1982 FEMA State of the Art Assessment-Shelter Habitability 192p

8/13/2019 1982 FEMA State of the Art Assessment-Shelter Habitability 192p

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September 1982

823

RTI Project No. 44U -2265Contract No. EMW-C-0677

FEMA Work Unit 1239A

FINAL REPORT

STATE-OF-THE-ART ASSESSMENT-SHELTER HABITABILITY

Prepared for:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Washington, D.C. 20472

Approved for Public Release; Distribution Unlimited

Research Triangle Institute P.O. Box 12194 Research Triangle Park, North Carollna 27 70 9


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September 1982

RTI Project 44U-2265Contract No. EMW-C-0677

Work U n i t 1239A

FEMA Review Notice

This report has been reviewed in the FederalEmergency Management Agency an d approved fo rpublication.contents necessarily reflect the views and

po l ic ies of the Federal Emergency Management

Approval does not signify that the

Agency.

FINAL REPORT

STATE-OF-THE-ART-ASSESSMENT--SHELTER HABITABILITY

Prepared by:

M. WrightR. Chessin

M. LaneyL. cox

Prepared for:

Federal Emergency Management AgencyWashington, D. C. 20472

Approved f o r Publi c Release; Dist ribu tion Unlimited


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-

-

1. REPORT NUMBER

UNCLASSIFIED

2. GGVT ACCESSION NC

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Dete Entered)

4. T I T L E (and Subtitle)

STATE-OF-THE-ART ASSESSMENT--SHELTER HABITABILITY

7. AUTHOR(e)

Wright, M. D . , R. Chessin, M. Laney, and L. Cox

9 . PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

Research Triangle InstituteResearch Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711

11. CONTROLLING OF FIC E NAME AND ADDRESS

Federal Emergency Management AgencyWashington, D. C. 20472

14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME 4 ADDRESS(if different from Controlling Office)

6. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Repo rt )

READ INSTRUCTIONSEFORE COMPLETING ORM3. RECIPIENT S C T LOG NUMBER

5. TY P E O F R E P OR T L PERIOD COVERED

FINAL October 1981-Sep tem ber 1982

6. P E RFO RMI NG ORG . R E P OR T N U M B E R

RTI/2265/00/04F8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBERfa)

Contract No. EMW-C-0677

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASKAR EA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS

Work Unit 1239A

12. R E P OR T D A TE

September 1982

192

Unclassified

13. NUMBER O F PAGES

15. SECURITY CLASS. (of t h i srep ort )

15a. DECLASSIFICATION/DOWNGRADINGscnEDULE

Approved for publ ic release; distribution unlimited.

7 . DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (ofthe abstract entered In Block 20. If dffferent from Repo rt )

8 . SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

9. KE Y WORDS (Continue on reverse aide If nesessary and identlfyby bl oc k number)

s ta te-of- the-artshe1 t e r habi tab i 1 i tynuclear weapons effectsfuture research needs

10. A B S T R A C T -reverse side if necessary ad identity bybl oc k number). The objectives of this study were t o assess the state-of- the-art of

shelter habitability research, t o describe nuclear weapons effects andmitigation techniques, t o summarize current civil defense programs andpolicies, a n d t o identify future research needs related t o shelter

Fo r m

1 Jan 73 1473 EDlTION OF 1 Nov 65 IS O B S O L E TE


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UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(WhenData Entered)

habitability.l i terature , a review of noncivil defense literature t h r ough computer searches,and personal communications with individual researchers .

assessment of research related t o shelter habitability.were listed t o identi fy areas where there i s general agreement amongresearchers.there is disagreement among researchers and where there are impo r t a n tunanswered questions.

The work consisted of an extensive review of civil defense

The information obtained was summarized into a state-of-the-art

General conclusions

Recommendations fo r further study were made for areas where

UNCLASSIFIEDSECURITY CLA SSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(When Data Ente red


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors of t h i s rep ort wish t o acknowledge the subst ant i a l

co n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e fo l l o w in g i n d i v i d ua l s : Mr . Donald A. Bettge, FEMA

Pro ject Of f icer , who prov ided he lp fu l guidance throughout the study, Mr.

Donald Johnston o f RTI who o ff er ed valuable suggestions r e l at i n g t o occupant

response data, and D r . James C. Mul l igan o f Nor th Caro l ina Sta te Univers i ty

who assi sted i n the eval uat i on o f research re lated to shel ter environmental

con t ro l .


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ABSTRACT

The object ives of th is study were to assess the state - of- the- a rt o f

sh e l te r h a b i t a b i l i t y research, t o describe nuclear weapons effects and

mi t ig at io n techniques, t o summarize c urr ent c i v i l defense programs and

po l i c ies , and to id en t i f y fu tu re research needs re l a ted to sh e l te r

h a b i t a b i l i t y .

1 i t e ra tur e , a rev iew o f nonc iv i l defense l i t e r a t ur e through computer

searches, and personal communications w i t h i nd iv id ua l researchers .

The work con si ste d of an exte nsive revi ew o f c i v i l d e fe n se

The i nf or ma ti on obtai ned was summarized i n t o a st at e- of- the a r t

assessment o f research rel ated to sh elt e r hab i t ab i l i t y .

were l i s t e d t o i d e n t i f y areas where t her e i s general agreement among

researchers. Recommendations f o r f u r t h e r stud y were made f o r areas *here

th e r e i s disagreement among researches and where there are important

General conclusions

unanswered questions.

iii


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

T i t l e Page

I. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I - 1

A.

I n t roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I -1

B. Summary o f Weapons E f fec ts and Mi t i g a t i o n Techniques . . . . I - 21. Nuclear Weapons Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I - 22. Mit igat ion Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 4

C. Civi l Defense Programs and Pol icies . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 62. Current Programs and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 91.

Hi s to ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 6

D. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11I1. She l te r H ab i t ab i l i t y Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 1

A. Characte r i za t i on o f She l ter Ha b i ta b i l i t y E lements . . . . . . I I - 11. Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 12. Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II- 43. Biological Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 54. Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 7

B. State-of-the-Art Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a. Thermal Environmental Prediction . . . . . . .b. Thermal Environmental Control . . . . . . . . .c. Thermal Environmental Monitoring . . . . . . .

2.

Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. Biological Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a. Civil Defense Research . . . . . . . . . . . .b. Disaster-Related Heal th Studies . . . . . . . .c. Research on Al 1 er ge ns and Communicable D i seases

4. Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .b. Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a. L i g h t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .c . Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

. .0 .

. .. .

. .. .. .0 .. .. .. .. .

. .

I I - 8I I - 8I I - 811-1311-24

11-2411-2611-2711-4111-4711-5811-5911-6011-60

C. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-61I I I. Shelter Standards and Occupant Responses

. . . . . . . . . . . . .I I I - 1

A. Shelter Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 11. Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 12. Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 43. Biological Envi ronment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 54. Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 6

B . Occupant Responses (Physiological) . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 7

i v


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T i t l e

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

C.

D.

1.

2.

3.

Occupant Characterist ics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111- 7a. Age. Sex. Race. and Urban-Rural . . . . . . . . . . 111- 7b. State of Heal th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111- 9Responses a t Standard Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-15a.

Normal Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-15(1) Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-15( 2 ) Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-20(3) Bi ol og ic al Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-22

( a) Communi cab1 e D i seases . . . . . . . . . . 111-23( b ) Acute and Chronic Cond iti ons . . . . . . 111-27

(4) Other Considerat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-28b. Sensit ive Populat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-31

(1) Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-31( 2 ) Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-34

(a ) Carbon Dio xid e . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-34(b ) Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-35(c ) Nit roge n Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-36(d ) Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-37( 3 ) Biological Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-38

(4 ) Other Considerat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-40Responses t o Non-Standard Conditions . . . . . . . . . 111-41a. Normal Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-41

(1) Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-41(a) Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-41

( 2 ) Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-46( a ) Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-47(b) Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-49( c ) Nitrog en Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-50(d) Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-51(3 ) Bi ol ogi cal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-51

( 4 ) Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-53b. Sensi t i ve Populat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-54

(1) Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-54

(b) Cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-44

( 2 j Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-56( 3 ) Biological Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-58( 4 ) Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-60

Occupant Responses (Psychological) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-601. Research Approaches Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-612. Psychological Factors I de nt i f ie d as Being Important . . 111-663.

Likely Impacts of the Psychological Factors ofImportance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-66

4. Recommendations f o r Min imizing the Negative Impact . . .o f Responses t o t he Psycho log ica l Environment . . . . . 111-72a. Shelter Manager Selection and Training . . . . . . 111-72b. Public Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-73c. She l t e r Fac i l i t y / Ac t i v i t y P lann ing . . . . . . . . 111-74

c

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-78V


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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Title Page

I V . Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Study . . . . . . . . . IV- 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A . Conclusions IV- 1

B. Recommendations IV- 4

vi


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Number

LIST OF TABLES

Page

11-1 Incidence of Respiratory, Infective, and Parasitic Diseases,Percent Distribution, and Number of Acute Conditions Per100 Persons Per Year in the United States, 1980

. . ... .

. 11-55

Number o f Cases and Cases Per 100,000 Population o f ReportedCommunicable Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-56Age Distribution of U.S. Population, 1980 ( I n Thousands) . . . 111- 8

Group, U.S. Per Fo r t n i g h t . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 111-11Percent Distribution of Persons With Limitation of Activity.Due t o Chronic Conditions, By Degree o f Limitation Accordingt o Sex and Age, 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-13

111-4 Reported Communicable Disease Incidence, U.S., 1980. Annual. . 111-25

11-2

111-1

111-2 Incidence of Acute Conditions Per 100 Persons B y Condition

111-3

111-5 Reaction t o Stressful Environmental Stimuli . . . . . . 111-67

vi i


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T-

I. BACKGROUND

A. I n t roduc t ion

I n recent years, c i v i l defense planners have emphasized two major

a l te rna t i ves fo r p ro tec t ing the c i v i l i a n popu lat ion i n the event o f a nuc lea r

attack on the United States.

should an att ack occur suddenly, wit hout warning, and con si st s of

she l te r i ng the popu lat ion i n the immediate v i c i n i t y o f t he i r loc a le a t the

t ime o f attack. The second al t e r n a t i v e would be implemented dur in g a peri od

o f i n t e rn a t i on a l tensions that could lead t o war and consists o f r e l o ca t i n g

(evacuat ing) popula t ions o f l i k e l y ta rge t areas i n t o areas o f lower r i sk where

shelter from fal lout would be provided.

depends on the a b i l i t y o f people to be housed i n a she lt er f o r an extended

ti me and t o emerge wi th su ff ic ie nt he al th and energy to implement a recovery

from the attack. Success, then, re qui res t ha t the i nt er na l environment o f

The f i r s t a l te rn at i ve would be implemented

The success o f both a l te rna t i ves

shel ters be maintained a t cond i t ions no t se r ious ly o r i r reve rs ib ly de t r imen ta l

t o occupants.

She l te rs may be considered i n three cl asses: (1) general, o r personnel,

she l te rs , usua l ly ex i s t i ng bu i l d ing s brought i n t o serv ice as she l te r s during a

speci f ic shel

environmental

which normal l

designed for

systems.

c r i s i s ; ( 2 ) spe ci al , o r working, sh el te rs such as emergency oper ati ng centers;

and ( 3 ) singl e-purpose she l te rs e rected sp ec i f ic a l ly t o p rov ide shel t e r dur ing

an emergency. The l a t t e r two classes are constructed and equipped f o r

t e r purposes. They are the ref ore more l i k e l y t o have

cont ro l systems designed i nt o them than i s the f i r s t c lass,

y depends ei t h e r on ex i s t i ng environmental c on tr ol systems

other purposes o r on exped ien t l y ins ta l l ed environmental co nt ro l

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For many years, c i v i l defense resea rche rs have sponsored and conducted

s t u d i e s t o i d e n t i f y p roblem s a ss oc ia te d w i t h s h e l t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y and t o

de f i ne techn iques f o r ma i n ta in ing a hab i ta b le shel t e r envi ronmen t.

s tud ies have cons is ted o f ana l y t i c a l and exper imen ta l p r o jec t s , as we l l as

equipment design and development. The r e su l t s o f these st udi es have been used

a s t h e b a s is t o e s t a b l i sh minimum s ta nd ar ds f o r t h e i n t e r n a l sh e l t e r

These

environment and t o deve lop gu idance f o r i n s t a l 1 in g exped ien t env ironmental

co n t r o l system s i n she l t e r s .

No r ecen t s tu d ies have a t temp ted t o assemble the r es u l t s o f s he l t e r

h a b i t a b i l i t y r ese ar ch i n t o a s t a t e - o f- t h e - a r t assessment.

a reas o f s tudy, such an assessment i s needed pe r i o d i c a l ly t o a i d p l an ne rs i n

As wi th mos t o the r

i d e n t i f y i n g ad d i t i on a l research and development needs. The ob j ect ive s o f th e

research descr ibed h ere in have been t o conduct a s t a te - o f- t h e- a r t s t u d y o f

sh e l t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y a n d t o i d e n t i f y r e m a i n i n g r e se a r ch n e ce ssa r y f o r a d e q u a t e

assurance th a t she l t e r p lans are workab le .

The remainder o f t h i s chapt er b r i e f l y summarizes nuc lear weapons e f f ec ts ,

m i t i g a t i o n techn iques , and cu r ren t c i v i l de fense po l i c i es and programs.

Subsequent chapters de scr i be the impor tan t e lements th a t de termine she l t e r

h a b i t a b i l i t y , p resen t the s ta te- o f- t h e- a r t assessment, and make

recommendat ions for fur ther study.

B. Summary o f Nuclear Weapons E ff e c ts and M i t i g a t i o n Techniques

1. Nuclear Weapons Effects

Nuclear weapons exp los ions d i f f e r f rom convent iona l weapon

exp los ions i n two ve ry s i gn i f i c an t ways.

many t imes more power fu l than exp los ions o f th e la rg es t convent ional weapons,

and, second, th e energy re lease from nucle ar weapons d i f f e r s f rom conv ent i onal

weapon energy release. Wh i le almos t a l l o f the energy re lease f r om a

F i r s t , nuc lea r exp los ions can be

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conventional weapon i s i n th e form of b l a st and shock, the energy release from

a nuc lear weapon i s i n th e form of thermal energy, b l as t and shock, and

nuclear radiat ion.

on the weapon yi el d, hei ght o f burst, and othe r factors.

d i s t r i bu t i on f r om a f i ss i on weapon detonated i n the a i r below 40,000 f ee t i s

35 percent thermal radiat ion, 50 per cen t bl as t and shock, and 15 percent

nuc l ear radiat i on.

The p ro po rt i on of th e energy rel eased i n each form depends

A typical energy

Nuclear r ad ia t i on energy i s u su al ly considered as having two separate

components, i n i t i a l nuc lear rad ia t i on and delayed (o r res i dual ) radi at i on,

o f t en r e fe r r ed t o as f a l l ou t . The i n i t i a l nucl ea r r ad i a t i on i s t ha t emi t ted

f rom the f i r e ba l l and the rad ioac t i ve cl oud w i th i n the f i r s t m inute a f te r a

nuclear explosion. It consis ts o f neu trons and gamma rays g iven o f f almost

insta nta neo usl y and the gamma rays emit ted by fi s s i o n product s and oth er

radioactive materials from the weapon.

r a d i oa c t i ve s o l i d and l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s t h a t f a l l to ear th f rom a nuc lear

weapon's cloud.

heat o f a nuc lear explos ion condense t o form par t i c l es tha t contain o r are

at tached t o f i s s i on products or o ther rad ioac t i ve materia l s .

Fal l o u t ra di at i on comes from

These particles form when materials vaporized by the intense

Fa l l ou t r ad i a t i on cons is t s almost en t i r e l y o f gamma rays. The amount o f

energy released as fal lout radiat ion depends on the height a t which a weapon

i s detonated and the weapon design.

he ight such tha t the f i re b a l l does not touch the ground, f a l l o ut i n te ns i t y i s

much low er than f o r weapons detonated a t or near the ear th 's sur face.

S i m i l a r l y , f a l l ou t from a fu si on (thermonuclear) weapon i s gen era l l y much le ss

than t h at from a f i s s i o n weapon because of th e small er qu an ti ty of f i s s i o n

fragments produced.

If a f i ss i o n weapon i s detonated a t a

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Thermal r a d i a t io n from a nucl ear weapon can produce severe burn s on

exposed i n d i v i d u a l s a n d may cause eye damage a t g rea t d i s tances f rom the

e x pl o si o n. Thermal r a d i a t i o n i s a l s o c ap ab le o f i g n i t i n g f i r e s i n combus t i b l e

m a t e r i a l s a t s u b s t a n t i a l d i s t a n c e s fr om t h e ex p lo s io n . These f i r e s c o u l d

produce add i t io na l personnel casua l t ie s . The d is tances over which thermal

r a d i a t i o n i s a th re at depends on weapon y i e l d , he igh t o f burs t , a tmospher ic

cond i t i on s , and the p resence o f i n te r ven ing obstac les .

B l a s t e f f e c t s c o n s i s t o f b o t h a i r b l a s t and g ro un d shock. The a i r b l a s t

i s composed of an overpressure and blast winds that accompany the shock f ront

as i t moves away from the detonation. B ot h e f f e c t s d ecr ea se i n i n t e n s i t y w i t h

d i s t a n c e f ro m t h e b l a s t c e nt e r. B l a s t e f f e c t s produce i n j u r i e s b o th d i r e c t l y

a n d i n d i r e c t l y . D i r e c t i n j u r i e s r e s u l t f r o m e x p o s u r e o f t h e b o d y t o t h e h i g h

p r es s ur e a s s oc i a te d w i t h a b l a s t wave. I n d i r e c t i n j u r i e s r e s u l t fr om t h e

i mp ac t o f m i s s i l e s on the body or f rom d isp lacement of the body as a whole by

t h e b l ast winds.

N u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n c o n s i s t s of high-energy neutrons and gamma r a y s t h a t

emanate f rom a nuc lear exp los ion. Radi a t io n i n j u r i e s re su l t when th e

radiat ion penetrates the body and damages or des t roys body ce l l s . The

s e v e r i t y o f t he i n j u r y i s a f u n ct i on o f th e t o t a l r a d i a t i o n dose rece i ved by

th e body and the l eng th o f t i me over whi ch the dose i s rece i ved [l].

2. Mi t i ga t i on Techn iques*

M i t i g a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f n u c l e a r weapons i s b e st a ch ie ve d by t h e

use o f a personnel shel t er . Any sol i d , opaque ma ter ia l , such as a wal l , h i l l1,

o r tr e e , can p r o t e c t i n d i v i d u a l s fr om d i r e c t i n j u r y by t he rm al r a d i a t i o n i f

t h e m a t e r i a l i s between t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e f i r e b a l l . I n s i d e a s h e l t e r ,

*Most o f t h i s d i s c u s s io n is based on in f orm at i on i n Reference 1. Otherr e fe r en c es a r e c i t e d as appropr i a te .

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pr ot ec t i on could be obtained by avoiding ex te r i or wal l openings through which

thermal rad ia t ion may enter the she l ter . To prevent f i res f rom be ing star ted

i n the she lt er, ex t er i or wall apertures should be covered by an opaque,

noncombustible material.

Prot ect ion from combustion products th at emanate from any f i r e s ig ni te d

near a sh el te r by thermal ra di at io n may be more d i f f i cu l t to ach ieve than

pro tec t i on f rom i n i t i a l thermal rad ia t ion. One o f the more e f fe ct iv e

countermeasures i s t o cre ate a po si t i ve pressure ins id e the s he l t e r by

mechanical ven ti la ti on. Otherwise, a sealed b a r r i e r may be requi red [2,3].

Use o f a po si t i ve pressure requ i res a source o f uncontaminated ven t i la t i ng a i r

and, i f such a source i s avai labl e, would not adversely af fe ct sh el te r

h a b i ta b i l i t y . Use o f a sea le d b a r r i e r cou ld i n t e r f e r e wi th sh e l te r

v e n t i l a t i o n i f barriers are needed on a l l she l t e r ex t e r i o r sur faces.

Two actions that can be taken t o reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n j u r y f rom

b l ast ef fe ct s o f nuclear weapons inc lude str uc tu ra l s t rengthen ing o f the

she l t e r and p revent ion o f a i r b las t en t ry i n t o the she l te r.

strengthening reduces the susceptabi l i t y o f a s h elt e r t o s t r u c t ur a l f a i l u r e

and thereby reduces the l i ke l i ho od o f i n j u r i e s caused by such fa i lu re s.

Preven t ion o f a i r b l as t en t ry i n t o the she l te r can reduce in j u r ie s caused by

whole body tr an sl at io n and by missi les, as wel l as di re ct i n j u r i e s from the

overpressure.

S t ruc tu ra l

Strengthening o f a sh el te r s tr uc tu re can be achieved by adding

intermediate supports t o reduce span lengths and by otherwise strengthening

s t r u c t u r a l members. These ac ti on s should no t have a s ign i f icant adverse

impact on shel t e r h a b i ta b i l i t y .

Preven t ion o f a i r b las t en t ry i s accompl ished by c los ing she l te r ex t e r i o r

openings wi th b last - re si st an t coverings. Such clos ures w i l l prohibit adequate

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she l t e r ven t i l a t i on i f pe rmanen t c l osu res a re used .

a l l e v i a t e d b y p r o t e c t i n g v e n t i l a t i o n o p e n i n g s w i t h b l a s t c l o s u r e v a l v e s .

The s i t ua t i on can be

Prov id i ng p r o tec t i on f r om the nuc lea r r ad ia t i on t h a t nuc lea r weapons

p roduce requ i res t ha t sh i e l d i ng ma te r i a l be pos i t i oned be tween the rad ia t i on

source and the i n d i v i d u a l s t o b e pr o te c te d . I f p r o t e c t i o n i s t o be p ro vi de d

a g a i ns t i n i t i a l n u cl e ar r a d i a t i o n , t h e s h i e l d must be e f f e c t i v e a g a i ns t b ot h

gamma rays and neutrons.

the sh ie ld be ef fect ive against gamma rays.

P r o t e c t i o n fr om fal l o u t r a d i a t i o n r e q u i r es o n l y t h a t

Gamma-shield e f f ec t i ven ess i s a

f u n c t i o n o n l y o f t h e mass o f t h e s h i e l d i n g m a t e r i a l . N eu tr on s h i e l d i n g i s

more compl ic ated ,because neutrons must f i r s t be slowed by an e lement w i t h h i gh

atomic inass and then captured by elements with low atomic mass. Gamma rays

ar e crea ted i n th e slo win g process, and a gamma sh ie ld must thus be included.

Concrete and damp ea rt h a re good compromise ma te ri al s f o r bot h neut rons and

gamma rays. Sh ie ld in g ef fe ct i ve ne ss can be improved by adding boron o r

i r o n t o c on cr et e. E xp ed ie nt r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n i s o f t e n pr o vi d ed b y p l a c i n g

e a r t h a g a i n s t e x t e r i o r w a l l s a n d r o o f s o f s h e l t e r s t r u c t u r e s .

t h a t co ve r e x t e r i o r o penings i n t o s h e l t e r s can a dv er se ly a f f e c t t h e a b i l i t y t o

Any act ions

ve n t i l a t e t he shel t e r . The re fore , t o p reven t such de t r imen ta l e f f ec t s ,

special shielding procedures must be employed.

C. C i v i l Defense Programs and Pol ic ies

1. H i s t o r y

Modern c i v i l defense i n t he Un i t ed S ta tes had i t s beg inn ing du r i ng

World War I when the S ecre tar y o f War, as chairman of t he N atio nal DefenseCounc i l (NDC), was made re spo ns ibl e f o r c i v i l defense. Cou nci ls were

es ta b l i s hed a t S ta te and lo ca l le ve ls t o hand le mat te rs such as mora le ,

conserv a t ion o f food and o ther resources, pu b l i c hea l th , and "Amer ican iza t ion"

o f a l i e n s d u r i n g t h e war y ea rs . I n 1339, t h e NDC and local counc i ls were

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1982 FEMA State of the Art Assessment-Shelter Habitability 192p

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Transcript of 1982 FEMA State of the Art Assessment-Shelter Habitability 192p