelle Using Molarity to Evaluate Changes in the Proportion of VOC Compounds in Groundwater Wixon, R. Stephen

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Abstracts (Ordered by last name of first author)

Optimizing Sustainability and Cost for EVO Injections Alden, David F., david.alden@ tersusenv.com, Tersus Environmental, Wake Forest, North Carolina

Management of common environmental contaminants that include chlorinated halo-genated straight chain and aromatic hydro-carbons such as perchloroethene (PCE), trichloroethene (TCE) and chlorinated phe-nols, perchlorate, explosive materials such as aromatic nitrates and residues of ener-getic munitions, nitrates, acids, radionu-clides and metal oxides, allows restoring aquifers and the environment to productive use.

It is well known that creating anaerobic groundwater conditions by adding organic substrate stimulates biological mechanisms to degrade the aforementioned contami-nants. Once the organic material initially consumes any oxygen and other electron acceptors such as nitrates (NO3-) and sul-fates (SO42-), it provides a carbon source and serves as an electron donor during re-ductive dechlorination of contaminants by indigenous or exogenous microorganisms. Better understanding of the processes un-dergoing this degradation mechanism has increasingly taken Environmental Engi-neers, contractors, scientists, consultants, regulatory personnel, and others charged with remediating contaminated groundwa-ter to engineer systems that enhance these biological mechanisms. During these bi-ostimulation practices, emulsified vegeta-ble oils (EVO) are a commonly deployed carbon source for enhanced halorespiration,

which is the use of halogenated compounds as sources of energy.

Nevertheless, EVO selection and deliv-ery process must, on one hand, favor a sub-stance with appropriate characteristics for subsurface delivery which is important to maximize contaminant contact and mini-mize the impact on groundwater flow con-ditions while providing a short and long-term source of hydrogen and carbon for enhanced reductive dechlorination. On the other, sustainability and cost considerations are factors that can determine using a prod-uct that ships as a 100% vegetable oil base solution yet emulsifies on site without ad-ditional high-energy mixing simply by add-ing local water.

Self-emulsifying organic substrates are an isotropic mixture of vegetable oil and vegetable oil derived fatty acid esters that have a unique ability of forming fine oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions when mixed with aqueous media under mild agitation. Spon-taneous emulsification to produce fine O/W emulsion under gentle agitation fol-lowed by dilution in aqueous media occurs since the entropy change favoring disper-sion is larger than the energy needed to in-crease the surface area of dispersion. Emul-sification occurs spontaneously due to the relatively low positive or negative free en-ergy required to form the emulsion.

Secondary environmental advantages of using self-emulsifying vegetable oils include reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions firstly by eliminating mechanical energy inputs and reducing substrate-shipping volumes. Secondly, a self-emulsifying EVO substrate with a long shelf life allows bulk storage, which re-

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duced the need for excess drums and totes that would require additional energy and materials for recycling or disposal at the conclusion of the project. This non-perishable characteristic allows consider-ing, particularly for large projects, inter-modal or consolidated shipping to reduce transportation carbon footprint. For exam-ple, Intermodal carriers can haul one ton of bulk liquid approximately 500 miles on a gallon of fuel, reducing by one-third the GHG emissions of equivalent trucks travel-ling the same distance. This presentation will show how the low-cost self-emulsifying organic substrates is imple-mented, share project data and illustrate the advantages of optimizing sustainability, site geochemistry and hydrogeology to ad-dress groundwater impacted with chlorinat-ed hydrocarbons. Evapotranspiration Estimation and Water Balance in a Freshwa-ter Wetland in Clemson, South Carolina Bastian, Brian, bbastia@g.clemson.edu, and L.C. Murdoch, Department of Envi-ronmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC In the summer of 2013, part of Hunnicutt Creek was restored due to the mitigation process for commercial development in the surrounding area. This activity has lead to increased attention on the creek and the surrounding ecosystem.

Understanding the water balance of the area is vital to evaluating the long-term ef-fectiveness of the restoration project. Also, estimating the evapotranspiration rate in the wetland will aid the planning future restoration and phytoremediation projects.

The water balance of the wetland in-

volves inflow entering the wetland through visible seeps in a nearby dike as well as groundwater discharge to small streams through the wetland. The seeps account for about 20 percent of the observed outflow, and I assume that the groundwater accounts for the other 80 percent. The outflow pri-marily appears to include three streams that drain from the wetland into Hunnicutt Creek and evapotranspiration from the wet-land itself. Groundwater fluxes into and out of the wetland were estimated using a model created in MODFLOW using the interface Groundwater Modeling System. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) during the summer and fall was calculated using the Penman-Monteith equation, and the Shuttleworth evaporation equation (EV) was used in the winter when vegetation was dormant. A transducer was used to measure the water level change in surface water every 5 minutes.

The calculated ET increased from 6 mm/day in August to 14 mm/day in Octo-ber, and then it decreased progressively to 6mm/day in December. The water level in the wetland increased and decreased on a daily cycle when the plants were active from August through October. Typical fluctuations were 5mm/day to 8mm/day.

There was a consistent difference be-tween the PET (or EV) and the observed groundwater fluctuation. Every month, August through December, the PET ex-ceeded the observed fluctuation. The most likely reason for this discrepancy is the weather station where the atmospheric data for the PET calculation is gathered is not located in the wetland. The weather station is located in Walker Golf Course where it is exposed to a greater amount of sunlight and higher wind speeds. This would ac-count for the higher calculated PET and EV rates than the actual observed values in the wetland.

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Considerations for the Use and In-terpretation of Bench-scale Mono-lithic Leachability Testing for Full Scale Implementation of In-Situ Solidification/Stabilization Baumeister, Andrew, andrew.baumeister @arcadis-us.com, and David Liles, AR-CADIS, Durham, NC; Adam Chwalibog,

ARCADIS, Syracuse, NY; and Shawn Burnell, ARCADIS, San Francisco, CA In-Situ Solidification/Stabilization (ISSS) is a commonly employed remedial technol-ogy for contaminated soil. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), ISSS was used at 217 superfund sites from 1982 to 2005. In or-der to evaluate the feasibility and design effective soil-reagent mix recipes for ISSS applications, environmental practitioners perform bench-scale treatability testing in which performance criteria are evaluated. Such performance criteria include uncon-fined compressive strength, hydraulic con-ductivity, and contaminant leachability. Of these criteria, contaminant leachability typ-ically proves to be the most difficult to evaluate at the bench-scale. Standard test methods for contaminant leachability per-formed by analytical laboratories, such as Synthetic Precipitate Leaching Procedure (SPLP) and Toxicity Characteristic Leach-ing Procedure (TCLP), are not representa-tive of ISSS post-remedy site conditions and may lead to an over-estimation of con-taminant s flux from the treated monolith. Test methods for monolithic samples, such as American National Standard (ANS) 16.1, used for measurement of leachability of solidified low-level radioactive wastes, have been adapted for use in ISSS treata-bility testing and are considered more rep-resentative of contaminant release from

solidified soil matrices. In addition, the US EPA recently released new test methods (LEAF, specifically Method 1315) in an effort to better estimate contaminant leach-ability from monoliths or compacted gran-ular materials. Care must be taken, howev-er, when interpreting the results of these monolithic leachability methods as they relate to full-scale contaminant flux estima-tions. Drawing on experience from ap-proximately ten ISSS treatability tests dur-ing which monolithic contaminant leacha-bility was evaluated, as well as several full-scale applications, the aim of this presenta-tion is to address the potential benefits and drawbacks of such monolithic contaminant leachability methods. Ensuring that con-sultants, regulatory agencies, and other stakeholders are well informed about the uses and limitations of contaminant leacha-bility test methods in the generation of de-sign parameters for ISSS applications will result in a more effective remedial design and implementation for all involved par-ties. Adaptive Long-Term Remediation of a Chlorinated Solvent Plume in Georgia Byrd, Jennifer, jennifer.byrd@erm.com, ERM, Atlanta, GA; and Ed Hollifield, ERM NC Inc., Charlotte, NC Chlorinated solvent impacts to groundwa-ter were identified in 1991 at a former manufacturing facility in Georgia. Between 1992 and 1999 over 50 soil samples were collected to identify source areas and 80 groundwater monitoring wells were in-stalled for horizontal and vertical delinea-tion of the groundwater plume. Assessment results confirmed no presence of residual unsaturated soil contamination. Based on

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the groundwater data, two source areas were identified (the former dip tank area and the septic tank area). The remediation strategy for the site focused on source de-pletion, followed by treatment of the down-gradient plume, as necessary. Remediation activities began in 2002 with an ISCO pilot test utilizing potassium permanganate in the former dip tank area. Full scale ISCO injection of permanganate, which focused oxidant delivery to the two identified source areas via permanent injection wells, began in 2003. Annual ISCO injections were conducted between 2003 and 2010 resulting in the delivery of 266,700 gallons of oxidant solution to the two identified source areas. In 2008, a soil vapor extrac-tion (SVE) system was installed to reduce mass flux to groundwater by treating the capillary fringe. As with the ISCO injec-tion program, the SVE system focused on treatment of the two source areas. Between 2008 and 2012, a total of 608 pounds of VOCs were removed from the subsurface by the SVE system. Anaerobic bioremedia-tion was selected as a potential remedy for the more dilute downgradient portion of the plume. The first pilot test injection was conducted in 2011. Contaminant concen-trations in the bioremediation pilot test area wells were an order of magnitude higher than expected.

Due partially to the unexpectedly high contaminant concentrations in the down-gradient bioremediation pilot test area, a detailed review of the site history was con-ducted in 2012 to refine the site conceptual model (SCM) and, based on the refined SCM, revise the site remediation plan. A detailed review of site assessment data and historic sources resulted in the identifica-tion of several data gaps and potential sec-ondary source areas. Chemical speciation analysis and 3D modeling provided evi-dence that the 1,500 foot long groundwater

plume extending from the site was likely the result of several small spills as opposed to releases from two large distinct source areas as previously thought. Rebound of source area contaminant concentrations, formerly attributed to matrix diffusion, may have been the result of contaminant flux from previously unidentified second-ary source areas. In addition, the existing remediation system infrastructure was no longer in the areas with the highest con-taminant concentrations.

Additional site investigation activities conducted in October 2012 confirmed the presence of several secondary source areas. Based on the site investigation results, the source area ISCO injection strategy was modified and the August 2013 injection event focused on oxidant delivery to the newly identified secondary source areas. In addition, several new groundwater moni-toring wells were installed throughout the footprint of the plume to refine the prefer-ential flow paths migrating from the newly identified source areas. The data provided by the new wells identified a long narrow preferential flow path extending from the site. The revised off-site remediation strate-gy focuses on addressing the preferential flow path which greatly reduces the area requiring active remediation.

Development and Application of a Groundwater Flow Model of the Crouch Branch and McQueen Branch aquifers, Chesterfield County, South Carolina Campbell, Bruce G., bcampbel@ usgs.gov, and James E. Landmeyer, U.S. Geological Survey, Columbia, SC Chesterfield County is located in the north-ern part of South Carolina and adjacent to

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the North Carolina border and lies on the Fall Line, the geologic boundary between the Atlantic Coastal Plain (ACP) and Pied-mont physiographic provinces. Between 2000 and 2010, the population in Chester-field County increased from 42,768 to 46,734 people (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Associated with this population growth was an increased demand for domestic, public, industrial, and agricultural water supplies.

Much of Chesterfield County is served by a public supply utility, whose sole sources of water are the ACP Crouch Branch and McQueen Branch aquifers (Campbell and Coes, 2010). The average annual groundwater use is approximately 2 million gallons per day from 11 production wells. The future holds potential for the construction and operation of new indus-tries in Chesterfield County that would re-quire a substantial increase in the demand for high-quality water. Impacts of these proposed increases in withdrawals on exist-ing groundwater and surface-water re-sources of the area are unclear.

The objective of the investigation is to develop a groundwater flow model that can be applied to facilitate management of the water resources in Chesterfield County. Better management practices would help achieve sustainability of the water re-sources and minimize the potential for ex-cessive groundwater-level declines and po-tential adverse impacts on surface-water resources. In addition, a better understand-ing of the relation between groundwater contaminated with ethylene dibromide, di-bromochloropropane, and radium, and their sources and transport will provide guidance on the fate of these contaminants with re-spect to potable water supplies. A particle-tracking code is used to generate advective water-particle pathlines and their associat-ed time of travel based on the groundwater

flow simula-tions. The particle tracking program computed three-dimensional flow directions and time of travel using imagi-nary particles in a backtracking mode from the production wells to identify recharge areas. Results from the particle tracking simulations could be used, along with knowledge of the identified groundwater contaminates, to guide the placement of future wells.

Use of Tracer Studies to Improve a Site Conceptual Model Clark, Lisa M., lclark@trcsolutions.com, and Joyce E. Peterson, TRC Environmen-tal Corporation, Greenville, SC

A comprehensive Site Conceptual Model (SCM) can be instrumental in conducting environmental remediation; some regulato-ry programs even require one. The devel-opment of an SCM is an iterative process and is generated based on a compilation of site data and interpretations, often collected over a period of years. As new data are collected, the SCM is reviewed and modi-fied to accommodate the new information.

Understanding groundwater flow is a primary component of an SCM when groundwater contamination is involved. Sometimes our understanding of ground-water flow is limited by the number of available data points, which are often dic-tated by a client’s funding. Limited data points and/or wide spacing between points can mask subtleties in flow paths and lead to misconceptions regarding contaminant fate and transport. Groundwater tracers can provide a relatively inexpensive and practical method of evaluating groundwater flow direction and rate and can provide un-expected insights with regard to the distri-bution of contaminants in the aquifer.

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This paper presents a case study where tracers were used to successfully reveal important details about groundwater flow pathways in a complex hydrogeological environment where site terrain also pre-sents limitations to monitoring well place-ment.

Comparison of Till and No-till Ag-ricultural Practices on Carbon Di-oxide Flux from the Soil on an Or-ganic Farm Coffin, Ashley, and Scott Brame, Depart-ment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clem-son, SC Evidence of increasing global temperatures and climate change has led to growing con-cerns about greenhouse gas emissions es-pecially carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2 is pro-duced by both natural and anthropogenic activities. Agricultural practices account for 10% of total greenhouse gas emissions and CO2 is the largest component. The uti-lization of no-till, or conservational tillage, practices is widely considered to lower CO2 emissions. While no-till practices have been implemented in many locations around the globe, its CO2 reduction poten-tial has not been previously evaluated for application in the upstate of South Caroli-na.

In this study, the effect of till and no-till practices were assessed based on CO2 flux from soil on an organic farm located on the Clemson University campus. A soil gas chamber method was used in conjunc-tion with an infrared CO2 detector. Along with CO2 concentrations, temperature data was recorded for comparison.

Data analysis revealed a direct relation-ship between temperature and CO2 soil

flux. At higher temperatures, the soil flux in both plots increased. However, regard-less of temperature, the no-till plot had lower CO2 soil fluxes than the till plot. The flux calculated from the no-till plot ranged between 0.5 and 1.0μM/m2/sec while the till plot flux ranged between 2.0 and 5.5μM/m2/sec. These findings support the implementation of no-till practices as a method of reducing atmospheric CO2 emis-sions from anthropogenic activities.

Topographic Effects on Infiltration in Rain Gardens Creighton, Andrea, alcreig@ g.clemson.edu, D. Good, S. Moysey, and A. Mangel Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Science, Clemson University, Clemson, SC

Urban sprawl has caused a significant in-crease in the area of impermeable surfaces, which cause an increase in runoff within urban watersheds. Rain gardens are engi-neered landscapes designed to retain and infiltrate stormwater runoff into the groundwater system, effectively mitigating this excessive runoff.

Four 4ft x 4ftx 4ft rain garden test cells were constructed in sequence to determine if there is a significant difference in infil-tration volume with changes in topographic features. The internal structure of the cells consisted of a multiple layered system with 0.65 ft layer of topsoil placed upon a 2.85 ft layer of sand. This layered system al-lowed for adequate ground-penetrating ra-dar (GPR) signal to travel through the cell and be recorded at the receiver. Five die-lectric soil moisture probes were placed in each cell with 4 in the sand layer and 2 in the top soil layer to obtain accurate water content data at point locations to compare with the hydrologic modeling and radar

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results. Hydrologic forward models were cre-

ated using values calculated from perme-ameter testing and particle size analysis. Models were run using the HYDRUS-1D program package. These models were used to determine the best placement for soil moisture probes as well as estimate the wetting front arrival times.

Ponding experiments simulate rainfall runoff events where the experimental cells become inundated and the soil is complete-ly saturated. Approximately 2 inches of standing water was ponded on top of the test cell. More water was added to the top of the cell to keep a constant 2 inches of standing water in the cell. A marriotte bot-tle was utilized to keep the pressure head constant. Ground-penetrating radar lines were taken along a plywood plank over top of the test cell to ensure the same line was collected through time and lines along the front wall of the tank were taken to illus-trate vertical variation in water contents. Water outflow was monitored for the time outflow began and the total outflow vol-ume through the duration of the experi-ment.

The ground-penetrating radar data was processed in MATLAB. The water con-tents were compared with the dielectric moisture probe data and the hydrologic for-ward models. The radar images give a bet-ter understanding of the nature of the infil-tration events as they not only provide the quantitative water contents with depth, but also a qualitative picture of the heterogene-ousness of the infiltration. At present only one topography has been tested, but testing of others will commence shortly. Deter-mining the topography that facilitates the maximum amount of re-infiltration of run-off into the groundwater system could ben-efit all bioretention systems. This could be implemented as a best practice method for

people, companies, and local governments looking to remediate their surface runoff. High Resolution Site Characteriza-tion using US EPA Method 8265 in support of Flux Field Mapping Davis, William M., wmdavis@ triad-env.com, Triad Environmental Solu-tions, Inc, Durham, NC and Nicklaus Welty, Arcadis, Brighton, MI The objective of data collection during site characterization is to provide decision makers with data of sufficient quantity and quality to allow definitive decisions on re-medial actions. Recent advances in tools for the collection of high density hydro-stratigraphy and high density soil and groundwater contaminant data have al-lowed implementation of cost effective strategies for mapping contaminant flux in high resolution.

One of the key requirements for suc-cessful high density site characterization projects is a reliable real-time field analysis for the contaminants and matrices of con-cern. Data required to understand contami-nant flux include local geologic and hydro-geologic conditions as well as contaminant distribution in groundwater and bulk phase soil. This presentation will discuss the tools currently available to collect data to allow an understanding of flux at sites at the scale required to design and implement remedial actions.

Case studies will be presented where US EPA Method 8265 was used to collect contaminant data in conjunction with the hydraulic profiling tool to measure hydrau-lic conductivity measurement to determine the flux distribution at complex DNAPL sites.

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Soil Carbon Flux from an area un-derlain by Amphibolite in the Clemson Experimental Forest Demille, Richard and Scott Brame, De-partment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC Natural and anthropogenic sources of at-mospheric carbon dioxide have recently come under scrutiny due to the concern over global warming. The major source of natural carbon dioxide comes from soil res-piration. Respiration rates can be greatly affected by human activities. In this study, an area in the Clemson Forest was chosen to measure soil carbon fluxes because it has been left relatively undisturbed by hu-man impacts for 50 years or more.

Organic matter content, soil tempera-ture, and soil permeability are the main fac-tors affecting the rate of soil respiration. To analyze the potential for geologic con-trols on soil carbon flux, a site was chosen that was underlain by a large amphibolite body. Two sites within this area were cho-sen: a floodplain composed of sands and clays overlying saprolite and a relatively steep slope composed of soil and saprolite.

The ambient air temperature during testing varied greatly from 31° F to 72°F. Soil carbon flux was higher during the day when temperatures were highest and lower at night when the temperatures dropped. Soil moisture measurements taken in the floodplain showed an average soil moisture of 21.6, while the slope had average soil moisture of 5.75. Soil permeability exerted a strong effect on soil respiration. The sandy, permeable soils that composed the upper layers of the floodplain sediments allowed a greater flux of carbon dioxide compared to the clay dominated soils that

made up the slope site. All of these factors combined to give the floodplain an average flux of 4.11 micromoles/m2/sec and the hillside an average flux of 2.47 mi-cromoles/m2/sec.

A limiting factor in this study was time. A large part of this study was devoted to system design and testing of new equip-ment and methods.

Subsurface Thermal Energy Stor-age for Continuous Production of Electricity Using Concentrating Solar Power Falta, Ronald1, Lawrence Murdoch1, Matthew Orosz2, Amy Mueller2, Stephen Moysey1, David Ladner1, Terry Walker1, Pradip Dutta3 and Pramod Kumar3

1Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, SC 2Adjunct faculty, Department of Environ-mental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University; currently at the Mas-sachusetts Institute of Technology 3Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, In-dia We are proposing a new type of energy storage system that will allow for the con-tinuous production of electricity and heat from concentrating solar power (CSP). This storage system is composed of an ar-ray of underground closed-loop borehole heat exchangers that are used to transfer heat from the solar collectors to an appro-priately sized subsurface volume that is maintained at a temperature of 100o -200o C, depending on the design. Upon de-mand, the stored heat is extracted from the subsurface volume via the borehole heat

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exchangers, and used to generate electricity with an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) pow-er block.

The key scientific and engineering challenges that need to be addressed to make this system work are related to the dynamic heat transfer between the solar collectors, the borehole heat exchangers, the subsurface storage volume, and the ORC power block. The heat transfer oc-curs at a range of scales from the sub-borehole scale, to the full field storage ar-ray scale. A variety of coupled physical processes are involved in the underground heat transfer, including forced convection in the borehole piping, heat transfer with the pipe walls, thermal conduction through the borehole grout to the formation, and multiphase flow convective and conductive heat transfer in the storage formation with boiling and condensation. These heat transfer processes occur over time scales ranging from minutes to months. The en-tire system must be balanced to allow for efficient heat collection and storage, and continuous production of high grade heat for producing the electricity.

This new form of energy storage is tar-geted at small villages and communities in rural parts of developing countries such as India that are not connected to the electrical grid. Diesel generators can be used to pro-vide local electricity, but the generators require maintenance, a continuous con-sumption of fossil fuel, and they emit large amounts of CO2 and particulates over their life-time. The primary alternative to diesel generators for off-grid use is solar photo-voltaic (PV) systems. Since electricity is only generated during sunny periods, large banks of lead acid batteries are required to store the electricity for use at other times. Batteries are expensive, contain toxic mate-rials, have short cycle lives, and very high life cycle energy costs.

Our proposed power system uses above ground components (the CSP troughs and ORC power block) that are competitive with PV systems in terms of the cost of electrical power production. The subsur-face thermal energy storage, however, is expected to be far superior to electrochemi-cal battery storage, both in terms of the cost to construct and maintain the system, and in terms of the life cycle energy costs. This storage concept is highly scalable and can be implemented in a variety of geolog-ic settings using low-technology drilling methods and common materials.

Geologic Foundation Mapping for Nuclear Safety Related Structures: Case Study from New Nuclear Project Ferrugia, Gina, Matthew F. Cooke, matthew.cooke@cbi.com, and Nathan B. Cooke, CB&I Nuclear; Justin H. Cox, Fugro Consultants; and Tommy Maddale-na, Glenn Associates Surveying, Inc. In the past few years, license applications have been filed for new reactors by utilities across the country, most of them concen-trated in the Southeastern U.S. Construc-tion is underway for new reactors on sites in Georgia and South Carolina. These sites represent the first reactors to be constructed in the US in over 30 years. A case study is presented herein for a new nuclear con-struction project located in the Piedmont of South Carolina.

An NRC requirement for obtaining a Combined Operating License (COL) to op-erate nuclear power plants is a detailed ge-ologic mapping program, including recon-naissance (or “Target of Opportunity”) mapping and mapping of foundations for safety related structures.

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Mapping for nuclear power plants in the 1960s and 1970s was performed using traditional methods whereby lithology and structures were typically mapped by hand on sheets of graph paper or contour maps using grids constructed of wood or PVC which were laid on the rock. Measurements of each feature were then made by scaling from corners of the grid and sketching each feature by hand. Technological advance-ments in survey techniques and software have resulted in more efficient and accurate methods of obtaining geologic data and creating digital geologic maps while main-taining strict quality requirements for nu-clear safety related work.

The project site is situated in the Paleo-zoic Winnsboro Plutonic Complex of the SC Piedmont. The goal of the geologic mapping program was to document and identify any structural features from the start of mass grading to final foundation grade. Excavations were carefully inspect-ed for structural features that might contin-ue from saprolite into residuum. The most detailed, quality controlled mapping activi-ties were performed on the rock excava-

tions for the foundations of safety related structures.

Excavations for two reactors were made by installing near vertical soldier pile and lagging retaining walls in saprolite fol-lowed by vertical excavation down to top of rock. The weathered rock was then re-moved by blasting to reach fresh, unweath-ered bedrock [Figure 1]. The saprolite walls were mapped in approximately 5 ft. vertical lifts as the excavation progressed by taking photographs of the “panels” (8 to 10 ft. wide sections of wall between the soldier piles). Control points were sur-veyed at the top and bottom of each pile, essentially framing each panel [Figure 2]. The annotated photographs [Figure 3], along with the survey control points were then digitized using GIS, where each panel was georeferenced to create a composite geologic map of the walls. Mapping of the rock excavations was performed in 20 x 20 ft. grids with survey control using photo-graphic basemaps. Photographs were ob-tained using a 3D High Definition Laser Scanner and a digital camera in conjunc-tion with the scan at each set up. The pho-

Figure 1

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tos were digitally draped over the 3D surface to produce aerial photographic basemaps of each grid. The basemaps were taken to the field by the geologist and lithologic contacts, structural data, and weathering features were drawn on the photo. The anno-tated basemaps were then digitized, georeferenced, and “stitched” together to create a detailed composite geologic map.

Figure 2

Figure 3

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Determining Residual Soil Miner-alogy using X-ray Diffraction

Gloersen, Kimberly, kgloers@ g.clemson.edu, and Scott Brame, Depart-ment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clem-son, SC

The goal of this study was to determine the shift in mineralogy from bedrock to soil within the Clemson Forest. The motivation for this research stems from the desire to accurately map the bedrock geology of the Forest where outcrops are scarce, soils are thick, and where existing outcrops may be skewing the mapping process due to differ-ential weathering rates.

Soil samples were collected from loca-tions where outcrops of parent rock were in close proximity. The sample sites were un-derlain by one of the three rock types com-mon in the Clemson Forest: biotite gneiss, muscovite schist, and amphibolite. Soil samples were collected from the A horizon to the C horizon. A Scintag 2000 XRD with a germanium detector and a ten-position sample tray was used for mineral analysis. Signal responses were referenced and analyzed with several databases in-cluding Cambridge Structural Database, Inorganic Crystal Structure Database, NIST Crystal Data File, and Powder Dif-fraction Files.

At the biotite gneiss site, XRD analysis indicated the presence of kaolinite clay minerals, crystalline quartz, goethite, amor-phous quartz, and various argillaceous alu-minosilicates in the A horizon. Materials in the A soil horizon were also detected in the B and C horizons with the addition of ver-miculite and residual felsic materials such as feldspar and biotite.

At the muscovite schist site, XRD anal-

ysis indicated the presence of crystalline quartz, goethite, gibbsite, amorphous quartz, argillaceous aluminosilicates, and kaolinite in the A horizon. Materials in the A soil horizon were also detected in the B and C horizons with the addition of ver-miculite and residual felsic materials such as muscovite, anothrite, albite, and amor-phous aluminosilicates.

At the amphibolite site, XRD analysis indicated that the A soil horizon samples contained amorphous aluminosilicates, hematite, goethitie, amorphous quartz, and kaolinite in the A horizon. Materials in the A soil horizon were also detected in the B and C horizons with the addition of epidote and feldspathatic materials. The presence of hematite reflects the oxidation of ferrous minerals like hornblende and epidote, and is thus a good indicator of a mafic parent rock.

The use of XRD for the identification of the residual parent material in soil sam-ples of the Clemson Forest is limited. The upper soil horizons are highly weathered and many diagnostic elements characteris-tic of felsic and mafic minerals have been removed by leaching. XRD analysis of the lower soil horizons yielded more reliable indicators of residual parent material.

Measuring Soil Moisture in Rain Gardens using Geophysical Meth-ods Good, Daniel, Department of Environmen-tal Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clem-son University, Clemson, SC To increase infiltration in urban areas per-meable, plant filled areas are being con-structed to collect runoff from impermea-ble surfaces and return it to the area’s groundwater supply. These runoff collec-

tion zones are known as rain gardens. Rain garden test cells were constructed to simu-late the inflow and outflow as well as infil-tration and subsurface movement of the water collected in rain gardens. Experi-ments were conducted under artificially ponded conditions to simulate the sudden surge of runoff collected in a storm event. Data was also collected over longer inter-vals and compared to the precipitation re-ceived at the location of the test cell.

The movement of water was measured by the changes in soil moisture measured by dielectric probes buried in the soil at different depths. These point measurements are combined to create a vertical soil mois-ture profile. This profile serves as one di-mensional model of infiltration and subsur-face movement. The other method used in this study is surface based ground penetrat-ing radar (GPR). The goal of ground pene-trating radar surveys are to create a two dimensional image of the water moving through the soil. Dielectric probes do not directly measure soil moisture; instead, they measure the electromagnetic proper-ties of the soil as a proxy for water content. Their measurements can be affected by dif-ferent soil properties other than soil mois-ture. This requires that the probes be cali-brated for a specific soil type to ensure ac-curate measurements. GPR, like the die-lectric probes, relies on the electromagnetic properties of the soil, but measures them in different ways. While dielectric probes measure the electromagnetic properties of points, GPR measures the travel times of electromagnetic waves.

These two methods are linked by the dielectric permittivity of the soil. The die-lectric permittivity is the primary parame-ter used in the geophysical methods that determine soil moisture. The overarching concept of dielectric permittivity lies at the heart of geophysical soil moisture. The de-

pendence on dielectric permittivity arises from the high dielectric constant of water (80) and the low dielectric constant of soils (4-7). As a result, the overall dielectric of a soil sample is largely determined by the moisture content. Determining Mineral Weathering Rates in the Clemson Experi-mental Forest using a Mass Bal-ance Approach Goretoy, Sergey, sgoreto@g.clemson.edu, and Scott Brame, Department of Environ-mental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC Geochemical mass balance equations are reliable methods for calculating the rate of transfer of weathering cations from bed-rock into soil. The mass balance approach uses a system of linear equations to deter-mine the weathering rates of individual minerals in bedrock. By analyzing the movement of major cations from a water-shed and calculating the stoichiometry of the weathered minerals, a weathering rate can be determined. The mineral weathering rates provide insights into the collective elemental exchange that occurs in a water-shed.

A small watershed (0.25 miles2) in the Clemson Experimental Forest is underlain by biotite gneiss bedrock composed of quartz, feldspar, biotite, and garnet. The flux of the cations out of the watershed is controlled by groundwater flux into a small stream. The concentration of cations in the stream water was calculated using induc-tively coupled plasma. The concentration was multiplied by stream flow and divided by watershed area to estimate the flux of the cations out of the system. The precise mineral formulas were determined using an

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electron microprobe. By applying the spe-cific mineral formulas unique to the biotite gneiss in the watershed, a more precise weathering rate was obtained. The results indicate that plagioclase weathers at a rate of 548 moles/hectare-year, biotite weathers at a rate of 98 moles/hectare-year, and gar-net weathers at a rate of 218 moles/hectare-year. These rates are similar to previously calculated weathering rates of bedrock in the Blue Ridge region of the southeast U.S. The calculated weathering rates support soil composition observations in the Clem-son Experimental Forest. As feldspar weathers more rapidly than the other min-erals, it is noticeably absent in piedmont soils. In contrast, biotite flakes and garnets are often observed in near surface and low-er soil horizons.

Development of Methods that Ex-tend Hydraulic Fracturing Ap-plicability to Contaminated Bed-rock

Hall, Richard, rhall@frx-inc.com, and Bill Slack, FRx Inc.; and Larry Murdoch, Clemson University and FRx Inc. Hydraulic fracturing, which has been ap-plied widely as a soil / groundwater reme-diation tool over the past two decades, was originally developed as a method for stimu-lating oil well production. Fracture initia-tion and achievement of ideal fracture form requires creation of a plane of weakness in the formation about the well casing at the desired treatment elevation. Practitioners in the gas and oil industry typically accom-plished this by detonating shape-charge explosives to perforate the well casings and surrounding formations. Differences in scale, treatment depths, and extenuating site conditions have precluded use of high-

energy methodologies for perforating well casings and formations during environmen-tal remediation efforts. This being the case, remedial fracturing application has largely been limited to unconsolidated formation materials. Contaminated bedrock for-mations are prevalent at a large number of sites and can be difficult to address. Devel-oping methods for emplacing hydraulic fractures in bedrock would significantly increase the breadth of remedial approach-es that could be utilized to address these contaminants. The objective of recent ef-forts has been to develop and test field-applicable methodologies that allow em-placement of solid slurries in bedrock.

Pre-existing, natural fractures were ex-ploited to emplace solid remedial materials at two different field sites, one underlain by sandstone in Pennsylvania and another by granite in South Carolina. Injection into natural fractures did not require formation kerfing, however, the rock surfaces at the fracture elevations had to be exposed and prepped by cleaning with high pressure wa-ter jet. Another site located in Charlotte, North Carolina, required creation of new fractures through granitic bedrock. Fracture initiation required cutting a ~5 cm (2 in) notch into the granite and an injection pres-sure of >6900 kPa (1000 psi) to physically break and propagate the fractures through granite, which is in line with fracture me-chanics theory. Kerfing with a 140 MPa (20,000 psi) water jet could not attain the critical threshold depth reliably. A system has been designed to entrain garnet abra-sives in a high pressure water jet has been demonstrated capable of cutting the re-quired depth.

Emplacement of large volumes of re-medial solids in bedrock formations has been accomplished without kerfing when open, natural fractures were present. It has also been demonstrated that some control

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on radius of influence can be achieved by manipulating the rheology of the injected slurry under these conditions. Development of a system that will enable fracture em-placement in virgin bedrock is ongoing. The ability to emplace solids in newly cre-ated fractures could represent a convenient method for creating hydraulic connections between natural fracture sets that are diffi-cult to intersect with conventional wells.

Characterizing the Effect of Ace-tate and Electron Donor Concen-tration on Complete Dechlorina-tion of Chlorinated Ethenes under Fe(III)-reducing Conditions Haluska, Alex, ahalusk@clemson.edu, and K.T. Finneran, Department of Environ-mental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Caro-lina The influence of electron donor concentra-tion on complete trichloroethylene (TCE) and vinyl chloride (VC) reduction was test-ed using emulsified and non-emulsified vegetable oil substrates. In addition, the pathway by which Fe(III)-reducing micro-organisms generate hydrogen from acetate to promote reductive dechlorination of TCE and VC were studied using TCE-contaminated aquifer material and enrich-ment cultures. Data from both sediment batch experiments and liquid enrichment cultures suggest that lower electron donor concentrations may be equally effective as high electron donor concentrations on TCE and VC transformation. Data also indicate that molecular hydrogen required for re-ductive dechlorination can be generated by Fe(III)-reducing microorganisms via an as yet uncharacterized acetate oxidation path-way, thus promoting complete reductive

dechlorination rather than inhibiting it, as has been suggested by practitioners. Ongo-ing work includes characterizing the path-way by which hydrogen is generated dur-ing acetate oxidation, such that acetate can be used directly for TCE bioremediation strategies. Additionally, the microbial com-munity of all incubations will be analyzed using qPCR with vcrA and bvcA specific primers versus Fe(III)-reducer specific pri-mers to determine the population dynamics amongst the critical microbial genera when the “designer” electron donors are applied in situ. Stochastic Parameter Optimiza-tion of Poroelastic Systems Hanna, Alexander, achanna@ g.clemson.edu, S.M.J. Moysey, and L.C. Murdoch, Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University Clemson, South Carolina Carbon sequestration is one proposed method of reducing greenhouse gas emis-sions in order to mitigate the effect of car-bon dioxide on climate change processes, ocean acidification and human health. Car-bon injection is the process of capturing carbon dioxide, compressing it into a super-critical fluid, and injecting it at high pres-sures into a deep, hydraulically confined geologic structure such as a saline aquifer, coal bed or depleted oil or natural gas res-ervoir. This process introduces several risk-assessment challenges. These include the leakage and escape of carbon dioxide, the reactivation of dormant faults, topographic subsidence/uplift, or contamination of ex-isting groundwater resources.

The goal of this project is to develop a methodology for assessing these risks us-ing a set of geomechanical measurements (i.e. pressure, strain, tilt, displacement) tak-

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en from a confined aquifer as it undergoes carbon injection. We have developed a for-ward model in COMSOL which couples the diffusion and elastic deformation equa-tions to compute a set of predicted geome-chanical signals given a set of aquifer pa-rameters. We use any available prior infor-mation about the aquifer to estimate these parameters, and then use a set of stochastic methods to perturb the solution iteratively until the predicted geomechanical signals match the measured dataset within an ap-propriate error margin. We can then use the samples taken from each iteration to char-acterize the uncertainty of each parameter value.

Combined Borehole and Surface Geophysical Data to Improve Con-ceptual Site Models Harrigan, Joseph A., joe.harrigan@ aecom.com, AECOM, Greenville, SC Subsurface conceptual site models (CSM) are needed for all investigation sites to characterize the geology and hydrogeology to guide understanding and interpreting subsurface conditions. Without a good CSM to define the subsurface architecture data interpretation and planning additional investigation can be seriously flawed and can result in inefficient field efforts and use of project budget. Several investigative and interpretative tools are available to better characterize the subsurface and improve the interpretation of existing and newly ac-quired subsurface data. Borehole data cou-pled with both surface and borehole geo-physical data can yield a much improved visualization of the subsurface structure and improved interpretation of the occur-rence and dynamics of groundwater.

A suite of borehole geophysical logs, core data (including core photos), and sur-face geophysics (VLF-EM WADI) were used to improve the subsurface characteri-zation and guide future well drilling and installation efforts in the California desert. A 250 foot deep corehole was advanced in granitic rock at Edwards AFB to add a deeper well at an existing well pair. The core was photographed and the corehole was geophysically logged with a suite of tools including caliper, gamma, electric (short-normal and long-normal), induction, temperature, fluid resistivity, and acoustic televiewer (ATV). The ATV log data was processed by the contractor to provide in-terpretation of open and closed fractures, the fracture dip angle, and the fracture dip azimuth. At the same time a surface geo-physical survey was conducted with the VLF-EM WADI to identify dipping frac-ture zones. The WADI survey line stations were geo-referenced with a GPS instru-ment. The survey data, coupled with the GPS data, were processed and interpreted and then converted to a three dimensional rendering. This allowed correlation of bed-rock structure elements identified in the two geophysical and also provided a tool to guide future well drilling activities.

Performance of Thin-layer Cap-ping: a Component of an En-hanced Monitored Natural Recov-ery (eMNR™) Remedy for Soft Organic Creek Sediments Hays, Michelle, MHays@ trcsolutions.com, and Karen C. Saucier, TRC Environmental Corporation, Green-ville, South Carolina Thin-layer sand capping, a component of enhanced Monitored Natural Recovery

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(eMNR™), was the USEPA-selected reme-dy for dioxin-contaminated soft sediments in a tidal-influenced, freshwater creek. The remedy was designed to act as a clean bio-active layer, isolating the underlying sedi-ment and reducing the uptake of contami-nants by fish and other aquatic organisms. The performance of the remedy is depend-ent on the long-term stability of the thin-layer sand cap.

The eMNR™ thin-layer cap consisted of three layers of sand placed individually to uniformly load and minimize the dis-turbance of the underlying soft sediments. Using a barge equipped with two spread-ers, the sand was broadcast over a one-mile section of the creek from October 2011 to January 2012. The first layer consisted of 2 to 4 centimeters of fine-grained sand placed in the thalweg. The second layer of fine-grained sand, consisting of 2 to 6 cen-timeters, was placed on top of the first lay-er. The third layer, consisting of 5 to 10 centimeters of medium-grained, more an-gular sand, was placed on the side slopes for added stability. The design specified an application of 5 to 10 centimeters of com-bined sand layers; an average sand thick-ness of 7.7 centimeters was achieved across the targeted placement area.

Performance monitoring during remedy implementation included a comprehensive sand cap thickness verification and post-remedy surface area-weighted average con-centrations (SWAC) of dioxin (as Interna-tional Toxicity Equivalent Concentration [I-TEQ]). SWAC is a calculation method used to determine the average I-TEQ across the placement sections, taking into consideration that the actual areas of the placement sections vary. Each core sample location was recorded with a Global Posi-tioning System in order to achieve con-sistent sample locations during annual per-formance monitoring.

Each year following the remedy, ten cores are randomly selected to verify sand thickness, and the cap is visually inspected for signs of disturbance. In the two years of completed performance monitoring, slight deviations in measured thickness of less than one inch have been observed, at-tributed to boat drift from the original sam-pling locations. Minimal disturbance or bioturbation in the sand cap has been ob-served in the post-remedy period. The slow-moving creek, with an average veloc-ity of 0.91 cm/s, coupled with lack of re-cent severe weather and flood events, are recognized as advantages in the stability of the thin-layer cap.

The SWAC analyses from the cores were used to confirm that the thin-layer cap was uniformly applied onto the underlying sediments without destabilizing the depos-its, re-suspending surficial sediments, or mixing with the underlying fine-grained wastewater treatment solid deposits. Im-mediately following the remedy, the I-TEQ SWAC for the targeted treatment area was 0.00094 µg/kg, which was over two orders of magnitude below the SWAC perfor-mance target level of 0.41 µg/kg. The I-TEQ SWAC calculated in the annual per-formance monitoring post-remedy were 0.029 and 0.006 µg/kg for Years 1 and 2, respectively. The thin-layer cap continues to be an effective remedy for the dioxin-contaminated, soft, organic creek sedi-ments.

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Carbon Dioxide Efflux in Forest Soil and Topsoil Influenced by Soil Moisture and Temperature Varia-tions Hickok, Katherine, and Scott Brame, De-partment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC The efflux of carbon dioxide from soil is a major contributor to atmospheric carbon levels. Given that several variables are re-sponsible for soil carbon flux, this study was designed to quantify the effect of soil moisture and temperature. The goal of this research is to apply these results to long-term soil flux experiments and be able to determine CO2 effluxes dependent on soil moisture and temperature variables.

Soil samples were collected from the Clemson Experimental Forest and pur-chased from a local home improvement store to provide a contrast between two dif-ferent soil types. Both soils were analyzed and determined to be similar in acidity but vary highly in percent organic matter (%OM) with the topsoil having a greater per-centage than the forest soil.

The experiment involved manually al-tering the soil moistures and temperatures for both soils. Temperatures of 74ᴼF and 82ᴼF along with low, medium, and high soil moistures were manipulated with the use of a temperature control mat and by air-drying or wetting the soil. The CO2 efflux was collected from both soils with the use of carbon dioxide flux chamber and meas-ured with a carbon dioxide sampling data logger. The resulting carbon dioxide levels were compiled and analyzed for each soil, temperature, and moisture specification to establish an efflux value for each subset. Soils in the lower temperature and medium

moisture range had a higher efflux, while warmer soils with higher and lower mois-tures had an overall lower efflux.

Destruction of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluoroc-tanoic Acid (PFOA) Using Activat-ed Persulfate Hicks, Patrick, patrick.hicks@fmc.com, Philip Block, Alan Seech, Ian Ross, and Jennifer Lindsey, FMC Corporation, Phil-adelphia, PA PFOS is a man-made fluorosurfactant listed under in Annex B of the Stockholm Convention on Persistant Organic Pollu-tants. It was used in stain repellants and also widely used in fire-fighting, aqueous film forming foams (AFFFs). PFOA also is a fluorosurfactant, used in the emulsifica-tion of fluoropolymers, and was widely used in non-stick coatings and water re-sistant clothing. Soil and groundwater con-tamination by PFOA occurred as a result of manufacturing operations.

PFOS and PFOA have been recognized as pollutants, and authorities around the world are in the initial stages of establish-ing regulatory limits for groundwater. PFOS and PFOA are both difficult to reme-diate in soil and groundwater systems due to their recalcitrant nature.

Activated persulfate chemistry has been used effectively to treat soil and groundwa-ter contaminated by a wide range of pollu-tants of concern. Recent laboratory work has demonstrated that activated persulfate is capable of oxidizing and mineralizing PFOS in groundwater with minimal daugh-ter product formation. This presentation will provide the latest in data demonstrat-ing the reduction of PFOS by activated per-sulfate, utilizing a variety of activation

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methods, such as high pH, hydrogen perox-ide and chelated iron as well as an over-view of peer-reviewed papers investigating the destruction of PFOA, by persulfate.

Bioremediation of a Chlorinated Ethene Plume at an Active Manu-facturing Facility Hollifield, Edward, ed.hollifield@ erm.com, ERM NC Inc., Charlotte, NC, and Jennifer Byrd, ERM, Atlanta, GA A chlorinated volatile organic compound (CVOC) plume extends over approximate-ly 9 acres at an active manufacturing facili-ty located in Greensboro, North Carolina. A solvent de-waxing processes with a dis-tillation recovery procedure using Trichlo-roethene (TCE) was used at the site be-tween 1964 and 1971. TCE was stored in two 2,000-gallon above ground storage tanks and transferred throughout the pro-cess area by a system of above and below ground piping. The main mass of the CVOC plume is located beneath the foot-print of the existing manufacturing build-ing which limits access for sampling and implementation of in-situ remediation al-ternatives.

Results of a pre-remedial investigation conducted by ERM between June 2008 and February 2009 identified a single primary source area for TCE in a highly permeable, fractured quartz zone located within the shallow aquifer zone beneath the site. Ad-ditionally, ERM identified a vertical frac-ture zone immediately downgradient from the source area that effectively created a preferential path of groundwater and con-taminant flow between the shallow and deep aquifer zones. The site conceptual model developed as a result of the pre-remedial investigation established that an

in situ source depletion approach was the best primary strategy for groundwater re-mediation. This approach focused on the concentrated CVOC mass in the fractured quartz zone located within the shallow aq-uifer.

Additional site delineation and charac-terization developed in the pre-remedial investigation allowed for a focused remedi-ation of a small area of the site containing the greatest mass of CVOCs. A bioremedi-ation pilot test was conducted to assess the efficacy of reductive dechlorination in the source area. The pilot test consisted of in-jecting 2,200 pounds of carbon substrate at a 20 weight percent (wt%) solution into two injection points amounting to approxi-mately 600 gallons per injection point. Two injection events took place over the course of the pilot test. Dehalococcoides bacteria were delivered during the second injection event at a ratio of 1.6 liters of bacteria per 100 gallons of injectant. The pilot test demonstrated rapid mass destruc-tion of parent and daughter products (99% removal of PCE over 309 days). Based on the success of the pilot program, full-scale injection was completed in 2012. Carbon substrate was delivered in the same ratio and volume as the pilot test to 12 full-scale injection wells. Due to the limited access to the inside of the building as a result of ac-tive manufacturing operations, the injection wells were configured as a series of treat-ment barriers, oriented perpendicular to groundwater flow.

Eighteen months following full scale injection, chlorinated ethene concentrations have decreased an average of 80% in moni-toring wells situated in the full scale injec-tion area. No accumulation of daughter products has been observed within the treatment area. Sufficient carbon substrate remains to drive reduction dechlorination, however a decrease in pH has been ob-

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served in several wells. A supplemental second full-scale injection is planned for Spring 2014 to adjust the pH and provide additional carbon substrate to the treatment area.

Characterizing the Effects of Rain-fall on Soil Deformation

Jackson, Chris, Department of Environ-mental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC This study analyzed soil deformation from surface loading due to rainfall. We used an extensometer to measure the displacement of unconsolidated material and multiple tipping-bucket rain gauges to measure pre-cipitation. Analysis of the data shows that 0.15 μm of soil displacement occurs per mm of rainfall. These results indicate load-ing due to rainfall is positively correlated with soil deformation. Porous Media Compressed Air En-ergy Storage of Wind Energy in Low Dip Formations of South Car-olina Jarvis, Alexandra-Selene, jarvis4@ g.clemson.edu, and Ronald W. Falta, De-partment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Science, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina The United States Department of Energy (DOE) Wind Program has committed to developing and implementing wind power technologies, targeted at producing 20% of the nation’s domestic electricity by 2030. The East and West Coasts of the U.S. have the fastest growing populations, and off-shore wind energy will assist in meeting

the inherent increasing energy demand while simultaneously reducing greenhouse gas emissions, diversifying the nation’s energy supply and reducing water usage during power generation.

Wind power’s intermittent and unstable nature requires that the energy must be stored during times of surplus production. Various storage systems have been pro-posed and among these, only pumped hy-drological storage and Compressed Air En-ergy Storage (CAES) systems have the ca-pability for large scale energy integration.

CAES technology requires the usage of electricity to compress air which is then stored in large underground reservoirs. During times of low production or peak demand, the compressed air is recovered from storage and electricity is regenerated by combusting a small amount of fuel, and expanding the combustion products through a turbine. There are two CAES plants currently producing electricity on a commercial scale but both plants use cav-erns as their storage space. No commercial CAES plant uses a porous media (PM) storage option, one of the major focuses of this study.

Many of the existing studies agree that anticlinal traps are best suited for perform-ing PM-CAES and that low dip formations, like those in South Carolina (SC), are not. SC already meets the important criteria for developing offshore wind farms: strong winds in shallow waters, access to com-mercial port facilities and large coastal de-mand for energy. Through a DOE grant, SC now hosts the world’s most advanced wind turbine drivetrain testing facility. These factors make SC a suitable study ar-ea for the possible implementation of PM-CAES technology.

This study uses TOUGH 2 to create a 3D dynamic model to demonstrate that PM-CAES can be accomplished in low dip

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reservoirs. Technical, environmental and economic criteria are now being used to identify the best subsurface sites for PM-CAES within SC. To date the most suitable and economically feasible reservoir found is located within the Middendorf aquifer system because it satisfies the minimum criteria for storage: reservoir thickness of at least 10 m, permeability of at least 500 md, a minimum effective porosity of 0.1, an overlying low permeability caprock and suitable topographic relief removed from seismic hazards, landslides, subsidence and flooding. This ongoing study is also evalu-ating other subsurface formations.

Developing PM-CAES in SC and other coastal regions will make substantial con-tributions towards reducing pollution as well as satisfying increases in demand for electricity by overcoming the problem of fluctuations in wind energy production.

Assessing Ecological Response to Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Small Streams Jones, A. J. and Carraway, E. R., Depart-ment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clem-son, SC.; and Marion, C. A. and Scott, M. C., South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Clemson, SC At present, little is known about population and community level responses to low lev-els of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PCPPs) in the environment. While effects at a community level are the ultimate goal of many researchers, often we extrapolate potential community effects based on exposures to small populations that may or may not be endemic to the sys-tem of interest. Research in small, rural watersheds may have the benefit of lower

background contamination and lower thresholds of effect than larger urbanized watersheds. However, the myriad biologi-cal, physical, and environmental stressors often compound determination of commu-nity level effects of individual compounds, and in many cases mixtures of compounds are present. The research presented here employs multiple multi-variate statistical techniques to elucidate potential effects of PPCPs to the community level. Biological, ecological, hydrological, physical, and chemical characteristics of over 200 small streams are incorporated into a model of overall stream health. Results indicate that major drivers of overall community decline are physical, chemical, and hydrological regimes in small streams, however the presence of PCPPs does have a small, but not insignificant, effect on community health. These results indicate that while PCPPs are of concern in the environment, many other environmental factors must be considered when extrapolating data to the community level. Metals Concentrations in South Carolina Streams: Statewide, Ecoregion, and Ecobasin Relation-ships to Land Cover Jones, A. J. and Carraway, E. R., Depart-ment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clem-son, SC.; and Marion, C. A. and Scott, M. C., South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Clemson, SC Anthropogenic activities have been shown to have deleterious effects on aquatic habi-tats, and these changes in land use/cover could be indicative of changes in aquatic chemistry. South Carolina is a diverse state with two distinct geographical and

ecological areas – the upstate and the coastal plain – and it contains seven US EPA ecoregions and seven major water-sheds. This research employs data from over 200 small watersheds in both ecologi-cal areas of South Carolina. National Land Cover Data Set (NLCD) was used to deter-mine the land cover for each sampled wa-tershed. Water and sediment samples are collected and analyzed using ICP-MS, and ICP-AES. Analytes of interest include alu-minum, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, silver, zinc and many others. Linear regression was used to correlate dissolved metals individually with land use activities in individual and combined watersheds. Results indicate that changes in land use can change pollutant loads and impact the quality of the stream. Cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc all have positive relationships with increasing urban land cover, while each metal also exhibits negative correlations with increas-ing forest cover. Interestingly, calcium and magnesium decreased with increasing ur-ban cover in the upstate, however the oppo-site was observed in the coastal plain. These results indicate that changes in land cover can have a large impact on water quality in small watersheds. Reading the Groundwater Roadmap: Site Management Strat-egy at Sangamo-Weston OU1, Pickens, South Carolina Kline, Simon K., simon.kline@ch2m.com, CH2M HILL, Atlanta, GA; Virgilio Co-cianni, Schlumberger Technology Ser-vices, Houston, TX; and Craig Zeller, En-vironmental Protection Agency, Atlanta, GA In 1990, the Sangamo-Weston Plant Site

Operable Unit 1 (OU1) located in Pickens, South Carolina was placed on the National Priorities List due to the presence of poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in soil, groundwater, and nearby surface waters. Previous site actions had been implement-ed with varying degrees of success, but could not advance the site toward closure (remediating impacted soil and groundwa-ter) in a reasonable time frame. The aggres-sive long-term project goal for the site is to cease groundwater recovery and treatment within 5-10 years and transition to long-term monitoring and land use controls. To address this goal, a multi-faceted approach has been adopted, including optimizing the existing pump-and-treat system, refining the conceptual site model (CSM), and iden-tifying previously undelineated impacts. These actions are designed to support mod-ifying the existing remedy and Record of Decision and lead to successful achieve-ment of target site cleanup levels.

This presentation will discuss the ap-proaches used to navigate the site’s roadmap to site restoration using an array of existing technologies. Schlumberger Technology Services (Schlumberger) opti-mized the pump-and-treat system by a combination of upgrades that eliminated redundant components and featured a near-real-time “dashboard” of system perfor-mance located on a single, easily accessible spreadsheet. Schlumberger refined the CSM by focusing on the nature and extent of the plume and the potential for natural attenuation of volatile organic compounds co-mingled with PCBs, narrowing data gaps, increasing soil data for areas with suspected releases, and evaluating the Pied-mont transition zone; this zone is an area of increased hydraulic conductivity in com-parison to overlying saprolite and underly-ing bedrock and often is inadequately char-acterized using common drilling methods.

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During supplemental site characterization, a previously undocumented release area was identified and delineated using passive soil diffusion samplers and additional soil and groundwater data. These data were used to develop three-dimensional plume visualizations that were in turn used to op-timize a large 28,000-ton removal effort. This effort was successful in capturing maximum soil contamination, minimizing offsite disposal volumes, intergrating “green remediation” principles, and remov-ing known contaminant masses from the subsurface. Carbon Dioxide Exchange between the Atmosphere and Lake Hart-well near Clemson, SC Lacy, Nolan, nlacy@g.clemson.edu, De-partment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC The goal of this research was to determine if there is an exchange of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the Lake Hart-well reservoir. The study was performed from August of 2013 to November of 2013. Water samples were collected from the Twelvemile Creek arm of Lake Hartwell at different depths and from a small tributary to the lake. The water samples were tested for alkalinity since this is a measure of dis-solved carbonate species. The average dis-solved carbon dioxide in the water is 4.55x10-6 M, while the estimated concen-tration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 1.53x10-5 M. The higher atmospheric concentration implies that Lake Hartwell is a potential sink for carbon dioxide. Possi-ble explanation for the low levels of carbon dioxide in the lake include biological activ-

ity and chemical reactions with the sedi-ment. Occurrence of Ethylene Dibromide (EDB), Dibromochloropropane (DBCP), Volatile Organic Com-pounds, Radium Isotopes, and Ra-don in Groundwater from the Up-per Coastal Plain Aquifers near McBee, South Carolina Landmeyer, James E., jlandmey@ usgs.gov, and Bruce G. Campbell, U.S. Geological Survey, Columbia, SC. Between 2010 and 2012, samples were col-lected from several public-supply, irriga-tion, and monitoring wells and springs in the upper Coastal Plain Crouch Branch and McQueen Branch aquifers near the small town of McBee in northeastern South Car-olina. Water samples were collected and analyzed for volatile organic compounds, including ethylene dibromide (EDB) and dibromochloropropane (DBCP), total radi-um (as 226Radium and 228Radium), and ra-don. The study was commenced because EDB, DBCP, and total radium had been previously detected above U.S. Environ-mental Protection Agency maximum con-taminant levels in groundwater samples collected by DHEC. During our investiga-tion, EDB and DBCP were detected above their maximum contaminant levels in groundwater samples from some public supply and irrigation wells, and in some springs. Multiple volatile organic com-pounds, the fuel oxygenate methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and carbon disulfide were detected at concentrations near or be-low method reporting levels in some wells, and the solvent trichloroethylene was de-tected in one public-supply well. Total ra-dium and radon were detected in most

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groundwater samples, but at levels below the maximum contaminant levels of 5 pico-Curies per liter for total radium and the proposed level for radon. Finally, concen-trations of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) measured in groundwater samples from public-supply wells sampled in 2010 indi-cate an average recharge age of about 40 years for groundwater being pumped by these wells, confirming the relatively re-cent (decadal) release history of the con-taminants. The CFC-based recharge ages were used with a MODLFOW model to identify recharge locations and potential contaminant source areas. Overcoming the Challenges of Ag-gressive and Rapid DNAPL Reme-diation in Saprolite and Fractured Bedrock Maalouf, George Y., george.maalouf@ rogersandcallcott.com, and Patrick Sand-erson, Rogers & Callcott Environmental, Greenville, SC; and Dan Bryant, Geo-Cleanse International, Inc., Matawan, NJ Remediation of a trichloroethylene (TCE) plume in groundwater presented several challenges requiring an aggressive ap-proach of intensive interim remedial measures while completing the Remedial Investigation, Risk Assessment and Feasi-bility Study, then followed by a compre-hensive final remedy. A remediation strat-egy was developed to meet the various technical and schedule requirements of this particularly challenging site characterized by relatively high source area concentra-tions, low permeability saprolite overlying fractured bedrock, low natural attenuation rate, large plume area with limited accessi-bility, and a very aggressive remediation timeframe.

The interim remedy included In-Situ Thermal Desorption in the source area and a Pump & Treat system along the property boundary. In the final remedy, these are being replaced by a soil vapor extraction system and an aggressive potassium per-manganate injection for rapid and complete contaminant mass removal in the source area, along with a series of passive, long-lasting plume barriers using in-situ chemi-cal reduction by zero valent iron (ZVI) to address long-term advection and diffusion of TCE from inaccessible areas. The ZVI barriers effectively divide the plume into several segments, thereby drastically short-ening the lifespan of the plume. A large scale pilot study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of combining the antagonistic remedial approaches of chemical oxidation and chemical reduction at the same site. Modeling and monitoring were conducted as part of the design and implementation as a basis for reagent requirements, injection point spacing, scale-up for future expan-sion of the treatment, and to ensure that the reagents do not interact and destroy each other. Hydraulic slurry emplacement was the selected method for the pilot study be-cause, due to the low-permeability sapro-lite, traditional injection methods for liquid reagents have proven unsuccessful at this site.

The source area pilot test proved to be very effective at removing contaminant mass. The presence of permanganate was observed 40 ft from the emplacement bor-ing locations immediately following injec-tion and remained strong almost two years after injection. Permanganate was not ob-served in any of the wells located outside the pilot test area, and reducing conditions were sustained in the ZVI pilot study injec-tion wells; therefore, the permanganate did not adversely affect the downgradient ZVI barrier. Each ZVI slurry emplacement bor-ing achieved a radius of influence of at

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least 15 ft with significant TCE concentra-tion reduction measured in the groundwater downgradient from the ZVI barrier. Cis-1,2-dichlorethylene, formed from ZVI degra-dation of TCE, initially increased following the injection; however, the increase was short-lived.

Following two years of monitoring, full scale-up of the pilot studies was deter-mined to be the major part of the final rem-edy and was formalized in a Record of De-cision. Construction of the remedy began in July 2013 and includes the installation of 13 additional performance monitoring wells, emplacement of 38 tons of perman-ganate slurry in seven injection wells in the source area, and 717 tons of ZVI in 60 in-jection wells. The Use of Contextual Data in Ar-tificial Neural Network Target Classification Algorithms for GPR Data Mangel, Adam, amangel@clemson.edu, and Stephen Moysey, Department of Envi-ronmental Engineering and Earth Science, Clemson University, Clemson, SC Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a com-monly used tool in Environmental and En-gineering fields that is capable of imaging changes in electrical properties of the sub-surface. Specifically, for subsurface target detection and classification, commercial GPR systems provide an efficient way to detect and map continuous targets over large spatial areas, e.g. conduits. However, in the case of finite targets, e.g. unexploded ordinance (UXO), more work must be done to first locate the target and then classify it, given the lethality of the target, using the available data to determine if target mitiga-tion is necessary. Classification of the sub-surface target is not merely a function of

the object, however, as the surrounding en-vironment of the target also influences the GPR signal that returns. Changes in water content or object co-location can have sig-nificant impacts on both the kinematics and attributes of the GPR waves propagating in the subsurface. Thus, a robust and efficient evaluation of the data is needed to operate in real-time with the data acquisition.

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are capable of processing large amounts of da-ta in a relatively short time when compared to classic GPR data analysis methods, e.g. the inverse problem. The power of ANNs derives from balancing their training and generalization in a way that allows the net-work to function as a learned non-linear function rather than a look up table, i.e. when the network encounters a new pattern it produces a new output rather than one it saw in training. For this work, we built a training set consisting of five targets at var-iable homogeneous background water con-tent values using numerical simulations. The same was done for the validation data set, though changes in the targets were made to test the behavior of the multiple networks. The GPR simulation results are pre-processed, e.g. background subtraction, clipped and fed into the networks.

In this work, we demonstrate the capa-bility of neural networks to handle the clas-sification problem using the GPR data ex-clusively and with complimentary contex-tual information about the subsurface, e.g. water content. We conclude that while it may be valuable to bring in contextual da-ta, it is also important to investigate the best way to use it. We also conclude that the high dimensionality of GPR data com-plicates the training of ANNs and provides motivation to employ image processing algorithms to GPR data prior to feeding into a neural network.

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Optimized In Situ Chemical Oxi-dant Delivery Using High Resolu-tion Site Characterization Data Mazzarese, Michael, Vironex, Inc., Mil-lersville, MD; Eliot Cooper, Vironex, Inc., Golden, CO; and Andrew Joy, Vironex, Inc., Millersville, MD Achieving contact between contaminant mass and reagents is a critical component of accomplishing source area mass reduc-tions. High resolution mass distribution data sets can be gathered using tools such as the Membrane Interface Probe (MIP) or Ultra-Violet Optical Screening Tool (UVOST). This data can be cost effective-ly gathered and rendered in three dimen-sional (3D) views to develop targeted re-mediation strategies and reduce overall project cost. In addition, reagent distribu-tion in the impacted zones can be assessed for certain chemicals using Electrical Con-ductivity (EC) when pre and post injection responses are compared. The projects to be presented utilized MIP data, 3D imaging and EC distribution verification to redefine the conceptual site models and assess verti-cal and horizontal emplacement of the rea-gents. This information was used to then develop more targeted full scale remedia-tion designs.  

After review of the existing traditional groundwater and soil analytical data and performing a data gap analysis, the MIP technology was recommended at both sub-ject sites to further investigate the source areas and better define the vertical and lat-eral extent of the source area mass. The data collected was then imaged in 3D using MVS® and used to update the conceptual site models and optimize the remediation plans. Once the MIP investigation was complete, a pilot test was performed at

each site to determine the key full scale design values such as vertical and horizon-tal reagent distribution (using EC), injec-tion flow rate and fracture pressure. In Situ Chemical Oxidation injection was used to target the mass identified by the MIP unit at each site.  

In this platform presentation, 3D MIP images, post remediation contaminant re-ductions and project cost savings will be presented for two projects sites, a former gasoline station with petroleum hydrocar-bon contamination and a dry cleaner with chlorinated volatile organic compound con-tamination. Analyzing Effects of Barometric Pressure and Temperature on Sub-surface Displacement Miller, Savannah, srmille@ g.clemson.edu, and Lawrence Murdoch, Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC Moisture content variations in the subsur-face cause load changes to the underlying material. By measuring the displacement of the soil using an extensometer the displace-ment due to moisture content can be quan-tified. The technique involves measuring the displacement of two anchors, which are approximately 1.5 meters apart. The reso-lution of the displacement at ~6m depth is 10-8m. Due to the sensitivity of the instru-ment not only are changes from moisture content recorded but also barometric pres-sure and temperature influences. Changes in moisture content, barometric pressure, and temperature can cause displacement of the same magnitude. Distinguishing the displacement caused by these different fac-tors is important to eventually determining

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moisture content variations. Short-term temperature fluctuations were poorly corre-lated with displacement and were conclud-ed to have little impact. Long-term temper-ature changes, however, did correlate with displacement. The temperature at 6-m depth varies by 2.65° celsius on an annual period, and this results in periodic displace-ment. This displacement was subtracted from observed displacements in the first step of the correction process. Barometric pressure is linearly correlated with dis-placement. Relatively large barometric pressure changes during storms caused par-ticularly noteworthy displacements, and this effect could be reduced by using the linear correlation. After developing and applying the temperature and barometric pressure corrections, the data were ana-lyzed for effects related to rainfall and evapotranspiration. Effective In-Situ Amendment In-jection Requires a Hybrid Ap-proach Moskal, Eric, John Liskowitz, Mike Lis-kowitz, Steve Chen, and Robert L. Kel-ley, bk@arstechnologies.com, ARS Tech-nologies, Inc., New Brunswick, New Jer-sey Effective in-situ remediation starts with sustained contact between the contaminant(s) of concern and the chemical amendment that is emplaced to degrade those contami-nants. Success depends on the knowledge-able manipulation of hydrological, biologi-cal, geological and chemical interactions. A variety of in-situ chemical and biological reaction can be induced in a contaminated aquifer to remove chemicals of concern (COCs). However, no chemistries can work unless they make direct contact with the COCs. Direct contact in the low per-

meability environments, such as silty-clays and weathered shales will require a more aggressive injection technique than DPT. In the last twenty years Pneumatic Fracture Emplacement (PFE) has emerged as a cost effective method for enhanced remediation hydraulics. Additionally, it offers superior emplacement of chemical amendments for the remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater. The general approach of the technology is to create a network of artifi-cial fractures in the treatment zone that serves two principal functions. First, the fractures serve to facilitate removal of con-taminants out of the geologic formation. Secondly, the fractures serve as depository zones that may be used to emplace chemi-cal powders and liquid solutions into the formation. The overall objective of any fracturing based approach is to overcome the transport limitations that are inherent at many remediation sites.

Experience has demonstrated that a va-riety of injection strategies are necessary to effectively emplace chemical amendments at a typical site. Injection techniques must be modified for the type of chemical amendment injected (liquid or solid) and the geologic heterogeneity of the subsur-face treatment area as well as for site con-ditions and depths. Several fracture based approaches including pneumatic (gas), hy-draulic (liquid) and hybrid (combined) have demonstrated experience in injecting treatment materials. One newer technique called termed “Hybrid Fracturing” has demonstrated the ability to overcome some of the limitations of the older fractured based remedial technologies (Pneumatic) and (Hydraulic) fracturing. Through se-quential application of Pneumatic and Hy-draulic Fracturing methods (Hybrid), great-er permeability enhancement and better treatment material emplacement can result. The primary components unique to each

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fracturing process are as follows: Pneumatic Fracturing - Due to the rapid fracture time (seconds rather than minutes), low viscosities of the fracturing fluid (gas) and high flow rates, pneumatic fracturing has the potential to create a dense network of fractures to facilitate distribution. Hydraulic Fracturing - Due to the vis-cous properties of fracture fluid (water/gaur) and slow fracture time, hydraulic fracturing has the potential to create larger and but widely spaced discrete fracture net-works. Hybrid Fracturing –Through sequential application of first pneumatic (gas) fractur-ing to created a denser fracture network; and then application of hydraulic fracturing (liquid), these processes work together to achieve greater treatment material em-placement. The overlapping fracture net-work of the two processes reduce the diffu-sion-limited zones by having the pneumatic fracture network in between the hydraulic fracture network. An Introduction to Electromagnet-ic Methods for Subsurface Charac-terization and Monitoring Moysey, Stephen, Environmental Engi-neering and Earth Sciences, Clemson Uni-versity, Clemson, SC The wide range of electrical methods avail-able in geophysics provides a variety of opportunities for enhanced subsurface characterization. Typical applications fo-cus on imaging structural features, estimat-ing subsurface properties, or monitoring dynamic processes. For example, DC re-sistivity surveying and ground-penetrating radar are on opposite ends of the electro-magnetic spectrum; both can provide sig-nificant insight to geologic features and

boundaries though are sensitive to different subsurface properties are governed by dif-ferent physics. In contrast, low frequency (<1kHz) induced polarization methods are closely linked to the properties of mineral surfaces and can therefore be used to map clays and even detect changes in contami-nant sorption processes. While all methods can be used to monitor remediation pro-cesses in a time-lapse sense, passive self-potential measurements can be directly linked to flow and thus relevant to transport processes. This talk will present an introduction to different electromagnetic tools available from 0Hz through 2GHz and given an overview of the types of ap-plications for site management. Forms of Environmental Hydrau-lic Fractures in Different Geologic Settings Murdoch, Larry, Clemson University and FRx Inc.; and Bill Slack and Richard Hall, FRx Inc.

Hydraulic fracturing is a technique for cre-ating layers of granular material in the sub-surface, and the properties of the granular material have been tailored to create a wide range of applications to remediation. Hy-draulic fractures filled with sand create per-meable layers that can improve the hydrau-lic performance of wells, whereas fractures filled with reactive materials can be used to degrade contaminants in situ. The form, or geometry, of a fracture plays an important role in the design of remedial applications, so early research into the technique in-volved detailed excavation and mapping of shallow hydraulic fractures to better under-stand their form. This work identified a flat-lying, bowl-shaped form as the typical occurrence at shallow depths. Recent work has led to the extension of this concept

with the recognition of vertical hydraulic fractures that can grow to substantial size (several m in horizontal dimension) and are therefore useful during remediation.

We have extended the conceptual mod-el for the forms of useful hydraulic frac-tures to include both vertical and horizontal features, as well as a transitional form be-tween the two orientations. The primary orientation is controlled by the stress state (the fracture plane is parallel to the maxi-mum principle compressive stress), and at shallow depths there appear to be two im-portant determining factors associated with weathering. Weathering of shallow crystal-line rock to form saprolite or residuum re-laxes the high horizontal compressive stress that support horizontal hydraulic fractures. The degree to which this occurs depends on the details of the mineral trans-formations during weathering and appears to be vary among sites. In some locations, hydraulic fractures in saprolite are flat-lying, suggesting the relic stress state from the parent crystalline rock is controlling. At other sites, the horizontal compressive stress is relaxed by weathering, and the ef-fects of layering and fabric in the rock be-come increasingly important in controlling fracture form. Hydraulic fractures follow-ing rock fabric can occur in this case. With extreme relaxation vertical fractures can predominate. Other shallow, soil forming processes like illuviation, as well as shrink-swell cycling due to saturation variations in the vadose zone appear to be capable of increasing the horizontal compressive stress. This explains why many hydraulic fractures created in the vadose zone are horizontal, while fractures created below the water table at the same site can be steeply dipping. It also explains why some hydraulic fractures change orientation from vertical to horizontal at the water table.

Soil Carbon Flux on an Area un-derlain by Biotite Gneiss in the Clemson Experimental Forest Newman, Jasmine, and Scott Brame, De-partment of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC Atmospheric carbon emissions have be-come a growing issue within the past sev-eral decades. While anthropogenic emis-sions are a concern, these emissions are dwarfed by the amount produced from nat-ural sources. The primary natural source is soil fluxes. Previous studies of soil carbon flux have typically focused on more nor-therly latitudes, while little research has been done in the southeastern US.

This study compared carbon fluxes at three sites underlain by biotite gneiss in the Clemson Experimental Forest. Carbon di-oxide (CO2) concentrations were measured using a modified soil chamber connected to an infrared detector. The detector had a built-in gas sample pump that sampled the chamber at programmed intervals and re-turned the sampled gas to the soil chamber. The three sites studies varied according to topography, land use, and soil permeabil-ity. The first site was on a gentle slope with small trees that had been clearcut in the last 15-20 years, the second site was on a flood plain with mature trees, and the third site was on a steep slope with mature trees. The flood plain had the highest soil permeability and had a soil carbon dioxide flux of 2.74 micromoles/m2/sec. The gen-tle slope and the steep slope had similar infiltration measurements, but had different carbon flux readings. The steep slope had a flux reading of 2.30 micromoles/m2/sec while the gentle slope had a flux reading of 1.15 micromoles/m2/sec.

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Quantification of Spatial Moments of Subsurface Solute Plumes: A Comparison of Geophysical and Direct Sampling Approaches Oware, Erasmus, eoware@clemson.edu, and Stephen Moysey, Department of Envi-ronmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC The importance of calibrating spatial mo-ments of subsurface solute plumes in hy-drogeological applications cannot be over-emphasized. We investigate the potential of characterizing spatial moments of subsur-face solute plumes from surface-based re-sistivity surveys. The proposed strategy involves the fusion of information from numerically simulated training images

(TIs) with information from resistivity measurements. The resistivity estimation scheme involves recursively shifting the CoM of the TIs in order to minimize the misfit between the estimated and target Center of Mass (CoM). The efficacy of the suggested technique is demonstrated based on a hypothetical transport scenario in which a single solute source was released into a heterogeneous field (synthetic #1). Spatial moment estimation accuracies re-covered from the proposed approach are also compared with those estimated from traditional direct sampling.

Estimated CoM from the proposed re-sistivity scheme approaches the CoM of the true plume with increasing number of itera-tions (Figure 1). Root mean square errors (RMSE) in the interval of 0.03 to 0.05 g/L; relative mass recovery errors in the range

Figure 1: Log of electrical conductivity tomograms demonstrating iterative reconstructions to estimate center of mass (CoM) from resistivity measurements. Synthetic #1 (a). Tomograms showing successive reconstructions from the first to the converged iterations for: 0% data noise (b-d, column1), 3 % noise (e-k, column 2) and, 10 % noise perturbation (i-q, column 3). The white + in each image denotes the position of the CoM of the true plume, whereas the white * indicates the location of the center of mass of the training dataset for that iteration. Note that the location of the white * gets closer to the white + with each update.

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of 0.6 to 4.4%, CoM estimation errors in the range of 0.6 to 9.6%, and spatial vari-ance errors in the interval of 3.4 to 32% are reported for plume images with signal-to-noise ratio ranging from 0-10%. Direct sampling strategy to characterizing spatial moments is dependent on sampling loca-tion sensitivity and sampling spatial cover-age. Estimates from direct sampling ap-proach the true plume moments with in-creasing number of boreholes, stabilizing when approximately 12 boreholes are in-stalled, or about 0.12% of the model space is sampled (Figure 2). Spatial moments cal-ibrated from resistivity data with 0 and 3% noise excitations are more reliable than di-rect sampling estimates until 6-10 wells have been installed. Estimates based on resistivity survey with 10% noise are poor, which underscores the importance of ac-quiring high quality data in resistivity sur-veys.

Mitigating Challenges with Geo-physics at Complex Sites Plummer, Kelly, kelly.plummer@gel.com, GEL Geophysics, LLC, Raleigh, NC Using geophysics to map geologic or manmade features of interest in industrial, urban, and historically developed sites can be a challenge. These sites typically have significant above-ground interferences to work around such as buildings, reinforced concrete, utilities, fences, rails, and normal day-to-day plant activities. These sites may also contain a large amount of un-known buried material of different geome-tries and morphologies. The addition of a complex geological setting (such as karstic limestone or heavily irregular metamorphic bedrock) presents formidable challenges to geophysical interpretation. A way to mini-mize these challenges is by producing ranked target lists and using multiple geo-

Figure 2: Plots comparing spatial moment calibrations from resistivity and direct sampling approaches. Whiles (a) and (b) are results for the lateral and vertical Center of Mass (CoM), respectively; (c) and (d) denote estimations for the lateral and vertical plume variances, re-spectively.

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physical methods. On complex sites it is beneficial to de-

velop criteria and produce ranked target lists where anomalies are ranked based on the likelihood that the anomaly is caused by the object of interest. This can facilitate a significant reduction in intrusive investi-gations, thereby saving time and mon-ey. The development of the ranking crite-ria is site- and object-specific, and is typi-cally accomplished by analyzing data from several geophysical instruments.

At complex sites it is important to de-velop a three-dimensional understanding of the subsurface. This may be achieved by combining geophysical mapping methods (such as electromagnetic and magnetics) with geophysical profiling methods (such as ground penetrating radar, electrical re-sistivity imaging, seismic refraction, and seismic surface waves). Case Study 1: Target ranking

An abandoned groundwater production well was believed to exist somewhere with-in an approximately 2-acre section of an industrial site. It is suspected that the well, if still in place, is allowing shallow con-taminated groundwater to reach deeper aq-uifers. The geophysical investigation was designed to locate potential buried struc-tures and objects such as well casings. Due to the history of the site, it is likely that other buried metallic objects exist as well.

A Trimble 5800 Real Time Kinematic (RTK) Global Positioning System (GPS) system with a Trimble RTK/GPS 5700 base station was used for positioning sup-port of the geophysical sensors. The GPS instrument was also used for measuring the location of buildings, fences, containers, concrete slabs, monitoring wells, utility manhole and handhole lids, and other sur-face features which could potentially im-pact the readings from the geophysical in-

struments. Selecting a survey-grade GPS system was essential at this site since ena-bled the team to quickly determine which of the geophysical anomalies were caused by surface features and which were caused by subsurface features.

Magnetic gradiometer data was collect-ed across the whole site on a 2.5-foot pro-file separation using a Geometrics G858-G unit. The data was immediately analyzed and data plots were produced. The loca-tions of known metallic objects were over-laid on the geophysical data plots in order to disregard anomalies associated with these objects. A total of 49 anomalies with amplitude consistent with a buried metal were detected at the site. Due to the large amount of targets detected, the client asked us to prioritize targets to minimize intru-sive investigations. Anomalies were sepa-rated into dipoles (paired south- and north-pole anomalies) and monopoles (single-pole anomaly), (see Figure 1). In ideal conditions, a well casing exhibits a mono-pole anomaly while miscellaneous buried scrap metal exhibits a dipole anomaly. GPR data was then collected in orthogonal directions at the location of targets detected with G-858G in an attempt to further ana-lyze the shape, size and depth of the targets (Figure 1).

The geophysical anomalies were ana-lyzed for size, shape, amplitude, and depth in an attempt to rank the targets based on their likelihood of being caused by the missing well. The following ranking sys-tem was used: Target detected at a logical location +1 Target gives rise to a magnetic monopole anomaly +1 GPR signature consistent with buried well +1 Target create large anomaly footprint +1

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Out of 49 targets detected at the site, 11 scored 3 points or higher and were recom-mended to be investigated further. By uti-lizing target ranking, the client could po-tentially reduce intrusive investigations needs with more than 75%. Case Study 2: Importance of a three-dimensional understanding of the subsur-face

We performed a geophysical investiga-tion at an industrial site to aid in character-izing the subsurface at the site in advance of continuing site investigations and reme-dial actions. One main objective was to determine the size and location of former waste lagoons at the site. For this investi-gation, we used a GF Instruments’ CMD-4 EM ground conductivity and magnetic sus-ceptibility instrument, and an AGI Su-persting R8 electrical resistivity imaging and induced polarization (ERI/IP) system. Positioning data for the geophysical inves-tigation were provided by a TopCon GMS-

2 GPS+GLONASS L1 system with a PG-A5 external GPS antenna.

CMD-4 data were collected across the site with a profile separation of approxi-mately 10 feet except for obstructed areas. Major obstructions at the site included buildings, stored materials, piles of con-crete, trailers and containers. To facilitate the interpretation of the CMD-4 data, we collected GPS data of the position of rele-vant surface features such as buildings, fences, utility surface features, surface met-al, monitoring wells, and other features in order to determine if these objects were causing anomalies in the geophysical data and for positioning control. The CMD-4 data were processed and analyzed immedi-ately following data collection and the re-sults were used to guide locations to collect more detailed data.

The ground conductivity and in-phase data for a section of the site containing four of the detected potential waste lagoons are shown in Figure 2 below. Surface features

Figure 1. Left: Magnetic gradiometer data and data interpretations. Right: Ground pene-trating radar data over detected target. The target shown in this example scored a maxi-mum 4 points.

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and detected subsurface utilities are also marked in the figure to facilitate the inter-pretation of the data. The in-phase response data (measures magnetic susceptibility) was used to determine the limits of a sus-pected fly ash cap which was reportedly placed over the waste lagoons. Fly ash contains magnetite and is therefore typical-ly visible in in-phase datasets.

The areas of the suspected waste la-goons exhibit a ground conductivity of ap-proximately 100 mS/m and are detectable in the ground conductivity dataset. Howev-er, outside of the limits of the waste la-goons, the ground conductivity is still ele-vated for some distance (approximately 60 mS/m compared with a background con-ductivity of approximately 25 mS/m). This could potentially be caused by the waste being thinner and/or buried deeper in these areas. GEL Geophysics therefore recom-mended ERI profiles to be conducted in order to get a 3-dimensional understanding of the subsurface.

After discussions with the client, ERI profile locations were selected in order to investigate the former waste lagoons and other features of interest in more detail. ERI data was collected using the Dipole-Dipole array and an electrode separation of 3 meters (9.8 feet).

The ERI data revealed that in the area of the suspected former waste lagoons, conductive materials are located well above the groundwater table. However, outside of the waste lagoons, the top of the conduc-tive material is at the groundwater level (Figure 2). The highly conductive ground-water is believed to be a result of highly salinated brine being dumped into the for-mer waste lagoons together with metal hy-droxide. We distinguished between former waste lagoons and conductive groundwater by measuring the depth to the top of the conductive zone, and assuming that the

waste would have been buried mostly above the ground water table. The exist-ence of conductive groundwater well out-side the interpreted location of the former waste lagoons, indicates that side berms (if present) are not efficient groundwater bar-riers. Adding a method such as ERI which provides cross sections was crucial for un-derstanding what caused the conductive anomalies detected at the site. Conclusions

Geophysical investigations at industri-al, urban and historically developed sites are often difficult undertakings due to the complexity of these sites. When working at these sites, we have found it essential that the geophysical on-site team has a deep understanding for how the geophysi-cal methods work, are able to analyze data on site, and are able to interpret the results and communicate results with clients on a daily basis. Ranked target lists, where anomalies are ranked based on the likeli-hood that the anomaly is caused by the ob-ject of interest, are great tools for com-municating geophysical results to clients and may reduce the need for intrusive in-vestigations significantly. At complex sites, geophysical studies should include mapping and profiling methods in order to achieve a three-dimensional understanding of the site.

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Use of In-Situ Chemical Reduction and Bioaugmentation to Treat Tri-chloroethene Groundwater Plume Propst, Brooke, brooke.propst@ ch2m.com, M. Fulkerson, and M. Perl-mutter, CH2M HILL, Charlotte, NC

A treatability study was conducted at a site that covers approximately 590 acres within an industrial area constructed in the late 1930s. The study area has historically in-cluded maintenance, warehouses, painting, printing, and auto body shops, as well as small industrial facilities that are currently in use throughout the area. Historical activ-ities in these areas have resulted in releases of chlorinated volatile organic compounds

Figure 2. Top Left: Ground conductivity data and interpretations. Top Right: In-phase data and interpretations. Bottom: ERI profile example and data interpretations .

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(CVOCs) and petroleum-related hydrocar-bons.

CVOC-contaminated groundwater, pri-marily trichloroethene (TCE), has been identified in multiple areas of the site at depths ranging from 25 to 150 feet below ground surface (bgs). Two separate groundwater pump and treat systems are in operation; however, contaminant concen-tration trends have asymptotically leveled over time, demonstrating a reduction in the system’s effectiveness to remove contami-nant mass. A treatability study was con-ducted to evaluate the effectiveness of in-situ chemical reduction (ISCR) with bio-augmentation as an alternative treatment technology for reducing CVOC mass and obtain information on design parameters for potential site-wide implementation.

The focus of this study was a 1,800 square foot area where TCE was detected in groundwater collected from 50 to 60 feet bgs at concentrations ranging from 4,300 to 12,000 µg/L. A series of bench-scale stud-ies indicated that EHC-L, a chemical re-duction reagent produced by FMC Corpo-ration consisting of lecithin and an organo-iron compound, combined with the bioaug-mentation culture TSI-DC, produced by Terra Systems, was effective at reducing CVOC mass.

The study infrastructure includes two new injection wells screened from 50 to 60 feet bgs and three monitoring wells in-stalled 5, 13, and 18 feet from the injection wells to monitor the radius of influence (ROI).

A 6 g/L solution of EHC-L, consisting of 420 pounds of EHC-L and 8,000 gallons of water, was injected into each well. Ap-proximately 2 gallons of sodium sulfite were added to the injection water to re-move dissolved oxygen, and facilitate re-ducing conditions for the injection of the bioaugmentation culture. Half way through

the injection at each well, 3 liters of TSI-DC bioaugmentation culture was gravity-fed into each injection well.

Upon completion of the field activities, post-injection monitoring of groundwater was initiated and will continue through June 2014. The analytical data for samples collected one month following the injec-tions indicate favorable results. Evaluation of analytical data and field parameters sug-gest that a ROI of at least 18 ft was achieved. TCE concentrations detected in samples collected 1-month post-injection decreased by 95%, 39%, and 43% in the wells located 5, 13, and 18 feet from the injection wells, respectively. TCE degra-dation daughter products cis-1,2-dichloroethene (DCE) and vinyl chloride (VC) were detected at increased concentra-tions in the samples collected during the 1-month post injection monitoring event. De-creased concentrations of TCE coupled with increased concentrations of cis-1,2-DCE and VC indicate degradation is occur-ring.

Electrochemical Remediation Strategies in the Subsurface Rossabi, Joseph, rossabi@redox-tech.com, and John Haselow, Redox Tech, Cary, NC; Greg Powers, Redox Tech, Ai-ken, SC; and Daphne Jones and Dave Duncklee, Duncklee & Dunham, Cary, NC

There has been a recent resurgence in the use of electrochemical techniques to reme-diate or aid in the remediation of subsur-face contamination. Although originally used to enhance the transport of fluids and ions into or out of low hydraulic permea-bility materials, electrochemistry has also been used to cost effectively initiate or en-hance chemical and biological reactions.

The field of electrochemistry emerged

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shortly after electricity was identified and parameterized in the mid 18th to early 19th centuries. Electrically induced water move-ment in soils (electroosmosis) was ob-served by Reuss in 1809 and experiments and theory in electrolysis and electromigra-tion were performed and developed by Far-aday and others around 1830. Since that time environmental electrochemistry has been used for soil improvement (dewatering, stabilization), removal of met-als and rads, transport of bionutrients, and initiation and enhancement of redox reac-tions. Electromigration and electroosmosis (typically linked under the title of electro-kinetics) have been the most commonly used techniques for environmental remedi-ation. These techniques generally rely on the creation of an electric field that is used to force movement of charged species in a material of low hydraulic permeability.

Electromigration generally describes the movement of charged species, typically ions, through a medium as a result of force caused by an electric field. By convention, an electric field vector points from positive to negative so cations (positive charged species) in the media will be forced in the direction of the electric field and anions (negative charged species) will be forced against the “direction” of the electric field. For example ammonium ion (NH4

+) will travel in the same direction as the electric field while dichromate (Cr2O7

2-) will be forced in the opposite direction. Electro-phoresis is similar to electromigration and generally involves the movement of charged, colloid-size particles. Electroos-mosis also involves the forced movement of charged species in an electric field but specifically involves ions in the diffuse lay-er adjacent to solid particles in the subsur-face. Since these solid particles typically have a negative surface charge, they attract positive charges from the water. The posi-

tive charges closest to the negative solid surface are essentially bound but the charg-es a little further away are able to move under the force of the electric field and are concentrated enough to drag bulk water with them. Typically water movement is in the direction of the electric field and non-polar and other species are carried as with water movement due to a conventional hy-draulic gradient. Ultimately the fate and transport of groundwater and it’s compo-nents depends on the sum of all forces in-cluding pressure and electrically driven.

One of the simplest ways to initiate electrochemical strategies involves the pro-duction of hydrogen and oxygen by elec-trolysis. We, and others have successfully used this strategy to enhance anaerobic dechlorination. Hydrolysis of water is often the principal and dominating reaction when electrical power is introduced into the sub-surface. One of the limitations of this strat-egy is that hydrogen and oxygen are typi-cally formed only near the cathode and an-ode respectively, and subsurface access is typically employed in vertical structures. Since contamination often distributes later-ally rather than vertically some obvious geometrical incompatibilities arise. How-ever, because of the simplicity of the elec-trolysis technique, horizontal access meth-ods (utility/road crossing technologies, and other horizontal or slant well technologies) can be simply used to deploy this technolo-gy.

In addition to matching the distribution of hydrogen to the distribution of contami-nant, it is also useful to match the power generation technique to the power require-ment. Very little power is required to pro-duce enough hydrogen to sustain bacterial population. In fact, it is fairly easy to pro-duce enough hydrogen to saturate a partic-ular volume. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are often ideal for this type of application. Pho-

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tovoltaics may also be an ideal method to create electric fields to promote electroki-netic techniques. The cost of photovoltaic panels is currently less than $1 per Watt and has been decreasing steadily while the cost of grid power is more than $0.10 per KW-hr and steadily increasing. Assuming a 30-year lifetime and an average of 4 sun hours per day, the cost of PV power is less than $0.03 per kWhr.

From Bench Scale to Full Scale: High Pressure Injection of Calci-um Peroxide Slurry Directly into Limestone Bedrock Rudd, Brantley C., brantleyrudd@ exotechinc.com, Exo Tech, Inc, Monroe, GA USA Petroleum constituent contamination in groundwater was discovered at a site in Sumpter County Florida. A pump and treat system was installed and operated for ap-proximately 4 years to remediate the petro-leum constituents. The system was shut-off after contamination was observed to be be-low Florida Natural Attenuation Default Source Concentrations (FAC 62-777). In an effort to further reduce dissolved ben-zene to below the contaminant target level of 1 microgram per liter (µg/L), Exo Tech was contracted to perform a bench-scale treatability study and field pilot study.

The treatability study was performed for J2 Engineering to aid in the design and development of an effective remedial strat-egy utilizing in-situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) or enhanced aerobic biostimula-tion. A thorough study was performed which included an evaluation of site geo-chemistry, ISCO soil oxidant demand, deg-radation studies, and an in-situ microcosm study to evaluate microbial activity in the

groundwater. The results of these studies showed the presence of indigenous Ben-zene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes (BTEX)-degrading aerobic bacteria, indi-cating that increased dissolved oxygen con-centrations from application of PermeOx Plus® (calcium peroxide) would be able to stimulate an increase in the microbial me-tabolism and population dynamics. In order to evaluate the feasibility of PermeOx Plus® injections, a pilot study was per-formed. The pilot study consisted of inject-ing a PermeOx Plus® slurry mixture into -3- injection wells. The injection wells were installed by J2 Engineering, to an ap-proximate depth of -70- feet. The wells were installed into the limestone bedrock utilizing a mud rotary drill rig. A 4” casing was installed from ground surface to the top of bedrock, approximately 50 ft. bgs, and were left “open borehole” for the injec-tion. The injection took place directly into the limestone bedrock using high pressure (75-100 psi) where a total of -600- pounds of PermeOx Plus® was injected into the aquifer.

Following the pilot study, monitoring events were conducted to evaluate remedia-tion efficacy, and all petroleum hydrocar-bon concentrations were reduced to below laboratory detection limits. Full-scale im-plementation of PermeOx Plus® consisted of the installation of -17- additional injec-tion wells and was completed in June, 2013. A similar injection process for the pilot study was utilized for the full scale application, with minor alterations to ad-dress higher injection pressure require-ments. Analytical results of post-treatment groundwater sampling events will be pre-sented, and compared to historical data to illustrate changes over time in the geo-chemistry and dissolved contaminant mass distribution in the subsurface.

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Geologic CO2 Storage Design to Increase Secondary Trapping Cost Effectively Ruprecht, Catherine, cruprec@ clemson.edu, and Ron Falta, Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC Reducing the amount of mobile CO2 in a storage formation reduces risks associated with leakage and is predicted to reduce long-term CO2 monitoring costs. Water/CO2 co-injection strategies may achieve this goal by injecting formation brine fol-lowing, alternating, or simultaneous to CO2 injection. Co-injection strategies are direct-ly applicable to CO2 storage design strate-gies to enhance secondary trapping mecha-nisms by increasing residual gas trapping and the rate of dissolution of CO2 in for-mation brine. Currently proposed schemes include in-situ and ex-situ dissolution, cy-clic brine injection or water-alternating-gas (WAG), simultaneous water and gas via different injectors (SWAG), and direct co-injection via the same injector.

Each of the recommended injection schemes improves storage security by en-hancing secondary trapping mechanisms at an additional cost to the storage project, yet these costs have not been explicitly com-pared to their respective reductions in long term monitoring costs. This on-going study has two objectives: (1) to determine the net effect various co-injection methods have on storage costs and (2) to demonstrate a practical approach to optimizing co-injection schemes in order to determine the most economically efficient strategy to in-crease storage security in a given repre-sentative geologic formation.

A cost function was defined based on the major components of co-injection strat-egies; the monitoring cost, the electrical energy costs, and the additional capital costs. Monitoring the CO2 plume was weighed against the cost of supplementary water injection in order to determine the net effect of co-injection techniques on CO2 storage. If the net effect proved favor-able, an optimal combination of the two methodologies would be determined. Law-rence Berkeley National Lab’s iTOUGH2 was used to assess the cost function and perform optimizations of TOUGH2-ECO2N parameters used for CO2 storage simulations. A constant CO2 mass rate was injected, while water injection rates and times were predicted based on minimizing costs. Simulations used homogeneous deep saline formations characteristic of targeted storage aquifers.

Bench-scale Testing of Physical Separation Technologies to Evalu-ate the Remediation of Surficial Soils Impacted with Trinitrotolu-ene (TNT) Sams, Ricky1, ricky.sams@arcadis-us.com, Erik Groenendijk2, Carl Sew-ard2, David Liles1, and Scott Larew3 1ARCADIS, Durham, North Carolina; 2ART Engineering, Tampa, Florida; 3AR-CADIS, Cranbury, New Jersey Historical operations at a turn-of-the-century manufacturing site resulted in the distribution of crystalline 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in surficial soils over approximately 5 acres. The associated TNT groundwater plume shows evidence of nat-ural attenuation, however, without source removal from surficial soil the plume will

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persist. Operating as a team, ART Engi-neering and ARCADIS designed and im-plemented a bench-scale treatability study at ARCADIS’ Treatability Laboratory to select and optimize physical separation unit processes to remove TNT from surficial soils and concentrate it for subsequent off-site disposal. ART Engineering and AR-CADIS evaluated various physical separa-tion methods for removal of TNT particu-lates from the soil. Methods evaluated in-cluded: density separation, grinding, attri-tion scrubbing, and froth flotation. Study results indicate that a combination of grind-ing, attrition scrubbing and froth flotation effectively removed 98.7 percent of TNT mass from the sand fraction (0.038-2.0 mm) and met the study target of 85 percent mass reduction, and concentrated TNT in the fines fraction (<0.038mm) and flotation concentrate. The froth flotation concentrate will be disposed of off-site, however, the fines fraction requires additional treatment prior to reuse onsite. In addition, TNT breakdown products (i.e., 2,4- and 2,6-dinitrotoluene [DNT] and ami-no-DNTs) remained above regulatory crite-ria in the sand fraction necessitating the evaluation of additional technologies to reduce energetic-related constituent con-centrations to meet regulatory criteria. ART Engineering successfully demonstrat-ed chemical oxidation using modified Fen-ton’s Reagent on the sand fraction to meet applicable regulatory criteria for reuse on-site. The fines fraction (approximately 25 percent of the total soil volume) contained TNT and breakdown products at concentra-tions exceeding regulatory criteria. AR-CADIS will separately evaluate on-site aer-obic biodegradation in a “land farming” scenario to further reduce energetics con-centrations in the fines and sand fractions. Collaboratively, ART Engineering and ARCADIS have confirmed the engineering

feasibility of physical separation of TNT, as well as the health and safety ramifica-tions of the project. Geometric Properties of Joints in Crystalline Rocks, Carolina Pied-mont Schaeffer, Malcolm F., malcolm. schaeffer@hdrinc.com, HDR Engineering, Inc., Charlotte, NC Four geometric properties of joints, 1) ori-entation, 2) intensity, 3) trace length, and 4) spacing were determined at six locations in crystalline rock (biotite gneiss, granitic gneiss, felsic metavolcanic rocks, and meta-granite) within the Carolina Piedmont. The data for this study were extracted from detailed joint trace mapping of bedrock ex-posures at scales of 1 cm = 0.6 m and 1 cm = 1.2 m. The bedrock exposures range in area from 545 m2 to 5035 m2. Joint sets and their orientations are determined by examination of the field exposure, the joint trace maps, rose diagrams, and Schmidt equal area net plots. The procedure parti-tions the projective hemisphere of the Schmidt plots into non-overlapping regions and treats the poles with each region as corresponding to an individual joint set. The joint systems at the sites have from two to five sets of joints. The sets deter-mined at the sites can be placed into six, possibly, regional joint sets; 1) N59E-N68E, 2) N4W-N19W, 3) N81W-N83E, 4) N28E-N30E, 5) N34W-N46W, and 6) N68W. Based on the determined joint set orientations and their scatter, the mapped joint traces are separated into their respec-tive sets for the analysis of intensity, trace length, and spacing. Joint intensity for each set is calculated by summing the lengths of all joints in the set and dividing

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by the total area mapped. Total intensity for each site is the sum of the intensities for each joint set. The trace length data is truncated at 0.25 m (lower limits of geolog-ic mapping) and corrected for sample cen-soring bias. Censoring refers to the inter-section of some joint traces with the boundary of the mapped area so that their true length is not represented on the map. Histograms of the trace length data were constructed for each joint set at the sites and the statistics of the distributions were calculated. The trace length data generally fits a log normal distribution even when the truncation bias is taken into account. Dif-ferent distributions for joint trace length including exponential, power-law, and gamma have been noted by other workers. The intersection of a joint set with a per-pendicular scan line appears as a sequence of points that can be either regularly or ir-regularly located along the scan line. Joint spacing is the distance between the points corrected for the dip of the joint set. Spac-ing data was collected along lines superim-posed on the joint trace maps and the spac-ing measured and corrected using the aver-age dip of the set. A single distribution does not fit all the data. Negative exponen-tial, power-law (fractal), and log normal distributions can be fitted to different spac-ing data sets. Gamma, Wiebull, and regu-lar are some of the other distributions have been noted for spacing data by other work-ers. Understanding the geometric proper-ties and the shear strength of joints is criti-cal for the design and stability analyses of engineering works.

Soil Displacement Correlations with Estimates of Evapotranspira-tion using the Penman-Monteith Equation Searcy, Caroline, csearcy@clemson.edu, Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC The Penman-Monteith equation is used to predict net evapotranspiration (ET) by us-ing various atmospheric data, such as, tem-perature, wind speed, relative humidity, and solar radiation. In 2005, the American Society of Civil Engineers deemed the Pen-man-Monteith equation as the standard for calculating reference ET which makes this the perfect equation to estimate ET. The standardized reference ET can be calculat-ed for tall and short crops at daily time steps or hourly time steps. These two dif-ferent crop heights allow for areas covered in short grass or in a cornfield without hav-ing to use a different equation. The only differences between the crop height and the time steps in the equation are the values of the numerator and denominator constants.

In this study, the daily time step was used to estimate ET for the Bull Test Farm in Pendleton, South Carolina. The esti-mates from the daily time step of Penman-Monteith was compared to the ET esti-mates of the Priestly-Taylor equation, pan evaporation data of Clemson, South Caroli-na from 1950 to 1992 from the South Caro-lina Department of Natural Resources (DNR) website, and the soil displacement at the study site. The average ET of the pan evaporation data for the Clemson-Pendleton area is about 1 meter per year, this is about 3 millimeters per day and is supported by data found on the DNR web-site. From the collected data, the estimated

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ET for the Penman-Monteith and the Priestly-Taylor equations are around the 3 millimeters per day. The only difference between the Penman-Monteith and the Priestly-Taylor equations is the atmospher-ic data that are used in their evaluation. The Penman-Monteith equation uses tem-perature, wind speed, relative humidity, and solar radiation whereas the Priestly-Taylor equation only uses only solar radia-tion and an atmospheric constant of 1.26. However, both equations use soil heat flux, which is calculated from solar radiation. The use of this atmospheric constant means that the Priestly-Taylor equation is not as accurate when compared to the Penman-Monteith equation, which is closer to the actual ET estimates. The results show that the second half of the Penman-Monteith equation, which is dominated by tempera-ture and wind speed, dominates ET. Pre-liminary calculations conclude that the soil displacement does verify that the estimates from Penman-Monteith are accurate.

Evaluation of the Water Balance and Groundwater Flow in the Hunnicutt Creek Wetland

Thompson, Emily, and Lawrence Mur-doch, Department of Environmental Engi-neering and Earth Sciences, Clemson Uni-versity, Clemson, SC Evaluation of the hydrologic processes as-sociated with the Hunnicutt Creek wetland on the southern end of the Clemson Bot-toms begins with a water balance. The wa-ter balance consists of water entering the wetland through seeps along the base of a ridge separating Lake Hartwell from the wetland. The inflow also consists of groundwater discharge to small channels within the wetland. Outflow components

occur from evapotranspiration and surface water flow to Hunnicutt Creek. The inflow from seeps during February was 0.25 ft3/s, and average surface water outflows in-creased slightly from 0.40 ft3/s in Novem-ber to 0.45 ft3/s in January. The average surface water level decreased by 4 cm from October to November, and another 3.8 cm from November to January. The potential evapotranspiration indicated an increase from 10mm/day in September to 14 mm/day in October and then dropped to 8mm/day when the wetland vegetation died in November.

The field data was used with the Groundwater Modeling System (GMS) to analyze groundwater flow from Lake Hart-well through the ridge and discharging to the wetlands and Hunnicutt Creek. . The boundary conditions specified heads at the lake level of 201 m and Hunnicutt Creek at 187 m. The seeps at the base of the ridge are represented as specified heads at 190m, above Hunnicutt Creek, but 10m below the lake. Recharge is 1.0x10-10 m/yr.

Evaluating Subsurface Soil Dis-placement as a Method for Moni-toring Area-Averaged Changes in Soil Moisture Thrash, Colby, cthrash@clemson.edu, and Murdoch, L. C, Environmental Engineer-ing and Earth Sciences, Clemson Universi-ty, Clemson, SC; and Germanovich, L.N., and Wang, Bo (Thomas), Civil Engineer-ing Dept., Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA Soil moisture is an important component of the hydrologic cycle, but obtaining area-averaged soil moisture data is challenging. Many methods have been developed for point source measurements of soil moisture and advances in area-averaged measure-

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ments have been made recently using tech-nologies such as radar, GPS, and satellite imaging. We have developed a method known as Displacement Extensometry for Lysimetric Terrain Analysis (DELTA) that uses a vertical extensometer embedded in the soil, which is calibrated to function as a weighing lysimeter.

DELTA extensometers are approxi-mately 2 m in length and the radius of in-fluence of the averaging region is approxi-mately two times the depth of installation. The DELTA system measures soil dis-placement at greater than 10 nm resolution, which is caused by changes in load in the overlying soil and at the ground surface. The displacements are induced by changes in barometric pressure, temperature, and mass (water, person, etc.).

Four DELTA extensometers (DEL-X) have been deployed and measured at a field site near Clemson, SC at depths of 3 and 6 meters within saprolite derived from biotite gneiss. Barometric pressure, precipitation, temperature, and soil moisture are being measured along with displacement. The similarity in the displacement of proximate extensometers gives confidence in the measurement technique. Correlations show that at 6 m depth the soil compresses 0.16 µm per 1 mm of rainfall for SX3 and 0.20 µm per 1 mm of rainfall for SX4. Follow-ing spring rainfalls (March-May 2013) the soil expanded at rates from 1.4 to 2.3 µm/day. The expansion is attributed to loss of water through evapotranspiration as well as seasonal temperature and barometric ef-fects. Methods are currently being devel-oped to remove the temperature and baro-metric effects. Once the corrections are ap-plied, the DELTA system can be used to estimate evapotranspiration as well as other components of the hydrologic cycle.

Determining Inflows at a Freshwa-ter Wetland in Clemson, South Carolina Vaughan, Thomas, thvaugh@ g.clemson.edu, Department of Environ-mental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC In May 2013, restoration activity began on Hunnicutt Creek as part of a mitigation process for development of commercial lands that impacted a stream system in Clemson. Natural stream patterns are be-ing implemented in Hunnicutt by providing floodplains for storm water to deposit and establish stream side vegetation. The top of the wetland has Hunnicutt Creek run-ning above it and on the other side of the creek is the Clemson Bottoms, which is at the edge of Clemson University. At the back of the wetland is a dike which has Lake Hartwell located on the other side of it. The soil in the wetland is thick and composed of silt and bentonite. An idea of how groundwater flows through the wet-land off of Hunnicutt Creek was needed. This is how we came to the idea of re-searching this wetland. Our overall objec-tive is to make a groundwater model and a mass balance of the wetland. While re-searching this, a better understanding of how changes in temperature and rain events affect the groundwater flow. My part in this project is measuring the inflows of the wetland. Best way to estimate in-flows is to measure the seeps at the edge of the wetland. Fox (2007) constructed lateral flow collection flumes to regulate seepage flow so it is easily measured. Some seeps are parallel to the surface water so the float method is needed to measure flow from the seep.

Four seeps flow directly from the ridge

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and the method that was used to measure them was the collective method. First plas-tic containers were cut to fit into the seep and holes were drilled into the bottom so six inch nails can be driven into the soil to stabilize the container. Cement blocks were also used to contain the flow of water to just the container. Then water is collect-ed into a 32 fl oz or a 6 qt container, de-pending on the flow rate, and then a timer is used to see how fast the container is filled. Nine seeps are parallel to the sur-face water, a channel was made to draw flow into one direction then the flow rate was measured. Flow rate is measured us-ing a ruler and a float and seeing how fast the float goes the measured distance. The distance was usually two or three feet.

On October 27th two above surface wa-ter seeps were created and measured at 0.029 cfs (cubic feet per second). In No-vember two more above surface water seeps are created. With three the average flow was 0.029 cfs and when the fourth is created it flows at 0.034 cfs. In February nine more seeps were created altogether with the four other seeps the flow rate was 0.25 cfs. The outflow measurements for that area increased slightly from 0.40 cfs in November to 0.45 cfs in January.

Using Molarity to Evaluate Chang-es in the Proportion of VOC Com-pounds in Groundwater Wixon, R. Stephen, TRC Environmental Corporation, Greenville, South Carolina Molarity (a unit of concentration measur-ing the number of moles of a solute per li-ter of solution), when plotted as stacked bar charts of the chlorinated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in groundwater versus time, can be used as an evaluation tool to

observe changes occurring in the propor-tion of chlorinated VOC compounds pre-sent in the groundwater. Trends that can be observed using molarity charts include: The conversion of “parent” VOCs (i.e., tetrachloroethene and/or trichloroethene) to their “daughter products” (i.e., cis-1,2-dichloroethene, trans-1,2-dichloroethene, and vinyl chloride) provides an indication of the effectiveness of enhanced reductive dechlorination (ERD) or other treatment technology at degrading the chlorinated VOCs of the site. A downward trend in the total moles of VOCs can also provide a useful indication that the VOC plume is degrading. An apparent increase in the total moles of VOCs for a particular well can be inter-preted as potential evidence of VOC re-bound or continued influx of VOCs from an upgradient source. This may be more easily seen in the molarity chart than in typical concentration charts if the increase rate isn’t high. An apparent lack of conversion from par-ent VOCs to daughter VOC compounds is a potential indication that the ERD treat-ment system may not be providing ade-quate coverage to a particular portion of the aquifer.

A “mole” is a unit of measurement used in chemistry that can be defined as the quantity of anything (i.e., atoms, mole-cules, electrons, or some other item) that contains Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 1023) of particles. The method to calculating molarity of a solution with a known con-centration of a specific substance is to di-vide the concentration (in milligrams/Liter) by the molar weight of the substance (in milligrams/mole). For most solutions, this value will be very small; therefore, it is convenient to multiply the molarity by 1 x 109 to view the values as nanomolarity.

45

Zero Liquid Discharge for Wastewater Treatment in Oil Ex-ploration Facilities Workman, Robert, rworkman@ crbgeo.net, CRB Geological & Environ-mental Services, Inc., Greenville, SC and Frederick R. Baddour, CRB Geological & Environmental Services, Inc., Miami, FL The current booming oil exploration indus-try increases the likelihood for groundwa-ter and surface water contamination be-yond the oil fields. Drilling pipe, well head equipment and downhole tools from an oil well must be carefully cleaned, inspected and rebuilt following each deploy-

ment. The cleaning is most often per-formed by oil service support companies that are struggling simply to keep pace with demand. These small to medium sized shops may not be aware of Best Man-agement Practices (BMPs) for handling petroleum waste, heavy metals and clean-ing solvents, which can lead to significant environmental impacts from just a short period of operation.

Oilfield services shops that use Zero-Liquid Discharge (ZLD) wastewater sys-tems benefit from lower waste disposal costs, reduced water consumption and less environmental risk compared to on-site leaching or irrigation disposal. The capital expense of installing a ZLD system can be

46

rapidly recovered through operational sav-ings. More importantly, the environmental and financial risk of subsurface contamina-tion can be greatly reduced by implement-ing a wastewater management plan with a ZLD system.

Commercial ZLD systems are readily available, and include evaporators to car-tridge filtration on up to reverse osmosis units. Costs for the systems vary widely based on the wastewater flow rate and the degree of cleaning required for water circu-lation, but generally cost between $20,000 to $50,000 for a typical pressure cleaning operation. Residue and sludge generated from a ZLD requires proper characteriza-tion and waste disposal practic-es. Solvents, fuels and organic compounds introduced into a ZLD system may be diffi-cult to remove from the water loop, and should be given careful consideration for operational health and safety.

Effects of Increased Basin Flux Due to CO2 Storage on Interac-tions between Fresh Saline Groundwater Xie, Shuangshuang, shuangs@ g.clemson.edu, L. C. Murdoch and R. W. Falta, Department of Environmental Engi-neering and Earth Sciences, Clemson Uni-versity, Clemson, SC

Storage of CO2 in deep saline aquifers is being considered to reduce greenhouse gas-es in the atmosphere. This process is ex-pected to increase the pressure in these deep aquifers. One potential consequence of pressurization is an increase in the up-ward flux of saline water. Saline water aq-uifers underly fresh water aquifers at depths of 100 m or less in the midwestern U.S. and from one to several kilometers in

coastal areas. Upward migration of the in-terface between fresh and saline water has the potential to degrade freshwater aquifers and threaten aquatic ecosystems.

This research evaluates the risks associ-ated with increasing the basin flux from saline to fresh water aquifers as a result of CO2 storage. The approach involves mod-eling salt concentration in a fresh water aquifer overlying saline groundwater that is subjected to changes in flux. The finite element multiphysics computational code COMSOL was verified with the groundwa-ter simulation package SEAWAT and TOUGH2 by solving classic benchmark problems of density-dependent flow. The code was then used to analyze idealized 2D and 3D geometries representing the essen-tial details of a shallow, fresh water aquifer underlain by a saline ground water in a sed-imentary basin. The effects of saline intru-sion were evaluated using a sensitivity analysis.

The results indicate that the depth of the saline water-freshwater interface is re-lated to the recharge rate, duration of fresh water flushing, density of the saline water, formation anisotropy, as well as the flux from the basin. The interface between fresh and salt water becomes sharper and shallower as the density of the salt water increases. Increased upward flux of saline water raises the interface between salt and fresh water, and it increases the salinity of water discharging to streams. However, the expected magnitudes of these effects appear to be small when the expected changes in flux caused by CO2 storage are considered. Nevertheless, increases in sa-linity in shallow aquifers caused by CO2 injection take much longer to dissipate than they do to create, so this effect should be considered when designing a storage pro-ject.

47

Notes

2014 Exhibitors

Brian Strickland Geo Lab PO Box 1169 Dacula, GA 30019 (770) 868-5407 brian_strickland@geolab.org

Gary Birk Tersus Environmental 1116 Colonial Club Road Wake Forest, NC 27587 (919) 453-5577 Ext. 2001 gary.birk@tersusenv.com

Butch Stevens Parratt-Wolff, Inc. 501 Millstone Drive Hillsborough, NC 27278 (919) 644-2814 bstevens@pwinc.com

Casey Jennings Vibra-Tech Inc. 377 Rubin Center Drive, Suite 114 Fort Mill, SC 29708 (803) 548-3066 caseyj@vibratechinc.com

Andre Al-Ghani Field Environmental Instruments 4270 Creek Park Drive, Suite 700 Suwanee, GA 30024 (866) 620-6762 (678) 714-0030 Aalghani.ga@fieldenvironmental.com www.fieldenvironmental.com

Brian Shinall Fruits & Associates, Inc. 500 North Point Parkway Acworth, Georgia 30102 (770) 974-6999 bshinall@fruits-us.com www.fruits-us.com

Harry O'Neill Beacon Environmental Services, Inc. 2203A Commerce Road, Suite 1 Forest Hill, MD 21050 410-838-8780 harry.oneill@beacon-usa.com

2014 Exhibitors

Mike Mazzarese Vironex Inc. 403 Serendipity Drive Millersville, MD 21108 (410) 987-8590 mmazzarese@vironex.com

Geoff Myers GARCO, Inc. 2242 Carl Drive Asheboro, NC (919) 451-3960 geoff@egarco.com

Peter Byer SAEDACCO Inc. 9088 Northfield Drive Fort Mill, SC 29707 (803) 548-2180 pbyer@saedacco.com

Scott D. Carney GEL Geophysics, LLC P.O. Box 30712 Charleston, SC 29417 (843) 769-7379 sdc@gel.com

Ashley Nifong GEL Laboratories LLC P.O. Box 30712 Charleston, SC 29417 (910) 520-2035 (843) 769-7379 ashley.nifong@gel.com

Kenneth Lipscomb AMS Inc. 3803 Grahams Port Lane Snellville, Georgia 30039 (706) 680-9015 kenl@ams-samplers.com

Michael Free Terra Systems, Inc. 130 Hickman Rd, Suite 1 Claymont, Delaware 19703-3579 (484) 889-2214 mfree@terrasystems.net

2014 Exhibitors

Jim Fineis Atlas Geo-Sampling 120 Olde Marietta Court, Marietta GA 30060 770-883-3372 jimfineis@atlas-geo.com www.atlas-geo.com

Brian Jeffers Pine Environmental Services, Inc. 4037 Darling Court, Suite D , Lilburn, GA 30047 (800) 842-1088 (770) 925-2855 bjeffers@pine-environmental.com

Michael L. Kilpatrick II Shealy Environmental Services, Inc. 106 Vantage Point Dr., West Columbia, SC 29172 (803) 791-9700 mkilpatrick@shealylab.com

H.W. Harter III Encotech/Carbon Service & Equipment PO Box 7337, West Columbia, SC 29171 (803) 447-0888 hwharter@carbonservice.net

Tara Esbeck Analytical Environmental Services 3785 Presidential Parkway Atlanta, GA 30340 (770) 457-8177 acantrell@aesatlanta.com

Brantley Rudd Exo Tech, Inc. 795 Adamson Drive Monroe, Georgia 30655 (770) 207-0222 brantleyrudd@exotechinc.com

Patrick Hicks PeroxyChem 1735 Market Street Philadelphia, PA 19103 (919) 424-7563 patrick.hicks@fmc.com

Scott Pearce A & D Environmental Services PO Box 484, High Point, NC 27261 (800) 434-7750 (c): (336) 803-1783 spearce@adenviro.com www.adenviro.com/

Jenny Snipes Pace Analytical 9800 Kincey Ave., Suite 100 Huntersville, NC 28078 (864) 508-4809 jenny-snipes@pacelabs.com

Alan Hewett Rogers & Callcott Environmental P.O. Box 5655, Greenville, SC 29606 (864) 232-1556 alan.hewett@rogersandcallcott.com www.rogersandcallcott.com

Todd Romero KB Labs, Inc. 6821 SW Archer Rd., Gainesville, FL 32608 (352) 472-5830 toddr@kbmobilelabs.com www.kbmobilelabs.com

Doug Knight FRx, Inc. 400 Artillery Rd., Greenville, SC 29687 (864) 356-8424 doug@frx-inc.com

Bill Brecher EON Products 3230 Industrial Way S.W., Suite B, Snellville, GA 30039 (800) 474-2490 bill@eonpro.com www.eonpro.com

Brian Chew Enviro - Equipment, Inc. 11180 Downs Rd., Pineville, NC 28134 (704) 588-7970 www.enviroequipment.com brianchew@enviroequipment.com

Adam Phillips / Ethan House Prism Laboratories 449 Springbook Road Charlotte, NC 28217 919.451.3370 / 703.301.8248 aphillips@prismlabs.com / ehouse@prismlabs.com

2014 Exhibitors

2014 Sponsors

Martin Johnson AEDrillingServices,LLC

TwoUnitedWayGreenville,SC29607(864)288‐1986

mjohnson@aedrilling.com

Joe McMurray, President BlueRidgeEnviro.Services

2315KingsRd.Ext.Shelby,NC28152(704)482‐2111

Joem@blueridge‐esi.com

Dave and Tracy Campbell CampbellGeosciences,Inc.

15LeisureLaneWeavervilleNC28787

(828)484‐9980dhcampbell@bellsouth.netthcampell@bellsouth.net

George Y. Maalouf

Rogers&CallcottEngineersPOBox5655

GreenvilleSC29606(864)232‐1556

george.maalouf@rogersandcallcott.com

John Haselow Joe RossabiRedoxTech200QuadeDrive

Cary,NC27513‐7402(919)678‐0140

jhaselow@redox‐tech.com

Scott PearceA&DEnvironmentalServices

POBox484HighPoint,NC27261(800)434‐7750

spearce@adenviro.comwww.adenviro.com

Robert Workman

CRBGeological&Environ‐mentalServices,Inc.5000OldBuncombeRoad

Suite21Greenville,SC29617

rworkman@crbgeo.net

Steve Godfrey

steve@godfreysite.com

Tad Goetcheus Shaun Malin

HRPAssociates,Inc.1327MillerRoad,SuiteDGreenville,SC29607

864‐561‐5007shaun.malin@hrpassociates.com

Wyn JonesAnalyticalServicesInc.110TechnologyParkwayNorcross,GA30092wjones@asi‐lab.com

Tim McKinseyKWConsulting&Associates2037LorraineDriveSW

Aiken,SC29801tmckinsey@kwgeoscience.com

Mike WrightDiamondV

252560thAvenueSWCedarRapids,IA52404mwright@diamondv.com

Environmental Engineer-ing and Earth Sciences

Cecil HueyEmeritusProfessorClemsonUniversity

106BFluorDanielBuildingClemson,SC29634

Dennis O'ConnellNutterandAssociates360HawthorneLaneAthens,GA30606(706)354‐7925

doconnell@nutterinc.com