SEED PRODUCTION AND MULTIPLICATION

Stages of Growth of the Seed Industry – Seed Industry Life Cycle

The Seed Industry goes through three stages of growth-

a) Pre-industrial -All planting materials are OPVs or farmer selected varieties eg DRCb) Emergence – Govt. invests in breeding, variety testing, seed production and distribution.

Seed distributed for free or subsidised. Farmers use significant amounts of retained seed. Companies have little incentive to invest in such markets e.g. Mozambique

c) Expansion (Growth) – Private companies gain confidence in the market and invest in breeding, variety trials, multiplication and distribution. Legislation to ensure quality are enacted e.g. Zambia.

d) Maturity- Govt. variety development programmes are narrowed or terminated due o dwindling financial resources. Private firms now dominate the market. The enactment of intellectual property rights (breeder’s rights) encourages firms to invest. E.g. Zimbabwe and South Africa.

THE SEED CHAIN

Agricultural research

Breeding Variety release Distinct UniformStable (DUS)

1. Distinct – cultivar must be distinct in a number of characters2. Uniform – should be uniform phenotypically3. Stable – must not loose its characteristics for yield, disease resistance, pest resistance etc.

In variety release the variety should have some use for it to be released – know as Value for Cultivar Use (VCU).

Variety release

1. Registration a) DUS test b) VCU test2. Release Panel – Government officials from the Seed certifying authority (Ministry; Directorate

of DR & SS; Seed Services Unit). People from industry, farmers (reps from unions). Wheat people from the backing and confectionery industry and GMB.

3. A breeder makes representations on DUS and VCU tests. All required information is presented and the variety is released. where it is not known, the breeder goes back and must bring more information.

Variety maintenance

Cultivars change due to mutations, admixtures, contamination by foreign pollen i.e. the breeder’s material. The breeder must keep clean material.

SEED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

There are three major systems:

a) Formal organised sector – controlled multiplication, legislation and cash transactionsb) Informal – local seed selection, production and diffusionc) Integrated – combination of formal and informal

Characteristics of formal sector

It is a framework of institutions. It supplies seed through an organised chain eg breeder, seed producer, marketing agents and certification. It is only as successful as the weakest link in the chain. It is sustainable if the seed price covers all costs of production but affordable to the farmers.

Limitations to formal seed supply

1. Government control reduces efficiency2. private companies concentrate on profits, profitable crops and markets3. Varieties developed without input of farmers.4. Variety maintenance expensive and laborious especially if many varieties are involved5. Certified seed production is very expensive resulting in expensive seed6. There are fluctuations in demand due to farmer retention of seed esp. self fertilising crops.7. Govt. interference e.g. price controls, controlling variety release, restriction of imports and

exports. This can affect viability of the formal sector.8. The supply of seed may be difficult due to poor distribution of transport systems.9. A strong demand for the crop harvested is necessary for the sustenance of the seed industry.10. Unethical practises e.g. charging too high prices for seed, producing less of a variety on

demand and more of a variety not wanted can result in poor seed being distributed.11. Strict legislation e.g. variety release, compulsory certification, can hamper production of seed.

Informal seed supply

Seed obtained through on farm retention, exchange, social obligations. Seed often of uncertain seed quality.

Characteristics of Informal Seed Systems

1. Traditional – based on cultural practices of the community2. Informal – ie it is not based on standard methods and organisation.3. Operate at community level4. Use exchange mechanisms5. Transacted quantities are small6. Seed producer is the breeder7. Involves selection, production and storage

Selection

On farm selection is for:

a) Production values – yield value, resistance to biotic and abiotic factorsb) Consumption values – taste, baking, roasting, boilingc) Economic value – marketability and storabilityd) Cultural values – Rapoko beer brewing, gourds for mukombe etc

Techniques for selection

a) Separate seed production plots are rouged out of unwanted typesb) Selection in field throughout the season not common because of the high level of consistency

required. Selected plants are marked during the growing season and subsequently harvested separately for seed.

c) Selection immediately before harvest as it allows the farmer to generate plant characteristics and those of the seed. The common practice is to mark selected plants for harvesting as seed.

d) Selection after harvest based on seed characteristics and correct taste eg pumpkinse) Random selection from the bulked seed (separation from food grain)

Limitations of the informal seed supply

1. Rate of variety improvement slow2. Poor seed quality3. Consumption of seed during famine4. Lack of modern seed production methods5. Poor seed storage techniques

The integrated seed system

Integrates the formal and informal seed supply systems to ensure household and national seed security.

Advocated by NGOs

Introduction of modern seed varieties into the informal seed supply and distribution channels.

Seed reaches farmers through demonstrations, on-farm trials or random distribution of samples.

Other methods include giving a sample to a farmer and the farmer returning a similar quantity after harvest.

Seed multiplication models

1) Seed company farms

-Production cost and management controlled

-Difficult if many varieties are produced

-Problem of market distribution

-Common in goad seed production projects

-High numbers of low quality product eg ARDA, Tanzania Seed Co is low quality because management may not be able to meet isolation distances

2) Use of contract growers

-Most common form in developed systems with specialists in seed production

-Monitored by inspectors that is seed production

-Farmers paid premium price for extra effort

-In cooperatives members are growers eg Seed Coop

Each farmer is given a quote eg 40 000t of seed required and there are 80 growers, each farmer has a quote of 500t

-Very costly to administer and results in very high seed prices

3) Decentralised seed bulking

-Use of small seeds in different regions. Common in less developed seed producers

-Each region has a processing facility

-Seed sold in the region is produced

-Reduces production and distribution costs resulting in cheaper seed

-Increases diffusion of varieties

-Seed quality is poor because there is no central control

-Common in NGO projects eg Malawi

Types of hybrids

a) Single cross: 2 pure lines A x Bb) Three way: A x B AB x C. This is a cross between a single cross and an inbred.c) Top cross: A cross between an inbred and an OPV.

*When producing hybrid the objective is to prevent female plants from selfing its self. Ensure that the pollen should come from the male

1. Detasseling (maize) or emasculation (removal of male sex organs)-laborious technique.2. Male sterility – can be genetic or cytoplasmic3. Use of chemicals –to induce male sterility. When using male sterility , any female showing

breakdown must be rouged out (normally happens under adverse environmental conditions.4. Self incompatibility5. Dioecious plants have separate male and separate sex organs

Seed production of hybrids is very expensive there fore it is only worthwhile for high value crops. SV1 and SV2 have no market therefore sorghum varieties are not worthwhile to produce.

Production should involve well timed planting to ensure synchronisation of pollen e.g. in tobacco, the seed or pollen is stored in the evening they remove the pollen anthers and put silicate gel to remove the moisture in the refrigerator and use it whenever the female flowers are produced.

Synchronisation refers to timing of male pollen to receptive female flowers. The ideal situation in maize is to have pollen beginning to shed when the first female silks emerge. In such a case, the cross is said to synchronize well. This will limit the contamination of female silks by foreign pollen

Days after planting/early pollen/ late pollen

Maize seed parents that synchronise well

Techniques to improve synchronisation

1. Split /staggered planting – delaying the date of planting of the male parent by the same number of days (pioneer uses heat units) by which parent. Currently this is the mostly used and easiest method at improving synchronisation especially SEEDCO. Drought delay female silks and splits often results in poor synchronisation.

2. Biennials – flowers in the next season e.g. onions, Swiss card and carrots should encourage vegetative production so that there is enough food reserves for the reproductive phase. Rouging off types done in the vegetative phase. Most of them require vernalisation

Practises for seed quality

Genetic quality determining success of the crop genetics of the crop is important for such characters as yield, disease resistance, drought

tolerance etc.

Why is genetic quality important?

1. to have the right variety; choice of right variety is very important to every farmer as they differ to environmental conditions, soils, rainfall and length of season etc

2. Uniformity- a farmer likes to have few off-types i.e. plants that clearly do not belong to the original variety. Genetic purity is important for the market where uniform products fetch a better price e.g. beans on the African market, farmers generally prefer a uniform bean type. For agronomic reasons: uniformly in plant height reduces uneven competition among plants. Uniform maturity period allow a single harvest

Changing seed quality over time

Results due to:

Mutation, introgression and the mechanical mixing of seeds. In self-pollinating varieties, cross pollination is rare and breed “true-to-type” e.g wheat finger millet and host legumes.

In open or cross pollinated varieties special precautions must be taken to avoid major changes to the varieties e.g. in maize, pearl millet, sunflower and cucumber.

Natural changes are commonly referred to as “degeneration of the seed”or “the seed gets tired

Such degeneration is a result of lack of selection by the farmer. E.g. farmers normally selects for large seed natural selection will lead to a decrease in seed size

Seed gets tired during a gradual build up of seed transmitted diseases resulting in decrease in yield, seed size, and quality due to discoloration.

Formal seed suppliers and extension agents commonly say that farmers should purchase certified seed every three to four seasons (the ideal seed replacement rate). This depends on;

i. Presence of seed transmitted diseasesii. Mating systems of the cropiii. Farmer selection- avoiding of diseases

EFFECT OF THE REPRODUCTIVE METHOD

1) Vegetatively propagated crops

These are genetically stable and mainly concerned about the spread of diseases. Produced through proper sanitation Without spontaneous mutations Disadvantage- the size of the planting material is bulky

2) Self fertilizing crops

Those showing selfing rate of ≥95% are most cereals excluding maize, legumes and some vegetables

The properly bred pure lines are mostly pure lines or multiline varieties (combination of a few pure lines)

When producing seeds of self fertilizing crops they should minimise genetic drift by roughing out impurities such as segregations and mutants. Physical isolation is necessary to avoid admixtures.

3) Cross fertilizing crops

Time synchronisation, self incompatibility and non receptance of pollen from the same plant When producing seed in cross F.C. the seed plot must be distantly isolated from; i ) commercial plots

ii) other varieties iii)wild relatives

b) Insect pollinated species

Require longer isolation distances than wind pollinated spp Should avoid use of insecticides Might be necessary to introduce colonies into the field 800- 1500m isolation distance in insect pollinated spp Wind pollinated 100-700m The longer the isolation distance the higher the grade of the seed Trees, hills, buildings cannot be used as barriers Creation of male barriers (about 20 rows) will dilute from foreign pollen from neighbouring

plots Time isolation can be used as a barrier, eg so many days before or after the seed crop- using

the pollen shedding period

4) Semi-cross fertilising crops

Have a natural out crossing of 10-15% e.g. sorghum, pepper, okra, some barley varieties The risk of contamination is high Isolation distance should be similar to CFC

5) Hybrids

Products of first generation (first filial generation)

Land preparation and crop establishment

Main elements in land preparation and crop establishment are:

1)Selection of the field

2) Tillage

3)Choice of the seed

4)The timing of planting and

5)Plant density

6)Environmental conditions

Choice of field and isolation

-The plot for seed production has to be chosen carefully

- Fertile well drained soils must be chosen

The rotation of crops

-Is more important for seed than for normal crops

1)Rotation reduces risk of building up of seed transmitted diseases in the soil

2)Without rotation there is a danger of mixing varieties with volunteer plants in the seed production field

-Isolation distance for wind and insect pollinated crops/specific crops should be maintained.

Time can also be used

Environmental conditions

-Biennial crops such as cabbages and onions can be grown under a wide range of conditions

-Some crops favour particular conditions e.g Irish potato seed tubers are best produced under cool conditions (Over 2000m above sea level in tropical areas like Nyanga)

-Cool conditions produce better quality tubers and reduce incidents of rusts which spread viral diseases

-Fungal diseases are less prominent at higher altitudes (lower temperatures)

Tillage

For seed production reduction of weeds with proper land preparation is essential because

1)Weeds compete with crops for nutrients

2)Weeds host diseases

3)Weeds mix with the seed during harvesting

Early land preparation encourages weed growth. If this is followed by harrowing before crop establishment, many weeds are killed

Choice of seed

-Seed should have been selected from healthy plants e.g in Irish potato seed

-In formal seed production the general rule is that the quality of the seed produced can never be higher than the quality of the seed planted

-This is the reason why such systems have a very strict generation system, with seed passing through different classes from Breeder’s seed to certified seed in which seed quality standards gradually reduce

-In informal seed sector there is no guaranteed source of high quality seed, the farmer has to keep qualities high through good care and selection, or by obtaining seed from a farmer who is well known for his/her good quality seed

-Changing the growing conditions may improve seed quality eg in relation to disease infection and physiological factors in Irish potato

The timing of planting

-Early planting at the onset of the rains is normally recommended to produce strong crops to reduce pest and disease incidence

-On the other hand planting should be planned that harvesting coincides with the dry season

-Harvesting in the rain without good drying facilities cause quality problems

-Where planting is late and results in poor seed production off-season production under irrigation

This is more expensive but may be compensated by a better crop.eg maize production in April to August in the lowveld, In maize the time of planting will depend on

1)The length of the growing season

2)The time taken by the female parent to reach maturity

3)The safest period to plant- make sure that flowering and pollination coincides with period of good rains

-Generally late planting results in low yield and increased pests and disease incidence. Early planting in October should be accompanied by irrigation

Plant population and planting patterns

Differences in yield among growers is affected by plant populations for a number of reasons

1)amount of rainfall

2)Soil type and soil fertility levels

3)Fertiliser regime and

4)The type of parents grown

-For some crops the spacing for seed production is wider than for crop production (Lower plant population).

There are two reasons for this

1)Wider spacing between plants and rows can decrease disease incidence especially fungal diseases that thrive in hot humid conditions eg blights in tomatoes

2)It results in well developed plants giving rise to higher yield per plant and plump seed

-On the other hand low plant population reduce yield

For maize the general recommended populations are

Irrigated seed maize:

Type of hybrid Parent Plants/haSingle Cross Female 60 000

Male 60 000Three way crosses Female 60 000

Male 60 000

Dry land seed maize

Type of hybrid Parent Plants/haSingle Cross Female 48 000

Male 48 000Three way crosses Female 48 000

Male 60 000

Planting pattern ratio in maize

There are two common planting patterns or ratios used in Zimbabwe: 3F:1M or 6F:2M

-3F:1M is superior to the 6F:2M because:

a)The female plants nearest to the weaker male plants compete favourably for more nutrients

b) All 3 row for the female parent in 3:1 pattern are never enough to be fully pollinated by the normally short male plants

c)The planting pattern must be uniform throughout the field ,but different patterns may be used in different fields

Crop cultivation and protection

The main aspects are mineral fertilisation, pest and disease management and inspection on varieties characteristics

Fertilisers

-The land should be fertile to produce a strong crop. The fertiliser requirements may be different to crop production. The main differences relate to Nitrogen and Potash

-N could be lower and must be given as a split application at planting and just before flowering

-High N gives high yield but may lead to seeding large seeds especially in beans and soyabeans which are less vigourous

-Sufficient Potash (K) and phosphorus must be applied to give hardy seed

In Maize

Regular fertilisation particularly with N,P,K and S is essential for good seed production

- Zinc is important in Sandy loamy soils

- A fertiliser program must be based on:

1) The soil fertility status (Indicated by soil analysis and cropping history)

2) The expected seed yield potential and

3) The economics of fertiliser application

General recommendations (without soil analysis)

- 350-400kg/ha basal fertilisers

-350-400kg/ha blended fertilisers

-300-350kg/ha AN

-Regular liming is important to maintain soil pH at 4.7 to 5.3 in sandy and red brown soil respectively

Weed control-Very important in crop cultivation

1) Weeds compete with the crop for nutrients ,water sunlight etc and result in poor seed quality

2) Weeds contaminate seed at harvest and must not be > 5%of certified seed

3) Weeds may harbour pests, insects and diseases in bordering fields

4)Weeds interfere with activities such as spraying

Pest and disease control

-Generally reduce crop yield

-Control of disease is very important

-Leaf eating pests reduce crop growth and seed size

-In controlling insect pests special control should be taken not to kill favourable insects eg bees

-Be weary of seed transmitted disease by using disease free seeds and fields, Crop rotation, rouging out diseased plants and weeds and use of, pesticides are method used to reduce incidence of disease

Harvesting, processing and storage

Harvesting

-Should be done in a timely manner to allow quick drying of the seed and to avoid important losses due to shattering or field infestations of storage insects (eg weevils in maize)

-Farmers delay harvesting due to labour constrain peak labour demand and leads to seed drying on the plant reducing drying time or need for drying floors

-Harvesting an threshing operations have to be done with great care to avoid damaging of the seed

-Threshing seed when too high may cause cracking of the seed

-Threshing when seed is too wet may cause internal damage affecting germination and vigour problems. In maize manual harvesters can be used when moisture is between 30%-35%. Seedco harvest maize at between 20%-25%. Delays will result in bird damage, extreme temperature, diseases, insects and theft

Drying

-Seed should be dried quickly but high temperatures can cause damage

-Sun drying is a commonly used method although electric and coal dryers can be used

-Ventilation must be provided to prevent mould growth by regular turning of sacks and use of fans

Seed processing flow

INTAKE → Precleaner

↓ ↗ ↓

BULK STORAGE DRYER → SHELLER DEAWER

↓ ↓

AIR SCREEN CLEANER ← SCALPER

↓

-CYLINDER GRAVITY

-SEPARATOR

-CHEMICAL CLEANER

↓

PACKAGING AND STORAGE

Main activities are

-Threshing/shelling ,Drying ,Cleaning ,Blending (Mixing at seed lots) ,Dressing ,Packaging ,Fumigation

Processing can be

-Controlled eg Pioneer ,Pannar

-On farm eg Seedco (Final product ,Comes from the farmers and is cheaper for the company, reduced risk compared to centralised

-Decentralised small plants –different processing plants heated in different areas. Common in India and Bangladesh

-Mobile plants common in Jordan

Seed drying

-National drying is best (Although it has risks of pests) because of overdrying

-High moisture content causes rapid aging and viability loss and a continuous flow of air at around 30⁰c rather than high ⁰c eg 40⁰c for short time

-Instantaneous combustion –a build up of heat at the centre of heaped bags as a result of poor drying

Pre-Cleaning

-Deawner to remove excess awns

-Scalper removes large thrash

Seed Cleaning

3 types of machines are used

Air – screen cleaner

-Cleaning is done on size, shape, density

-Horizontal stack of 2-4 vibrating screens

-Strong air current removes any light seed from the last screen

Indented cylinders

-Separation is based on length and size

-Cylinder with indents inside rotates

-A trough inside cylinder collects seed that falls out of the indents. Large seed travels .the cylinder can be used to grade seed

Gravity Table

Porous table tilted length ways or sideways and a fan blowing or sucking air through table . Heavier seed at top and lighter seed at bottom

Other cleaners

Colour sorter, magnetic separator, hand picking belt

BlendingMixing of seed lots (seed produced on the same filed, same grower) e.g. one lot 85 % germination (bad) and the other with 99 % germination. The 2 lots can be blended to come up with say 92 %. Can’t throw away the lot with 85 %. Only blend same seed class and seed variety.

Seed Dressing

i. Pelleting- treating seed with an inert material to increase seed size and uniformity e.g. in tobacco seed (to have seed machine planted- seed uniform size)

ii. Pesticides- liquid dressings provide more even cover. Dry dust formulations are hazardous when breathing. Use rotating drum or concrete mixer. Add a coloured agent- to warn farmers of toxicity. The pesticide itself is not coloured but the colour you see is to warn farmers of toxicity.

PackagingPackaging should be strong and durable plus water proof. For high value crops use tins or aluminium packs.

PRACTICES FOR SEED QUALITY

1. Genetic quality- Seed class eg if you produce certified seed, used foundation seed. You need to maintain isolation distances to avoid contamination. Remove volunteers and wild relatives in and around the field. Avoid seed crop previously planted to the same species. Also avoid physical admixtures.

2. Physical quality: proper harvesting and processing, weeding, control insects eg weevils, remove breakages.

3. Physiological quality: fertiliser management, timely harvesting. Fertiliser management has been proven that N is essential to seed viability and seedling vigour. K and P are also essential.

4. Sanitary quality: use healthy seed from the beginning, isolation from wild relatives, alternate hosts and quarantine.

Seed Classes

Formal seed production is based on strict adherence to a strict generation system. Under seed certification, certified seed is produced from breeder’s seed via a number of generations but depends on the certification system being used. The common once are:

i. OECD (EU)ii. Association of Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA) of the USA

OECD AOSCA Zimbabwe

1. Pre Basic Breeder Breeder2. Basic Foundation Foundation3. Certified 1 Registered Certified 14. Certified 2 Certified Certified 2

StandardSub-standard

Seed production planning

Things to consider:

a) Market Demand: 3-5years production. Poor market analysis can lead to under or over production.

b) Crop multiplication factor: and seed classes (number of seeds produced from one seed or sample), OR how many kgs of seed less processing losses

Seed rate

Eg Sorghum gave 4000 kg – 500 kg processing loss= 3500. Seed rate per ha=10 kg

3500 = 350= multiplication factor. Maize = 150, Groundnuts=12, sorghum=200, pearl millet= 100, finger millet=80, wheat=30, soyabean=25, sunflower=100, common bean=12, potatoes=10

c) Economic factors:- costs, prices, forex ratesd) Government policy and legislation: a) competition b) Security stocks e) Risks of obsolescence- diseases, uses etc eg SR52, R201disappeared when they

succumbed to grey leaf spot (GLS). Uses, new varieties with superior baking or malting qualities may be introduced.

Stages in seed multiplication

Nuclear seed 1 2 3 year

Breeder - _ 1

Breeder Foundation - 2

Breeder Foundation Certified 3

Breeder Foundation Certified 4

Seed production Schedule

Assume: - Breeder has 200 kg of Rio (variety)

- 150 kg will go into production of foundation seed- 50 kg will go into the security stock and production of breeders’ seed- Multiplication factor is 25- Assume an extra 10 % of seed stock

Year 20102 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Demand (t) - - 200 500 1000 3000 5000

Certified seed produced (t) - - 62.5 550 1100 3300 5500

Foundation B (t) - 2.5 22 44 132 220 5300

Foundation A (t) - 1.25 1.76 5.28 8.8

Breeder’s seed kg 150 75 215 355

Importance of Seed Vigour TestingVigour testing does not only measure the percentage of viable seed in a sample, it also reflects the ability of those seeds to produce normal seedlings under less than optimum or adverse growing conditions similar to those which may occur in the field. Seeds may be classified as viable in a germination test which provides optimum temperature, moisture and light conditions to the growing seedlings; however, they may not be capable of continuing growth and completing their life cycle under a wide range of field conditions. Generally, seeds start to lose vigour before they lose their ability to germinate; therefore vigour testing is an important practice in seed production programs.

Testing for vigour becomes more important for carryover seeds, especially if seeds were stored under unknown conditions or under unfavorable storage conditions. Seed vigour testing is also used as indicator of the storage potential of a seed lot and in ranking various seed lots with different qualities.

The biological basis of the seed vigour concept

It has been established that the conditions of seed development, maturation, storage and aging influence seed vigour. Seeds developed under moisture stress, nutrient deficiency, extreme temperatures, etc. often result in light, shriveled seed or collectively called poor-vigour seed. Preharvest environment of high humidity and warm temperatures can also cause loss in seed viability and vigour.  Seed mechanical damage, whether induced by harvesting or conditioning equipment, as well as improper storage conditions are among the factors that adversely affect seed vigour. In addition, genetic factors such as hard-seededness, resistance to diseases, and seed chemical composition influence the expression of seed vigour.

Methods of measuring seed vigour

The general strategy of determining seed vigour is to measure some aspects of seed deterioration or weaknesses, which is inversely proportional to seed vigour.              

Cold test, accelerated aging test, electric conductivity test, seedling vigour classification, and seedling growth rate are among the tests that are used to measure seed vigour. In addition, the tetrazolium (TZ test) can be used as a vigour test by classifying the pattern of stained seeds into high, medium and low quality. The AOSA Seed Vigour Testing Handbook is a good source of information on seed vigour testing. Below is a brief description for some of the most common seed vigour tests that are used for various crops including maize, soyabean, field beans, peas, grasses, vegetable seeds, and other crops.

Cold Test (CT)

The cold test simulates early spring field conditions by germinating the seeds in wet soils (»70% water holding capacity) and incubating them at 5-10°C for a specified period. At the end of the cold period, the test is transferred to a favourable temperature for germination (e.g., 25°C in case of sweet maize). The percentage of normal seedlings is considered as an indication of seed vigour. Vigorous seeds germinate better under cold environments.

When can the cold test be used?

1. Select cultivars with the best ability to perform under cold wet soils for early spring planting.2. Provide basis for adjusting planting rates for individual seed lots.3. Evaluate the effects of adverse storage conditions, mechanical damage, drying injuries or

other causes on seed germination in cold wet soils.

Accelerated Aging Test (AAT)

The principle of this test is to stress seeds with high temperatures of (40-45°C) and near 100% relative humidity (RH) for varying lengths of time, depending on the kind of seeds, after which a germination test is made. High vigour seeds are expected to tolerate high temperatures and humidity and retain their capability to produce normal seedlings in the germination test.

When can the AAT test be used?

1. Can be used to determine the seed vigour of many crops.2. Useful in predicting the potential storability of a seed lot.

Electric Conductivity Test

This test measures the integrity of cell membranes, which is correlated with seed vigour. It is well established that this test is useful for garden beans and peas. It has been also reported that the conductivity test results are significantly correlated with field emergence for maize, and soyabean. As seeds lose vigour, nutrients exude from their membranes, and so low quality seeds leak electrolytes such as amino acids, organic acids while high quality seeds contains their nutrients within well

structured membranes. Therefore, seeds with higher conductivity measurement are indication of low quality seeds as vice versa.

Seedling Vigour Classification Test (SVCT)

This vigour test is an expansion of the standard germination test (SGT). The normal seedlings obtained from the SGT results are further classified into ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ categories. This test has been used for maize, garden beans, soyabean, cotton, peanuts and other crops.

The principle of the test

Seedlings have four significant morphological sites for evaluating vigour:

1. Root system.2. Hypocotyl (the embryonic axis between cotyledons and root).3. Cotyledons (storage tissue of reserve food for seedling development).4. Epicotyl (the embryonic axis above the cotyledons).

In this test, seedlings are classified as ‘strong’ if the above four areas are well developed and free from defects, which is indication of satisfactory performance over a wide range of field conditions. On the other hand, normal seedlings with some deficiencies such as missing part of the root, one cotyledon missing, hypocotyl with breaks, lesions, necrosis, twisting, or curling are classified as ‘weak’.

REFERENCES

AOSA. 2009. Seed Vigour Testing Handbook. Contribution No. 32 to the Handbook on Seed Testing.

Elias, S. G., and L. O. Copeland. 1997. Evaluation of seed vigour tests for canola. Seed Technol. 19(1) 78-87.

Kim, S. H., Z. R. Choe, J. H. Kang, L. O. Copeland, and S. G. Elias. 1994. Multiple seed vigour indices to predict field emergence and performance of barley. Seed Sci. &Technol., 22:59-68.

Viability

Germination A physiological viability test which determines the percentage of live seeds that produce normal seedlings under favorable germination conditions. ISTA tests require 200 or 400 seeds for germination in most cases. *ISTA Accredited Test

Tetrazolium (TZ) A quick biochemical viability test which determines the number of live seeds lot based on dehydrogenase activity in seeds. It indicates the percentage of live and dead seeds in any sample regardless of its dormancy level. The test can be performed in 24-48 hours.*ISTA Accredited Test

PurityPurity testing services by the Seed Services Unit is based on both the OECD where it is a participant and ISTA seed testing rules where it is accredited .

Purity Test This test determines the percentage by weight of pure seed, other crop seeds, inert matter and weed seeds in a test sample. This test can be conducted on commercial, certified, official and other samples. When a customer orders a purity test, the lab also conducts and reports an all-states noxious weed exam. Noxious weeds include species such as striga spp, Lantana camara etc

Noxious Weed Exam This test reports the name and number of any noxious weed seeds found in a test sample (minimum 25,000 seeds) based on Noxious Weed Act. The test does not report other seeds that are not in the noxious list.

ISTA Purity Test This test determines the percentage by weight of pure seed, other seeds and inert matter. The minimum sample size is 2500 seeds (See the ISTA International Rules for Seed Testing for more details). ISTA purity tests can be performed only on species listed in the ISTA Rules. *ISTA Accredited Test

ISTA Other Seed Determination (OSD) (also called Determination of Other Seeds by Number) This test determines the number and identity of other seeds in a test sample. The extent of this determination is referred to as the scope of the test. *ISTA Accredited Test The scope depends on customer needs:

Complete in which the whole working sample (minimum 25,000 seeds) is searched for all other seeds present;

Limited in which the search is restricted to stated species in the whole working sample;

Reduced in which only part of the working sample is examined for all other seeds;

Reduced-Limited in which only part of the working sample is examined for stated species only

Soil Exam Determines the percentage of soil particles in the working sample. Can be performed as a sequential test, i.e. other tests will be done only if soil exam results are within a certain specification.

Pest and Disease Exam The working sample is examined for a list of pests and diseases. Affected seeds are removed, identified, weighed and reported by percentage.

Noxious/Prohibited Tests for Other Countries A test performed at customer request. The noxious weeds list varies with the country. The customer must provide a current list of noxious/prohibited weeds of the particular country.

SEED MARKETINGMarketing is a social and managerial process by which individuals obtain what they want and need through creating, offering and exchanging products of value with others (Kotler, 1997).

Seed marketing is the performance of all business activities involved in the flow of seeds from the point of production until they are in the hands of farmers. The objective is to satisfy the farmer’s demand for a reliable supply of seed of improved varieties of assured quality at an acceptable price.

Demand is want and need backed by the ability to buy. Market consists of all potential customers sharing a particular need or want who might be willing and able to exchange to satisfy that need or want.

Target market is a homogenous group of customers to whom a company wishes to appeal.

Mass market is a group of individuals or customers targeted by a mass producing company e.g. Colgate (crucial to everyone).

Understanding the MarketMarket reach-is defined as the systematic gathering, recording, analysis and interpretation of data related to marketing decisions.

1. Competition- e.g. Seedco from Panner and Pioneer2. Distributors- how many, how efficient, location3. Farmers- geographic distribution, different varieties perform differently in different ecological

regions4. Size of farm holdings-the bigger the farmer the more important he is5. Type of farming- subsistence farmers rarely buy seed while commercial farmers do.6. Government policy- e.g. this year the govt wants 3 million ha of maize and 100 000 t of seed.

The country only has just over 40 000 t.7. Farm produce market8. Volume of seed demanded9. Import and Export regulation- Zim does not import seed from Malawi and Zambia because of

LGB but this year Seedco will import seed from its Zambian subsidiary.

Market segmentation

Geographic factors: soil type, topography, region, and altitude, rainfall etc

According to crop: maize market, wheat, barley, hybrid or OPVs etc Maturity early (4s and 5s), medium (6s) and late maturing (7s).

Forecasting demandAccurate forecasting is important to avoid under- or- over production of seed because of some special features or characteristics of the seed industry.

1. There is a long lead time between development of a variety and its marketing i.e. between product development and product marketing

2. The existence of the generation system leads to a longer generation time.3. Seasonality of production- when demands increases can’t go back and produce the balance

there and there4. Limited shelf life and viability. Soyabeans 14 months. Maize 18 months5. High distribution and storage costs due to the bulkiness of most seed6. Variables e.g. climate, disease- drought

Factors affecting demand of seed

1. Cropping intensity e.g. rotations2. Seed use- type Hybrid? Non-hybrid? Some farmers retain seed esp. with soyabeans and wheat.3. Climate- it has been proven that a year of drought will be followed by high seed demand.4. Prices- affordability. High prices lead to reduced demand. Yield levels vs price. It does not make

sense to buy varieties that yield differently at the same price. 5. Demand for the crop product e.g. Sunflowers (oil)6. Disposable farm income important for introducing products into new markets7. Rate and level of adoption of new technology e.g. hand hoeing vs. use of draught power.8. Competition for a particular variety 9. Govt policy

Demand forecasting techniques

1. Commonly used in developing countries where the govt sets nominal seed production targets eg Zim 2004/2005 season 3 million ha

2. Use of growth trends- e.g. in pre-industrial stage. Use of data to project growth in demand for seed.

3. Sampling- sampling a no. of farmers in the country and using their seed requirements as an estimate of demand for the whole country

The marketing mix

To achieve customer satisfaction, a company must implement strategies that blend the 4 variables of marketing known as the 4 Ps:

Price, Place, promotion and Product.

Product

The products are the different varieties being offered by a seed company. The product range will consist of all the products on sale.

a) Product idea- Xtics of the product, which distinguishes it from other products, which makes it superior e.g. product performance, genetic Xtics, seed quality xtics, e.g. gemination, purity, vigour, viability, appearance, size

b) How is the variety grown- production advice. How much inputs is needed up to harvesting

c) After sales service- how is the crop performing after saled) Product life cyclee) Legislation

Product life cycleEvery variety has a finite life cycle and marketing strategies differ depending on the stage of development:

DevelopmentBreeding registration. Strategy is to tell the people about the coming variety

IntroductionLaunching of the variety- farmers invited to see the variety

PromotionTo increase awareness to the people through field demos, extension workers.

GrowthVariety now known widely and has been seed by farmers to meet their expectations, so the demand is high hence growth or increase in sales.

Maturity and saturationSales slow down as maximum cover is reached (maximum size of market). Competition can limit share of the market. The objective is to maintain market share.

DeclineOther varieties are being introduced, which are superior resulting in demand of the previous variety falling. People switch to the new variety

WithdrawalVarieties outclassed by new or competitor varieties now obsolete (no longer serve the purpose for which it was selected). No longer profitable to produce that variety and you withdraw it.

Brand There are several types of brands:

1) Individual brand- where each variety has its own distinct name e.g. Kyle, R201, SR52.

2) Family brand- a group of product e.g. super saver, pot ‘O’ gold, luck 73) Producer brand- e.g SC, Pioneer, Panner (PNR). Brands are protected by a trade

mark of breeder’s rightsPackagingDone to maintain quality while facilitating handling and identification of product and variety. Also a powerful promotion tool.

Factors to consider when choosing packaging material:

1) Durable and waterproof (insect proof)2) Ease of handling and convenience3) Identification for instant recognition

4) Cost not worthwhile to put cheap seed in expensive packages

4) Labelling- use material that can be written permanently.

Product portfolioA range of products offered by a company can use the BCG matrix developed by the Boston consulting company

Market

Share

Growth

Rate

Relative Market Share

BCG Matrix (Boston Consulting Group Matrix) and its Significance in Product Mix Analysis

The “BCG matrix” or Portfolio Analysis is a portfolio planning model had been created by Bruce Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1968 to help corporations with analysing their business units or product lines. This helps the company allocate resources and is used as an analytical tool in marketing, product, strategic management, and portfolio analysis.

A high-growth product is for example a new one that we are trying to get to some market. It takes some effort and resources to market it, to build distribution channels, and to build sales infrastructure, but it is a product that is expected to bring the gold in the future.

A low-growth product is for example an established product known by the market. Characteristics of this product do not change much, customers know what they are getting, and the price does not change much either. This product has only limited budget for marketing. There is the milking cow that brings in the constant flow of cash. An example of this product would be regular Colgate toothpaste.

SC 627, SC 709

STARS

SC 405, 715

Question marks

SC 513

CASH COW

SC 701, 501

Dogs

But the question is, how do we exactly find out what phase our product is in, and how do we classify what we sell? Furthermore, we also ask, where does each of our products fit into our product mix? Should we promote one product more than the other one? The BCG matrix can help with this.

The BCG matrix reaches further behind product mix. Knowing what we are selling helps managers to make decisions about what priorities to assign to not only products but also company departments and business units.

It based on the observation that the company’s business units can be divided in four different categories on the basis of their Market growth Rate (MGR) & Relative Market Shares (RMS).

1. Cash cows

As leaders in a mature market, cash cows exhibit a return on assets that is greater than the market growth rate – so they generate more cash than they consume. These units should be ‘milked’ extracting the profits and investing as little as possible.

They generate the abundant cash required to turn question marks into market leaders. Cash cows are units with high market share in a slow-growing industry. These units typically generate cash in excess of the amount of cash needed to maintain the business. They consume minimum of company resources They are regarded as staid and boring, in a "mature" market, and every corporation would be thrilled to own as many as possible. For a long time R201 and SC513 were cash cows in the seed industry.

It is desirable to maintain the strong position as long as possible and strategic options include:

Product development

Concentric diversification

If the position weakens as a result of loss of market share or

Market contraction then options would include:

Retrenchment (or even divestment)

2. Dogs

Dogs have a low market share and a low growth rate and neither generates nor consumes a large amount of cash. However, dogs are cash traps because of the money tied up in a business that has little potential. Such businesses are candidates for divestiture. Dogs are more charitably called pets, are units with low market share in a mature, slow-growing industry. These units typically "break even", generating barely enough cash to maintain the business's market share. Though owning a break-even unit provides the social benefit of providing jobs and possible synergies that assist other business units, from an accounting point of view such a unit is worthless, not generating cash for the company. A company must avoid the business that can be categorised as dogs. Examples are the SC403 and SC 407 whose demand doesn’t go up

Strategic options would include:

Retrenchment (if it is believed that it could be revitalised)

Liquidation

Divestment (if you can find someone to buy!

3. Question marks

Question mark, are characterised by rapid growth and thus consumes large amounts of cash, but because they have low market shares they do not generate much cash. The result is large net cash consumption. They are also known as problem child.

A question mark has the potential to gain high market share and become a star, and eventually a cash cow when the market growth slows.

However, if the question mark does not succeed in becoming the market leader, then after perhaps years of cash consumption it will degenerate into a dog when the market growth declines.

Question marks must be analysed carefully in order to determine whether they are worth the investment required to grow market share.

Strategic options for question marks include:

Market penetration

Market development

Product development

Which are all intensive strategies or divestment.

4. Stars

Stars are units with a high market share in a fast-growing industry. The hope is that stars become the next cash cows. Sustaining the business unit's market leadership may require extra cash, but this is worthwhile if that's what it takes for the unit to remain a leader. When growth slows, stars become cash cows if they have been able to maintain their category leadership, or they move from brief stardom to dogdom.

Strategic options for stars include:

Integration – forward, backward and horizontal

Market penetration

Market development

Product development

Joint ventures

As a particular industry matures and its growth slows, all business units become either cash cows or dogs. The natural cycle for most business units is that they start as question marks, and then turn into stars. Eventually the market stops growing thus the business unit becomes a cash cow. At the end of the cycle the cash cow turns into a dog.

The overall goal of this ranking was to help corporate analysts decide which of their business units to fund, and how much; and which units to sell. Managers were supposed to gain perspective from this analysis that allowed them to plan with confidence to use money generated by the cash cows to fund the stars and, possibly, the question marks. As the BCG stated in 1970:

Only a diversified company with a balanced portfolio can use its strengths to truly capitalize on its growth opportunities. The balanced portfolio has:

Stars whose high share and high growth assure the future;

Cash cows that supply funds for that future growth; and

Question marks to be converted into stars with the added funds.

Significance of the BCG Matrix in Business

For each product or service, the 'area' of the circle represents the value of its sales. The BCG Matrix thus offers a very useful 'map' of the organization's product (or service) strengths and weaknesses, at least in terms of current profitability, as well as the likely cash flows.

The need which prompted this idea was, indeed, that of managing cash-flow. It was reasoned that one of the main indicators of cash generation was relative market share, and one which pointed to cash usage was that of market growth rate.

Derivatives can also be used to create a 'product portfolio' analysis of services. So Information System services can be treated accordingly.

Relative market share

Relative market share indexes a firm's or a brand's market share against that of its leading competitor.

Relative Market Share (I) (%) = 5 Brand's Market Share /Largest Competitor's Market Share

Market concentration, a related metric, measures the degree to which a comparatively small number of firms account for a large proportion of the market.

These metrics are useful in comparing a firm's or a brand's relative position across different markets and in evaluating the type and degree of competition in those markets.

This indicates likely cash generation, because the higher the share the more cash will be generated. As a result of 'economies of scale' (a basic assumption of the BCG Matrix), it is assumed that these earnings will grow faster the higher the share.

RMS Ratio

The exact measure is the brand's share relative to its largest competitor. Thus, if the brand had a share of 20%, and the largest competitor had the same, the ratio would be 1:1.

If the largest competitor had a share of 60 %; however, the ratio would be 1:3, implying that the organization's brand was in a relatively weak position.

If the largest competitor only had a share of 5 %, the ratio would be 4:1, implying that the brand owned was in a relatively strong position, which might be reflected in profits and cash flows. If this technique is used in practice, this scale is logarithmic, not linear.

On the other hand, exactly what is a high relative share is a matter of some debate. The best evidence is that the most stable position is for the brand leader to have a share double that of the second brand, and triple that of the third.

The reason for choosing relative market share, rather than just profits, is that it carries more information than just cash flow. It shows where the brand is positioned against its main competitors, and indicates where it might be likely to go in the future. It can also show what type of marketing activities might be expected to be effective.

Market growth rate

Market growth rates are a key indicator of the health of your company. Going back to our aircraft pilot analogy, market growth rates can be likened to a tail wind. The tail wind can create a large difference between ground speed and air speed. If the pilot were to use air speed alone he would miss his destination.

Assume your revenues are growing at 15 % per year. On the surface, this appears impressive. If, however, market revenues are expanding at an average of 25 % per annum, you have a serious problem. Relative to the "speed" of the overall market, you are foundering. Obviously, you are missing out on the benefit of some "tail wind" that your competitors are enjoying.

The market growth rate concept is simple enough on the surface. However, it is extremely important to remain aware of the specifics underlying the measurement. Some typical market parameters are described below.

This growth rate in terms of % is used as indicator to look the growth of such data (e.g.: GDP, population, price, sales, etc.). It will show the % difference between current value and past value. If the % difference is positive, the data is growing. If the growth rate is negative then it is declining.

Calculation of MGR

This % change (or sometimes called line straight line growth rate), is depend on two variables, current value and past value. We can write the formula as:

Growth Rate = (Mvb - Ma) / MVa x 100%

MVb = Market Value (or sales) of Current Year (Period)

MVa = Market Value (Or sales) of Past Year (Period)

Rapidly growing in rapidly growing markets, are what organizations strive for; but, as we have seen, the penalty is that they are usually net cash users - they require investment. The reason for this is often because the growth is being 'bought' by the high investment, in the reasonable expectation that a high market share will eventually turn into a sound investment in future profits. The theory behind the matrix assumes, therefore, that a higher growth rate is indicative of accompanying demands on investment.

The cut-off point is usually chosen as 10 per cent per annum. Determining this cut-off point, the rate above which the growth is deemed to be significant (and likely to lead to extra demands on cash) is a critical requirement of the technique; and one that, again, makes the use of the BCG Matrix problematical in some product areas. What is more, the evidence, from FMCG markets at least, is that the most typical pattern is of very low growth, less than 1 per cent per annum. This is outside the range normally considered in BCG Matrix work, which may make application of this form of analysis unworkable in many markets.

Where it can be applied, however, the market growth rate says more about the brand position than just its cash flow. It is a good indicator of that market's strength, of its future potential (of its 'maturity' in terms of the market life-cycle), and also of its attractiveness to future competitors. It can also be used in growth analysis.

Critical evaluation

The matrix ranks only market share and industry growth rate, and only implies actual profitability, the purpose of any business. (It is certainly possible that a particular dog can be profitable without cash infusions required, and therefore should be retained and not sold.) The matrix also overlooks other elements of industry.

With this or any other such analytical tool, ranking business units has a subjective element involving guesswork about the future, particularly with respect to growth rates. Unless the rankings are approached with rigor and scepticism, optimistic evaluations can lead to a dot com mentality in which even the most dubious businesses are classified as "question marks" with good prospects; enthusiastic managers may claim that cash must be thrown at these businesses immediately in order to turn them into stars, before growth rates slow and it's too late. Poor definition of a business's market will lead to some dogs being misclassified as cash cows.

As originally practiced by the Boston Consulting Group, the matrix was undoubtedly a useful tool, in those few situations where it could be applied, for graphically illustrating cash flows. If used with this degree of sophistication its use would still be valid. However, later practitioners have tended to over-simplify its messages. In particular, the later application of the names (problem children, stars, cash cows and dogs) has tended to overshadow all else—and is often what most students, and practitioners, remember.

This is unfortunate, since such simplistic use contains at least two major problems:

'Minority applicability'. The cash flow techniques are only applicable to a very limited number of markets (where growth is relatively high, and a definite pattern of product life-cycles can be observed, such as that of ethical pharmaceuticals). In the majority of markets, use may give misleading results.

'Milking cash cows'. Perhaps the worst implication of the later developments is that the (brand leader) cash cows should be milked to fund new brands. This is not what research into the FMCG markets has shown to be the case. The brand leader's position is the one, above all, to be defended, not least since brands in this position will probably outperform any number of newly launched brands. Such brand leaders will, of course, generate large cash flows; but they should not be `milked' to such an extent that their position is jeopardized. In any case, the chance of the new brands

achieving similar brand leadership may be slim—certainly far less than the popular perception of the Boston Matrix would imply.

Perhaps the most important danger is, however, that the apparent implication of its four-quadrant form is that there should be balance of products or services across all four quadrants; and that is, indeed, the main message that it is intended to convey. Thus, money must be diverted from `cash cows' to fund the `stars' of the future, since `cash cows' will inevitably decline to become `dogs'. There is an almost mesmeric inevitability about the whole process. It focuses attention, and funding, on to the `stars'. It presumes, and almost demands, that `cash cows' will turn into `dogs'.

The reality is that it is only the `cash cows' that are really important—all the other elements are supporting actors. It is a foolish vendor who diverts funds from a `cash cow' when these are needed to extend the life of that `product'. Although it is necessary to recognize a `dog' when it appears (at least before it bites you) it would be foolish in the extreme to create one in order to balance up the picture. The vendor, who has most of his (or her) products in the `cash cow' quadrant, should consider himself (or herself) fortunate indeed, and an excellent marketer, although he or she might also consider creating a few stars as an insurance policy against unexpected future developments and, perhaps, to add some extra growth. There is also a common misconception that 'dogs' are a waste of resources. In many markets 'dogs' can be considered loss-leaders that while not themselves profitable will lead to increased sales in other profitable areas.

Limitations of BCG Matrix

There are some limitations of the BCG matrix model include:

The first problem can be how we define market and how we get data about market share

A high market share does not necessarily lead to profitability at all times

The model employs only two dimensions – market share and product or service growth rate

Low share or niche businesses can be profitable too (some Dogs can be more profitable than cash Cows)

The model does not reflect growth rates of the overall market

The model neglects the effects of synergy between business units

Market growth is not the only indicator for attractiveness of a market

There are probably even more aspects that need to be considered in a particular use of the BCG model.

About the BCG matrix in the seed industry:

Question marks, which seem to be performing well, become stars while cash cows are products that give the most money. Dogs waste money. Varieties in question marks: try to promote them and hope that their adoption will be successful.

PriceInfluence demand and affects profits directly. Factors affecting price of seed:

1. Demand 2. Availability 3. Competition- avoid price wars with established firms 4. Cost of producing the seed will affect the price 5.Whether the seed is a hybrid or not 6. Price skimming- can charge any price and still make profit because of high demande.g. when GLS tolerant varieties were first introduced

7. Price of crop produce- govt can fix prices 8. The market- where are you selling the seed- in Zim? Moza, rural community, S. Africa? More expensive in S. Africa 9. Subsidies

Pricing strategies

a) Price to sell a certain quantity e.g. to get rid of stoch=k which is about to be withdrawnb) Price skimming to maximise profit in short term where varieties change regularlyc) Price to achieve market share- to penetrate the marketd) Cost plus pricing e.g add 5 % to what ever price it is

Place

How the product reaches the customer i.e distribution. Distribution is either direct or indirect. Direct distribution is when sales are made directly to the farmers. Indirect is the use of intermediaries.

a) Direct distribution channels- sales reps take direct orders from farmers and the seed is supplied from company warehouses

Adv- 1. supplier has direct contact with the farmer

2. There is high level of farmer support

3. Direct control over the quality of seed.

4. Convenient for LSCFsDisadv –

a. Too expensive with many small farmers

b. Needs speedy processing of orders

c. Single level channels- Seed producers supplies a network of retailers who in turn supply the farmers e. Farm and City, Mashco etc. product quality at retail level must be closely monitored and a return system should be used. Dealers need service support. Reduces distribution costs for the company

d. Multi-level support- Producer-Wholesale-Retailer-Farmer. Seed producer has minimal involvement in distribution.

Factors to consider when evaluating a distributor: existing product range; are they selling competitor products. Capacity and quality of available storage; accessibility to the supplier and to the farmers; credit worthiness; no. of outlets; location of outlet; discounts and commission given; training and market support required.

PromotionAll activities undertaken by an organisation to influence the market are called marketing communication.

Activities include:

a) Advertising- print or electronic mediab) Personal selling- approach and sell on a one-to-one selling e.g. in seed where you

approach a big farmer to sel to him/herc) Public relations- includes press releases, community project ( e.g company donates

seed to a community, drill a borehole)d) Sales promotion- try to increse sale of a particular product e.g Farmer competitions in

the seed industrye) Extension

Know how to analyse Industry competition using Porters’s Five Forces Model

MANAGING ACCESSIONS

Goal of genebanks:

Collect, conserve and distribute the world’s plant germplasm, identify genes for valuable traits, and incorporate these into improved lines using classical breeding and molecular techniques

Genebanks maintains the world’s largest public plant germplasm collection as accessions from 156 countries. Collecting and conservation work is done in collaboration with national partners eg the Zimbabwean National Genebank and international genebanks under the CGIAR (CIMMYT, CIAT etc) who maintain duplicate collections.

Molecular characterization and genetic diversity analysis of selected germplasm collections is done to identify markers and map genes linked to important agronomic traits such as disease resistance, stress tolerance, or high nutritional value. This significantly enhances the efficiency of breeding programs as key genes can be identified for introgression into improved lines.

What is done

Conserve and distribute germplasm to improve crops

Identify superior sources of genes for important horticultural/agronomic traits

Characterize the Center’s germplasm to make better use of its diversity

Develop DNA markers for improved traits for marker-assisted selection

Use molecular technologies to isolate and validate genes affecting important traits

Share the benefits of the Center’s germplasm collections

Train partners in germplasm conservation, use, and gene discovery

Management of Accession information

All genebanks use standard Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) for sharing genetic material and provides training to partners in the conservation and evaluation of genetic resources.

Information on germplasm includes:

Passport: The accession number and data recorded when the sample was originally collected (crop accession number, genus, species, altitude, collecting location, etc.). These data were received from the seed donor together with the germplasm.

Characterization: The morphological and agronomic descriptions of an accession (hypocotyl color, corolla color, plant growth habit, fruit size, seed color, etc.). These data were observed and gathered at experimental fields by staff in the Genetic Resources and Seed Unit of CGIARS or by national partners.

Evaluation: The data results of screening accessions for their resistance to different pests (i.e. melon fly, cotton aphid, etc.) and diseases (Bhendi yellow vein mosaic virus, Tobacco mosaic virus, etc.). It also includes nutritive value (vitamin A, vitamin C, antioxidant activity, etc). The Center’s scientists and colleagues at other research institutes conduct the screening.

What is registration

Registration is the first step after acquisition of a sample in any genebank. Collections in genebanks are the genetic base for current and future breeding programmes and a source of safety material for distribution to researchers and other users. It is essential that samples are all properly documented from the moment they enter a genebank, through all subsequent genebank operations.

Registration is the assignment of a unique identification number called an accession number for tracking each seed or plant material sample received by a genebank in order to distinguish it from other samples.

Why germplasm should be registered

Registration is carried out in order to allow genebanks to keep accurate records of samples and to produce inventory lists for conservation, distribution, and other aspects of germplasm management.

When it should be done

Registration is done when the sample first enters the genebank. For efficient management and use of the collections, register the samples if they meet the conditions described below.

How it is done

Registration is carried out in several steps.

Step 1: Before registration

Prior to registration, the status of the samples should be verified to ensure that the following minimum conditions are met before acceptance in the genebank:

Acquisition agreements and permits

The samples should have been acquired from collectors, genebanks or other sources with appropriate material acquisition or material transfer agreements and permits in line with national and international regulations regarding conservation, distribution and use.

Passport information

Samples should be accompanied by adequate passport information especially cultivar name, collector number and pedigree (for genetic stocks and improved material) to ensure that each sample does not already exist in the genebank. The minimum required passport data may include the following:

a) Samples from collecting missions:- Common crop name and/or genus and species.- Collecting number.- Location of collecting site.- Country of origin.- Collecting date.- Phenology.- Collecting source.- Number of plants sampled.

b) Samples received as donations:- Common crop name and/or genus and species.- Accession name and/or other identification associated with the sample.- Pedigree information and breeding institute’s details (for breeding lines).- Phenology.- Acquisition source.- Country of origin.- Donor accession number (if applicable).

Distinctiveness

New samples should be genetically distinct from any other accessions already registered in the genebank. Two samples may have identical or very similar names and identical grain characteristics, but may be genetically distinct, while samples with very different names may be genetically similar.

Morphological, biochemical and molecular approaches can be used to identify duplicates, depending on the facilities and resources available in the genebank. The following tests can be performed:

a) Morphological:- The suspected duplicates are grown side by side in the field or in a greenhouse and differences between morphological characteristics such as plant height, flowering time, leaf and flower size, and shape and colour are compared.- The candidate accession is defined as distinct when it is found to differ significantly in at least one characteristic from existing registered accessions. - Morphology-based distinctness tests can be similar to the crop-specific set of characteristics that comply with guidelines set by the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV, 1991). If necessary, these characteristics can be assessed over two or three seasons. This

may not be practical in landraces with high within-accession variation, however.- The statistical procedure to assess distinctness is the t-test. 

b) Biochemical: When phenotypic comparison does not provide enough evidence of distinctness, biochemical methods such as electrophoresis of seed (or other plant parts) proteins and isozymes can be used for improving the comparison of morphological traits and to discriminate the samples.

c) Molecular: DNA markers such as AFLPs, SSRs and SNPs offer powerful discriminating tools and can be successfully applied in checking genetic relatedness between samples, provided that this approach is feasible and cost effective. For more details on molecular methods, see de Vicente and Fulton (2003). If the samples being compared are confirmed to be duplicates, genebanks are recommended to bulk the seeds or plant material and treat them as one entity. If the sample is identical to an existing accession, maintain it under the original accession number.

Plant health

Each sample should be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate and additional declarations as required under the host country’s phytosanitary regulations.

Seed or plant samples should be inspected by visual examination under a stereoscopic microscope. They should be free of pathogens, fungal growth, bacterial and viral infections, and insects.

Sample quality and quantity

Seeds or plant material should be of the highest quality and in adequate numbers for storage. 

--> In general, the percentage germinated should not be below 85% for cultivated species or below 75% for the wild species.

Seed or plant material quantity should be sufficient to conduct at least three regenerations. This will ensure that seeds or plant material are still available for another planting even if the first attempt to regenerate fails.

What if minimum conditions are not met?

If the sample does not meet the required conditions, assign a temporary number until the sample is ready to receive a permanent registration number. The temporary number should be easily distinguishable from other accession numbers.

a) Agreements and permits:Contact the collector or donor for the necessary agreements defining the status of samples with regard to conservation and further use.

b) Duplicate accessions:Confirm duplication and assign the sample as a new seed or plant lot under the original accession number.

c) Missing passport information: Write to the collector or donor of germplasm to request missing information.

d) Poor seed health:If seeds contain pathogens or insects, send the sample to a phytopathologist or entomologist for treatment. If it is possible to acquire a replacement sample, immediately incinerate the sample and make a note of the action taken and the justification; request a fresh sample from the donor. 

e) Inadequate seed quality and quantity: Regenerate the sample immediately.

Restructuring samples

In self-pollinating crops, if a sample comprises of a physical mixture of two or more distinct lines or species, they may be subdivided and maintained as distinct accessions. In this case, subdividing the sample into its components helps in effective maintenance of genetic integrity. Note that subdivision should not be undertaken if variation in the original sample is continuous, as in highly cross-pollinating crops.

If samples are registered without adequate passport data, their identities and biological status will remain unknown, hampering their use. Failure to regenerate samples with low viability or very few seeds or plant material may result in loss of the accession, leaving gaps in inventory. 

Step 2: Procedure for registration 

If the sample meets the minimum conditions described above, it may be accepted for registration and assigned an accession number using the following procedure:

1. Arrange the material in alphabetical order by variety name or in numerical order by collection number, depending on the identification provided.

2. Check all packets against the list accompanying the samples.

3. If no list is provided or seeds or plant material do not correspond to the data, prepare a new list. Check again to confirm that all packets have been included.

4. Check the passport data file to determine the last accession number given. 

5. Assign the next ascending accession number to the first sample on the list and consecutive numbers to succeeding samples. 

6. Write the accession number clearly on the packet using a permanent marker and on the list of new samples. 

7. Enter the details in the passport data files of the genebank’s documentation system. For each accession, record all passport data, original identification data and registration date in the designated fields of the passport data file.

8. If data are missing, leave the field blank and contact the donor to supply the missing data. 

Numbering procedures for new genebanks

A genebank numbering system should be simple and practical to use.

1. Consecutive alpha numeric or numeric codes must be used for each new accession acquired. Assigned numbers are usually preceded by an acronym (such as GBK for Genebank of Kenya) to

identify each sample with its registered genebank. Additional information such as year of acquisition and crop code should not be incorporated into an accession number. This code must be linked to all subsequent information about this sample: passport data, designation status and taxonomic information.

2. If large collections of germplasm are maintained, separate but sequential accession numbering may be given for each crop. However, this approach is not recommended if the genebank is small or has many crops.

3. Avoid assigning ‘reserved’ numbers for particular crops (for instance, 1 to 500 for maize, 501 to 1000 for cowpea) or for wild species when using a single numbering system. 

Documentation

Documenting the information received along with a sample is an important aspect of registration. Information documented at registration consists of passport data providing basic information for identification and general management of individual accessions. Much of this information is either recorded when the sample is collected or accompanies the sample if it is received from other sources. The use of internationally accepted descriptor lists to document passport information simplifies data exchange between genebanks. The standard Multi-crop Passport Descriptor (MCPD) list developed by FAO and IPGRI is available here.

Information systems

An information management system must be created in each genebank. This database must be searchable by the genabank curators and staff for specific information through a range of queries. The information system must keep a record of genebank operation data, including storage location, stocks, monitoring, health tests and the distribution status. The same system must also manage germplasm orders, shipment related information and genebanks ‘contacts’ information. Barcoding is a useful tool that can compliment a genebank information system.