Psyc 1:

General

Get a piece of paper and write in three columns what you think about yourself starting with the following phrases:

I think I… I feel that I… I act ______ because…

Share your responses with your partner

Try to answer the following:◦How did you see yourself? ◦Were there more positive than negative

descriptions about yourself?◦Was it hard to think about yourself & why?◦What did you do to come up with these

responses?◦Do you think you were objective enough in

studying or analyzing yourself?

What is psychology?

From 2 Greek words

psyche = soul

logos = the study

What is psychology?

It is the systematic and scientific study of behaviors and mental processes

Mental processes ◦refer to a wide range of complex mental

processes like thinking, imagining, studying and dreaming. They are not directly observable.

Behaviors◦refer to observable actions or responses in both

humans and animals. It includes eating, speaking, laughing, running, reading, and sleeping.

The Four Goals of Psychology

Describe

Explain

Predict

Control

Describe

The first goal of psychology is to describe the different ways that organisms behave.

Example. Children with autism.

◦Psychologists start by describing their mental processes and behaviors, like difficulties in learning language and paying attention and being easily overwhelmed by strange stimuli. As psychologists begin to do this, they begin to understand how autistic children behave.

Explain

The second goal of psychology is to explain the causes of behavior.◦Once psychologists describe the behaviors and

mental processes of autistic children, they try to explain why they behave in such a manner.

◦ In the 1950’s, psychologists explained that children become autistic if they grew up with abusive parents (Blakeslee, 2000a).

◦ In the 1990’s, it was discovered that autism is caused by genetic and biological factors that result in a maldeveloped brain (Courchesne, et al., 2003).

Predict

The third goal of psychology is to predict how organisms will behave in certain situations.

◦Being able to describe and explain behavior enables psychologists to predict how autistic children will behave in a particular situation. From the information gathered, they can predict that autistic children will have difficulty learning in a school setting because there are many activities and stimuli in the classroom (Gresham et al., 1999)

Control

The fourth goal of psychology is to control an organism’s behavior.

◦The positive side is that psychologists can help people learn to control and/or manage undesirable behaviors by teaching them methods of self-control and ways to deal with situations and relationships (Howlin, 1997). The negative side is the concern that they might control people’s behaviors without their knowledge or consent. Psychologists follow and must adhere to an established guideline to prevent potential abuse of controlling behavior and to protect the rights and privacy of individuals, patients, and participants in experiments.

Think of a phenomena you have observed in the environment

Apply the four goals of psychology in telling the phenomena

Greek philosophers

Aristotle wrote a book on psychology entitled Peri Psyches.

It begins with a history of psychological thought and historical views of the mind and behavior.

Aristotle argued that human behavior is subject to rules and laws.

Greek philosophers

Around 400 B.C., a Greek philosopher named Democritus argued that behavior is influenced by external stimulation.

Socrates, a student of Aristotle, suggested a research method still used in psychology and is based on his advice to “know thyself”.

Renaissance period

Gustav Theodore Fechner published a book, Element of Psychophysics, which showed how physical events are related to psychological sensation and perception.

In the 19th century, psychology developed as a laboratory science.

Wilhelm Wundt

In1879, in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt, established the first psychology laboratory.

Structuralism studies the most basic elements that make up our conscious mental experiences.

Introspection involved the exploration of conscious mental processes.

Wilhelm Wundt“Father of Psychology”

William James

William James founded an approach called Functionalism.

This approach looks at how experiences help people function more adaptively in their environments.

His works have made an impact to educational psychology

William James“Father of Modern

Psychology”

The Gestalt Psychologists

The GESTALT APPROACH emphasized that perception is more than the sum of its parts.

This approach was founded by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka, who first studied in 1912 the illusion of flashing lights appearing to move.

Max Wertheimer Wolfgang Kohler Kurt Koffka

The Gestalt Psychologists

Many of the principles of this approach are still used to explain how we perceive

objects

John B. Watson

In 1913, John B. Watson published a paper titled “Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It.”

He considered psychology as an objective, experimental science.

With this rose an approach called BEHAVIORISM, which focuses on learning observable behaviors.

John B. Watson

Women and Minorities in Psychology

The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded in July 1892 at G.

Stanley Hall’s study at Clark University with only 31 members, who were all male. Hall

was elected the first president of APA.

Women and Minorities in Psychology

The policies and career opportunities of American psychology were determined by White males, who intentionally and unintentionally discriminated against

women and minorities.

Women and Minorities in Psychology

Mary Calkins - denied from receiving a P.h.D because she was a woman

Margaret Washburn - first woman to be awarded a P.h.D. in psychology, but it was already in 1908

Ruth Howard - first Black woman to receive a P.h.D. in psychology in 1934

George Sanchez - He conducted pioneering work on the cultural bias of intelligence test.

Modern Approaches

Modern Approaches

o Biological Approach

o Cognitive Approach

o Behavioral Approach

o Psychoanalytic Approach

o Humanistic Approach

o Cross- cultural Approach

o Evolutionary Approach

Biological Approach

This approach looks at how genes, hormones & the nervous system interact with the environment to influence learning, personality, motivation, memory, emotions, & coping techniques.

Psychobiologists are researchers who use the biological approach.

Cognitive Approach

This approach looks at how people process, store, & use information and how these information influences what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, & feel.

Cognitive neuroscience involves taking pictures & identifying structures & functions of the brain during performance of a number of cognitive processes.

Behavioral Approach

This approach studies how people learn new behaviors or modify exiting ones, depending on whether events in the environment reward or punish these behaviors.

For John B. Watson, behavior is the result of conditioning.

For B.F. Skinner, reinforcements influence behavior.

For Albert Bandura, behavior is influenced by observation and imitation of others.

Psychoanalytic Approach

This approach emphasizes 2 key ideas:the influence of unconscious fears, desires, &

motivations on thoughts & behaviorsthe influence of childhood experiences to the

development of personality traits & psychological problems

For Sigmund Freud, unconscious motivations are responsible for human behavior.

The techniques he used were free association, psychoanalysis & dream analysis.

Humanistic Approach

This approach emphasizes 3 key ideas:an individual has greater freedom in directing his/her

future, a large capacity for personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic worth, & enormous potential for self-fulfillment

UniquenessPotential to develop

Abraham Maslow and his theory on the hierarchy of needs

Cross-cultural Approach

This approach emphasizes 3 key ideas:

the influence of culture, ethnic similarities & differences on psychological & social functioning of a culture’s members

Gender

Socioeconomic status

Evolutionary Approach

This approach looks into how evolutionary ideas explain human behaviors and mental processes

It examines how evolution influences mate selection, aggression, development of taste aversion, fears, depression and decision-making

Eclecticism

By combining information from all of the approaches, psychologists stand a better chance of describing , explaining, predicting and controlling behaviors.

Fields of Psychology

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychologists are the largest subgroup of psychologists.

They help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life.

They evaluate problems like depression & anxiety through interviews and psychological tests.

They help clients resolve problems and change self-defeating behavior.

Clinical Psychologistvs. Psychiatrist

Psychiatrists are medical doctors and may, therefore, prescribe drugs for their patients.

They have studied in Med school and received a degree in Medicine and has specialized in Psychiatry.

A clinical psychologist studied in Grad school and received a Masters degree in Clinical Psychology.

Clinical vs. Counseling Psychologist

Counseling psychologists received a Masters degree in Counseling/ Guidance & Counseling

They usually deal with clients with adjustment problems.

A clinical psychologist serious psychological disorders.

Prepared by Justine Beltran

Educational psychologists research theoretical issues related to learning, measurement, and development.

They study how learning is affected by psychological factors.

Educational vs. School Psychologist

School psychologists help school systems identify students who have problems that interfere with learning.

They help schools make decisions about placing students in special classes.

Educational psychologists are mostly concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of learning problems as well as the counseling of youngsters in school.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychologists study the changes -physical, cognitive, social, and emotional –that occur across the lifespan.

They try to sort out the effects of heredity and the environment on development

Personality and Social Psychology

Personality psychologists identify and measure human traits and determine influences on human thought processes, feelings and behavior.

Social psychologists are concerned with the nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situation.

Biological Psychology

Biological psychologists or Biopsychologists study the physical and chemical changes that occur during stress, learning, and emotions, as well as how an individual’s genetic makeup, brain, and nervous system interact with the environment and influence behavior.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychologists study how individuals’ process, store, and retrieve information and how cognitive processes influence their behavior.

Newer areas, like artificial intelligence, combine knowledge of the brain’s functions with computer programming in an attempt to duplicate human thinking and intelligence.

Industrial Psychology

Industrial psychologists focus on relationships between people and work.

They apply psychological knowledge to the problems of business and industry and concentrate on helping to find the right people for the right jobs, or on improving employer-employee relationship.

Organizational & Consumer Psychology

Organizational psychologists study the behavior of people in organizations.

Consumer psychologists study the behavior of shoppers or consumers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior.

Psychometric Psychology

Also known as Psychometrics

Psychometricians focus on the measurement of people’s abilities, skills, intelligence, personality and abnormal behaviors.

Psychometrics involves the evaluation of individual as well as group behavior and the application of mathematical procedures to psychological problems

Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychologists specialize in the investigation and experimentation of the psychological aspects of behavior, sensation, perception, learning, emotion, memory, motivation and language.

They are concerned with finding relationships of certain kinds of events with another through precise measurements and special instruments.

They use people and animals to study learning.

Environmental & Health Psychology

Environmental Psychology◦ Environmental psychologists study the ways in

which people and the environment - the natural environment and the human-made environment – influence one another.

Health Psychology◦ Health psychologists examine the ways in

which behavior and attitudes are related to physical health. They study the effects of stress on health problems. They also guide clients toward healthier behavior patterns.

Sport psychologists help athletes concentrate on their performance and not on the crowd, use cognitive strategies like positive visualization (imagining themselves making the right moves) to enhance performance and avoid choking under pressure.

Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychologists apply psychology to the criminal justice system.

They deal with legal matters such as whether a defendant was sane when he or she committed the crime.

They also treat psychologically ill offenders and consult attorneys on matters like analysing criminals’ behavior and mental processes.

They prepare psychological reports to help judges decide on the most appropriate course of action for a convicted criminal.

Psychology as a

Science: Methods Used

Survey

Survey is a way to obtain information by asking many individuals – either person to person, by telephone, or by mail – to answer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects.

◦ Advantage: It is a quick and efficient way to obtain much information from a large number of people.

◦ Disadvantage: Information may contain errors or may be biased because people may not remember accurately or may not answer truthfully.

Results may also be affected with how questions were worded.

Longitudinal Study

• Longitudinal study is a method use by psychologists to collect data from a participant over a number of years

Advantage: The development of the individual being studied thoroughly

Disadvantage: Information gathering is time-consuming.

Cross-sectional Study

• Cross-sectional study is a method use by psychologists to collect data from different age groups

Advantage: It is a quick and data for the population from different developmental levels can be collected at the same time.

Disadvantage: Cannot determine how a specific individual changed over the course of a lifespan

Case Study

Case study is an in-depth analysis of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual.

◦Advantage: Information collected is detailed and this information enables researchers to understand a person’s life better.

◦Disadvantage: This detailed information about a particular individual may not be applicable to other individuals. The information, usually taken from observations, may also be subject to bias because of the observer’s preconceived notions of what to look for.

Prepared by Justine Beltran

Experiment

Experiment is a method for understanding the cause-and-effect relationships by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences.

◦Advantage: It has greater potential for identifying cause-and-effect relationships with less error and bias compared to surveys and case studies.

◦Disadvantage: The information obtained in one experimental situation may not apply to other situations.

Prepared by Justine Beltran

Double-Blind Experiment

• Neither participants nor researcher knows which group received the treatment

Placebo effect

• change in illness/physical state from knowledge and perception of treatment believing it will have an effect fake medication

Prepared by Justine Beltran

Correlation

Correlation is an association/relationship between the occurrences of two or more events.

Correlation coefficient is the likelihood or strength of a relationship between two events. ◦±1.00 signifies a strong correlation

Research Setting

Naturalistic Setting◦It is a relatively normal environment in

which researchers gather information by observing individuals’ behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation.

Laboratory Setting◦It involves studying individuals under

systematic and controlled conditions, with many of the real-world influences eliminated.

Questions?