1/44 - University of Hawaiʻi · 2015. 5. 2. · between Puu Laelae and Kohakohau Gulch (Fig. 1)....
Transcript of 1/44 - University of Hawaiʻi · 2015. 5. 2. · between Puu Laelae and Kohakohau Gulch (Fig. 1)....
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COOPERATIVE NATIONAL PARK RESOURCES STUDIES UNIT
UNIVERSITY OF JUWAII AT MANOA
Department of Botany
Honolulu, Hawaii 96822
Clifford W. Smith, Unit Director Associate Professor of Botany
Technical Report 1/44
Avifauna of Kohala Mountain, Hawai'i
Charles van Riper 111
February 1982
UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII AT MANOA
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Contract No. CX 8000 7 0009
Contribution Number CPSU/UH
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ABSTRACT
Censuses were conducted f rom 1970-1972 i n t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t ,
Hawai 'i . N a t i v e p a s s e r i nes were t h e most commonly encountered h i r d s , w i t h
t h e n e c t a r g u i l d o f t h e Drepan id idae h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t numbers o f
reco rded i n d i v i d u a l s and b e i n g t h e most c o n s i s t e n t l y d e t e c t e d b i r d s . A
number o f spec ies , known t o have o c c u r r e d h i s t o r i c a l l y i n t h e f o r e s t , were
n o t found d u r i n g t h e s tudy ; however, f o u r endangered spec ies ( k o l o a , ' i o ,
Hawai i Creeper, nuku-pu ' u ) were reco rded d u r i n g coun t p e r i o d s . The
nuku-pu 'u has n o t been r e p o r t e d p r e v i o u s l y f r o m t h e i s l a n d o f Hawai ' i .
Spec ies c o m p o s i t i o n was c o n s t a n t i n t h e f o r e s t t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r .
However, t h e n e c t a r i v o r o u s spec ies i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s t u d y a rea d i d undergo
s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n numbers ove r t h e annual c y c l e . The number o f
n e c t a r i vorous b i r d s reco rded /hour o f census i ng d i d n o t change
s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s tudy s i t e ove r t h e annual c y c l e . B r e e d i n g
p e r i o d s , as de te rm ined f rom a c t i v e n e s t s and census da ta , were found t o
l e n g t h e n somewhat t h e p r e s e n t l y known b r e e d i n g seasons o f some spec ies i n
o t h e r areas o f Hawai i .
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABSTRACT
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METHODS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . Study area
I 1 . Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
. . . . . . . . . . . . I Species d i s t r i b u t i o n and abundance
. . . . . . . . . . . . . I 1 U n i f o r m i t y o f spec ies c o m p o s i t i o n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 1 1 . Species abundance
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I V . B r e e d i n g seasons
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LITERATURE CITED
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX
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F i gu r e s
F ig . 1.
F i g . 2.
F ig . 3.
T a b l e 1.
Tab le 2.
T a b l e 3.
Tab le 4.
L i s t o f
Map o f a p o r t i o n o f Kohala Mountain, H a w a i ' i , showing t h e
s t u d y area ( d a r k hash ing ) and l o c a t i o n s where compara t i ve
censuses were conducted. E l e v a t i o n c o n t o u r s a r e i n meters,
doub le dashed l i n e s a r e j e e p roads, and l i g h t hash ing denotes
p a s t u r e l a n d a d j a c e n t t o t h e f o r e s t .
Average mon th l y numbers o f n e c t a r i v o r o u s b i r d s reco rded d u r i n g
counts f r o m 1970-1972 i n t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t , H a w a i ' i .
Numbers a t t h e t o p i n pa ren theses a r e sample s i z e s .
Average m o n t h l y numbers o f t h e common n o n - n e c t a r i v o r o u s
p a s s e r i n e s p e c i e s reco rded d u r i n g coun ts f rom 1970-1972 i n t h e
Kohala Moun ta in F o r e s t , Hawai 'i. Numbers a t t h e t o p i n
parentheses a r e sample s i zes .
L i s t o f Tab les
B i r d s reco rded i n t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t d u r i n q 47 count
p e r i o d s f r o m 1970-1972.
Mon th l y re1 a t i ve abundance o f b i r d spec ies as de te rm ined f rom 47
count p e r i o d s conducted f r o m 1970-1972 i n t h e Kohala Moun ta in
F o r e s t , Hawai ' i . Number o f a c t i v e n e s t s found f rom 1969-1972 on Koha la Mounta in ,
Hawai 'i.
Mean pe rcen tage o f j u v e n i l e b i r d s reco rded d u r i n q 1,115 hours of
census ing f rom 1970-1972 i n t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t ,
Hawai ' i .
iii
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AVIFAUNA OF KOHALA MOUNTAIN, HAWA I ' I
The Kohala Mountain Fores t remains one o f t h e l e a s t known areas i n
t h e Hawaiian arch ipe lago. A wide v a r i e t y o f av ian spec ies were found
t h e r e d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1800 's (Ro thsch i l d 1893-1900, Wi lson and Evans
1890-1899). Palmer ( i n Rothsch i 1 d 1893-1900: 58) c o l l e c t e d one o f t h e few
specimens o f t h e 'u la - 'a i -hawane (Ci r i d o p s anna) and Perk ins (1901 )
r epo r t ed t h i s f o r e s t t o be one o f t h e l a s t s t rongho lds o f t he ' o ' u
( P s i t t i r o s t r a p s i t t a c e a ) on Hawai 'i. Since 1900 t h e r e has been l i t t l e
o r n i t h o l o g i c a l work done i n t h i s r eg ion ; P r a t t (1967) recorded 5 n a t i ve
b i r d species i n t h e southernmost p a r t o f t h e f o r e s t , hu t Donaghho (1971)
f a i l e d t o f i n d any n a t i v e b i r d s i n an e x p e d i t i o n a long t h e no r t he rn s lope
o f t h e mountain. Berger (1975) and van R iper (1973, 1974, 1976, 1978a)
r epo r t ed on open-hab i ta t b i r d s , most o f which were i n t r oduced species.
Because so l i t t l e s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t remains i n t h e i s l a n d s f o r
H a w a i ' i ' s endemic b i r d s , i t i s impe ra t i ve t o document ex tan t f o r e s t areas
which con ta i n th rea tened o r endangered species. From 1969-1972 I
conducted censuses and recorded t h e b reed ing behav io r o f b i rds i n Kohal a
Mountain Fores t , a t t emp t i ng t o : ( 1 ) d e f i n e compositon o f t he present
av i fauna ; ( 2 ) measure u n i f o r m i t y o f species composi t ion throuqhout t h e
f o r e s t ; ( 3 ) q u a n t i f y r e l a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n numbers o f each species; and ( 4 )
d e l i m i t aspects o f t h e breeding seasons.
METHODS
Study a r e a . The Kohala Mountain Fores t i s a mesic ecosystem w i t h a mixed
canopy s f ' o h i ' a (Met ros ideros c o l l i n a ) and 'o lapa (Chei rodendron
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t r i g y n u m ) t r e e s , u n d e r l a i n by t r e e fe rns ( C i b o t i u m spp.) and o t h e r
subcanopy t r e e spec ies o f wh ich Pe lea ssp. a r e t h e most common. The
v e g e t a t i o n o f t h i s area i s most s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Eas t and West Maui,
b e i n g d i f f e r e n t f rom any o t h e r f o r e s t on t h e i s l a n d o f H a w a i ' i (Rock
1913). The p a u c i t y o f f i e l d work i n t h i s area has been l a r q e l y due t o t h e
rugged t e r r a i n . The f o r e s t i s bounded on 2 s i d e s by t h e p r e c i p i t o u s
canyons o f Honokane on t h e west and Waip io Val l e y on t h e e a s t , and by
sheer sea c l i f f s t o t h e n o r t h . On ly l i m i t e d access i s a v a i l a b l e f rom t h e
south t h r o u g h p r i v a t e ranch lands.
The p r i n c i p a l s t u d y area was a 0.25 kin2 q u a d r a t a t 1100 m e l e v a t i o n
between Puu Lae lae and Kohakohau Gulch (F ig . 1). Comparat ive census
l o c a t i o n s were t h e Kehena D i t c h T r a i l , Eke, and Kawainui Stream area. I n
p a s t u r e areas s u r r o u n d i n g t h e f o r e s t , numerous i n c i d e n t a l s i g h t i ngs were
noted.
Techniques.--Breeding o b s e r v a t i o n s were made t h r o u g h o u t t h e 3 y e a r s o f t h e
s tudy. D u r i n g 1971 and 1972, 222 hours were spen t census ing d u r i n g 47
d a i l y - c o u n t p e r i o d s . I made most o b s e r v a t i o n s d u r i nq t h e peak b r e e d i n g
season (Februa ry t o May); however, censuses were a l s o under taken i n an
e a r l y , l a t e , and a nonbreed ing p e r i o d (January, J u l y , and November,
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . S t r i p t r a n s e c t c o u n t s were conducted (Emlen 1971),
however, u n l i k e Emlen 's t e c h n i q u e t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i s t a n c e o f t h e b i r d
from t h e o b s e r v e r ' s p a t h o f t r a v e l was n o t recorded.
A t o t a l o f 38 d a i l y coun ts was made i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s t u d y a rea i n
wh ich 178 h were spent censusing. The c o u n t s were f r o m 07:OO t h r o u g h
12:OO and conducted a t a s low u n i n t e r r u p t e d pace. Count p e r i o d s averaged
4.7 hours, b u t were o f unequal l e n g t h because o f v a r i a b l e wea the r
c o n d i t i o n s . A1 1 b i r d s were recorded as e i t h e r an a u r a l o r v i s u a l
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d e t e c t i o n , and age and sex were no ted whenever p o s s i b l e .
m i n i m i z e doub le r e g i s t r a t i o n s t h e t ime , l o c a t i o n and d i r e c t
were recorded. No "squeak ing" o r o t h e r sounds were used t o
I n o r d e r t o
i o n o f f l i g h t
1 u r e b i rds .
On a l t e r n a t e months d u r i n g t h e peak b r e e d i n g season, compara t i ve
c o u n t s were conducted i n h a b i t a t o f t h e Koha la Mounta in F o r e s t wh ich was
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s tudy area. A t o t a l o f 44 hours was
spen t d u r i n g 9 days o f compara t i ve census ing, 3 each a t t h e Kehena D i t c h ,
Eke, and Kawainui Stream. These coun ts were conducted on t h e day
f o l l o w i n g a census i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s t u d y area, under s i m i l a r weather
c o n d i t i o n s , and d u r i n g t h e same t i m e p e r i o d as t h e p r e v i o u s d a y ' s census.
The numbers o f each spec ies encountered p e r hour o f census ing were
used t o d e s c r i b e abundance l e v e l s (Ro tenber ry and Wiens 1974). These d a t a
were t h e n used t o d e f i n e :
r e l a t i v e abundance o f spec ies i = Ni/A
where N i = t o t a l number o f i n d i v i d u a l s o f t h e i t h s p e c i e s reco rded and A =
t o t a l number o f t h e most abundant spec ies ; and
f requency o f spec ies i = S i l S t
where S i = number o f count p e r i o d s i n wh ich t h e i t h spec ies was observed
and S t = t o t a l number o f counts ; and
i n c i d e n c e o f s p e c i e s i = Nils{.
A l l s t a t i s t i c a l ana lyses were computed on a Bur roughs 6700 u s i n g SPSS
programs ( N i e e t a1 1975). Where d a t a were n o t n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d ,
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s were used b e f o r e appl i c a t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s . The
l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e was c o n s i d e r e d t o be 0.05.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Species d i s t r i b u t i o n and abundance.--A t o t a l o f 13 b i r d species was
recorded d u r i n g censuses i n t h e Kohala Mountain Fores t , w h i l e 16 o t h e r
species were noted du r i ng i n c i d e n t a l observa t ions on t he mountain. Na t i ve
species re dominated i n t h e f o r e s t area (Table I ) , w h i l e i n t r oduced
species were more common i n t he pas tu re l and and i n t r oduced f o r e s t s a t
1 ower e l eva t i ons .
Na t i ve species.--The n a t i v e r ap to r s p r e f e r r e d open pas tu re h a b i t a t t o
t h a t o f t h e closed-canopy f o r e s t . Numerous i n c i d e n t a l s i q h t i n g s o f t h e
' i o and pueo were made o u t s i d e o f t h e f o r e s t . The ' i o was most f r e q u e n t l y
observed soa r i ng over t h e deep v a l l e y s on t h e no r t he rn and no r t heas te rn
edges o f t h e f o r e s t w h i l e t h e pueo was most common over pas tu re lands.
Because o f re leases by t h e Hawai 'i D i v i s i o n o f F i s h and Game, t h e ko loa
has r e c e n t l y been re tu rned t o t h e Kohala Mountain Forest . The g rea tes t
concen t ra t i on o f ko loa a re p r e s e n t l y i n t h e Kahua Ranch ( t h e p r i n c i p a l
F i s h and Game re lease s i t e ) , s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e sma l l e r c a t t l e
wa te r i ng ho les up t o t h e b0undar.y o f t h e f o r e s t near t h e Kehena D i tch .
One p a i r was observed i n t he Hamakua D i t c h d u r i n g i n c i d e n t a l s i q h t i n q
pe r i ods th roughou t 1971, bu t no young were seen.
The most f r e q u e n t l y observed group o f n a t i ve b i r ds d u r i nq censusi nq
was t h e passer ines, o f which t h e endemic Drepanid idae were t h e most
common. The 'apapane and 'amakihi were found throughout most o f t h e
f o r e s t whereas t h e 'i ' i w i was much more 1 oca l i zed , be ing found o n l y where
ex tens i ve stands o f l a r g e r ' o h i ' a occurred. The endangered Hawaii Creeper
was observed most o f t e n i n t h e f o r e s t between Puu Eke and t h e Kehena D i t c h
t r a i l , be ing q u i t e r a r e t o absent i n o the r areas o f t h e f o r e s t . The
nuku-pu'u which h e r e t o f o r e has riot been repo r t ed from t h e i s l a n d o f
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e r c k e l i i ), I n d i a n Grey F ranco l i n (F ranco l i nus pond i c e r i anus).
Absent spec ies . - -No t i ceab ly absent f rom t h e f o r e s t were t h e Hawai ian
Thrush (Phaeorn i s obscurus; see a l s o van R i p e r and S c o t t 1979), and o t h e r
1 ess common endemic spec ies such as t h e 'akepa (Loxops c o c c i n e a ) ,
' a k i a p o l a ' a u and ' o ' u . None o f t h e n a t i v e spec ies wh ich h i s t o r i c a l l y
o c c u r r e d i n t h e f o r e s t , b u t a r e now b e l i e v e d t o he e x t i n c t , were observed.
A l though I d i d n o t f i n d ev idence o f b r e e d i n g s e a b i r d s , K e p l e r e t a1 (1979)
r e c e n t l y suggested t h a t c o l o n i e s o f Manx Shearwater ( P u f f i n u s p u f f i n u s
n e w e l l i ) may e x i s t i n t h e Kohala Mounta in Fo res t . The K a l i ji Phesant
(Lophura leucornel ana) w h i c h has r e c e n t l y undergone a g r e a t range expans ion
on t h e i s l a n d o f Hawai i ( P r a t t 1975) has a p p a r e n t l y n o t y e t reached t h e
Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t .
Uni f o r m i t y o f s p e c i e s compos i t i on . - - I n an e f f o r t t o de te rm ine i f b i r d
spec ies were un i fo r rna l l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r w idespread b u t s i m i l a r a reas i n
t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t , compara t i ve coun ts were under taken. The
ana lyses, wh ich were conducted on t h e numbers o f s p e c i e s encoun te red
d u r i n g one d a y ' s census i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s tudy area versus t h e number o f
spec ies encountered t h e f o l l o w i n g day i n a compara t i ve l o c a t i o n , showed
t h a t i n a l l cases no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n spec ies c o m p o s i t i o n e x i s t e d
between o u t l y i n g areas and t h e p r i n c i p a l s tudy s i t e (Eke: q2 = 3.54, d f =
8, P = .90; Kawainui Stream: X* = 1.35, d f = 6, P = .97; Kehena D i t c h
T r a i l : 'X2 = 1.75, d f = 6, P = .94). These r e s u l t s suggest t h a t b i r d
s p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m ove r t h e e x t a n t Kohala Moun ta in
F o r e s t area.
Species abundance.--Overal l numbers o f most b i r d spec ies i n t h e
Kohala Moun ta in F o r e s t were h i g h e r t h a n comparable s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d f r o m
Mo loka i ( S c o t t e t . a l . 1977) and Oahu ( S h a l l e n b e r g e r 1978), b u t l ower than
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o t h e r f o r e s t areas on t he i s l a n d o f Hawai 'i (Conant 1981b, Sco t t pers.
comm.). The i n t e rmed ia te numbers o f b i r d s recorded d u r i n g t h i s study may
r e f l e c t t h e lowered c a r r y i n g capac i t y o f t h i s smal l remnant o f now n e a r l y
i s o l a t e d f o r e s t . I found t h a t t h e 'apapane was t h e most abundant b i r d i n
t h e Kohala Mountain Fores t , f o l l owed c l o s e l y by t h e Japanese White-eye and
then t h e 'amakih i (Table 1). Not on l y was t h e 'apapane t h e most abundant
b i r d over t h e annual c yc l e , b u t i t a1 so had t h e most months when i t had
t h e h i g h e s t r e l a t i v e abundance (Table 2). However, t h e 'amakihi was t h e
most c o n s i s t e n t l y encountered species d u r i n g count pe r i ods i n t he f o res t
(spec ies f requency = 0.98). The lower spec ies f requency o f t h e 'i ' i w i was
p r i m a r i l y a r e s u l t o f i t s absence d u r i n g t h e nonbreeding censuses.
However, even when present t h e ' i ' i w i ' s re1 a t i v e l y 1 ow spec ies i nc i dence
va lue i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e b i r d was never commonly encountered.
I analyzed data from a l l counts conducted w i t h i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s tudy
area and found t h a t numbers o f 'apapane, 'amaki h i , and 'i ' i w i changed
s i g n i f i c a n t l y over t h e annual c y c l e ( a n a l y s i s o f va r iance ; PL .05; F ig .
2). These t h r e e species a re a l l nec ta r i vo rous , and t h e i r movements i n and
out o f t h e s tudy area might w e l l be r e l a t e d t o changes i n l o c a l nec ta r
a v a i l a b i l i t y as Baldwin (1953) showed was t r u e f o r another ' o ' h i a f o r e s t
on Hawaii. O f t h e non-nectar ivorous spec ies which were encountered
f r e q u e n t l y enough t o determine i f popu la t i on movements occured, none
showed s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e number o f b i r d s recorded/hour over t h e
annual c y c l e (Ana l ys i s o f Var iance; P .05; F i g . 3). These b i r d s tended
t o be e i t h e r i n s e c t i vorous ( ' e l e p a i o ) o r omni vorous (Red-bi 1 l e d L e i o t h r i x ,
Japanese Whi te-eye) .
B reed ing seasons.--On Kohala Mountain, I found t h a t t h e n a t i v e b i r d s
tended t o nes t e a r l i e r i n t h e yea r than d i d t h e i n t r oduced spec ies (Tab le
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3). The 'amaki h i showed a more c o n t r a c t e d b r e e d i n g p e r i o d t h a n has been
r e p o r t e d f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e d r y f o r e s t on Mauna Kea (Berge r 1972,
van R i p e r 1978b), b u t had a s i m i l a r b r e e d i n g p e r i o d t o t h e ' amak ih i f rom
t h e wet f o r e s t s o f Kauai (Edd inger 1970) and Hawai 'i (Ba ldw in 1953). The
'apapane and ' i ' i w i had b r e e d i n g p e r i o d s s i m i l a r t o those r e p o r t e d f rom
Kauai by Edd inger (1970). I found t h a t t h e ' e l e p a i o had a s l i g h t l y l o n g e r
b r e e d i n g season i n t h e Kohal a Mounta in F o r e s t t h a n Edd inger ( i n Be rge r
1972) found f o r t h e b i r d on Kauai, and Conant (1977) found on Oahu.
The b r e e d i n g seasons o f a1 1 n a t i v e spec ies c o i n c i d e d we1 1 w i t h
immature b i r d s observed d u r i n g censuses (Tab1 e 4). 'Apapane j u v e n i 1 es
were reco rded o v e r t h e l o n g e s t p e r i o d , b u t because i t i s n o t y e t known t h e
l e n g t h o f t i m e t h a t each of t h e s e spec ies r e t a i n t h e i r j u v e n i l e plumage,
t h e same b i r d s may have been observed ove r an ex tended t i m e p e r i o d .
The i n t r o d u c e d spec ies on Kohala Mounta in a l l e x h i b i t e d b r e e d i n g
seasons s i m i l a r t o t h e l i m i t s s e t f o r each b i r d by p r e v i o u s workers. The
Japanese White-eye b r e e d i n g season was w i t h i n t h e b r e e d i n g p e r i o d o f an
Oahu p o p u l a t i o n (Guest l 9 7 3 ) , b u t t h e R e d - b i l l e d L e i o t h r i x b r e e d i n g p e r i o d
was l a t e r i n t h e y e a r t h a n was g i v e n f o r t h i s b i r d by F i s h e r and B a l d w i n
(1947). The Common Mynah n e s t s t h a t I found were i n t h e e a r l i e r p a r t o f
t h e b r e e d i n g season which Edd inger (1967) o u t l i n e d f o r an Oahu
p o p u l a t i o n . A l l o f t h e House F i n c h n e s t s t h a t I f ound d u r i n q t h i s s t u d y
o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e same months t h a t o t h e r n e s t s have been r e p o r t e d f r o m
Hawai 'i (van R i p e r 1976) and f rom Oahu ( H i r a i 1975). B reed ing seasons f o r
t h e o t h e r i n t r o d u c e d b i r d s found on Kohala Mounta in have n o t y e t been
de te rm ined i n H a w a i ' i .
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MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
A n a l y s i s o f b r e e d i n g and census da ta f rom t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t
show t h a t , w h i l e t h e p r e s e n t day a v i f a u n a i s n o t as d i v e r s e as h i s t o r i c a l
r e c o r d s i n d i c a t e i t once was, 9 n a t i v e spec ies s t i l l e x i s t on t h e
mountain. Four o f t h e spec ies ( ko loa , ' i o , Hawai i Creeper, nuku-pu ' u )
i d e n t i f i e d d u r i n g coun t p e r i o d s a r e c l a s s i f i e d by t h e U.S. F i s h and
W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e s as endangered (USDI 1966). Recent work on a number o f
endanqered spec ies i n Hawai i has i n d i c a t e d t h a t g e n e t i c f i t n e s s may be a
prob lem i n r a r e r s p e c i e s (Temple, pers. comm.; van R i p e r 1980; Walker,
1974). It i s t h e r e f o r e i m p e r a t i v e t h a t d i v e r s e qene p o o l s be p rese rved i n
o r d e r t o i n s u r e t h e g e n e t i c i n t e g r i t y o f t h e e x t a n t spec ies .
A l t h o u g h t h e f o r e s t i s much reduced f rom i t s o r i g i n a l s i z e , i t does
f i t a number o f c r i t e r i a Diamond and May (1976) deem e s s e n t i a l f o r a
n a t u r a l reserve. The f o r e s t i s n e a r l y c i r c u l a r i n shape, wh ich maximizes
t h e a r e a - t o - p e r i m e t e r r a t i o t h u s m i n i m i z i n g d i s p e r s a l d i s t a n c e s w i t h i n t h e
f o r e s t . A c i r c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n a l s o a v o i d s a p e n n i n s u l a r e f f e c t i n
wh ich d i s p e r s a l r a t e t o o u t l y i n q p a r t s wou ld be so low as t o cause
numeorus l o c a l e x t i n c t i o n s t h e r e b y d i m i n i s h i n g t h e r e s e r v e ' s e f f e c t v e
area. Secondly, t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t has numerous e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e
s t e p p i n g s tones o f f o r e s t pa tches above Honokaa, wh ich l e a d t o t h e l a r g e
p r i s t i n e ' o h i ' a f o r e s t on t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n f l a n k o f Mauna Kea. Over t i m e ,
t h e s e f o r e s t pa tches wou ld enab le b i r d s t o e m i g r a t e i n t o t h e Kohala
Mounta in F o r e s t area. F i n a l l y , because o f H a w a i ' i ' s d i sha rmon ic fauna,
many f o r e s t a reas ( o f wh ich Kohala i s one) a r e we1 1 be low t h e c a r r y i n g
c a p a c i t i e s o f s i m i l a r s i z e d i s l a n d s o u t l i n e d by Diamond and May (1976) i n
t h e i r r e v i e w o f n a t u r a l reserves.
The Koha la Mounta in F o r e s t a rea wou ld t h e r e f o r e seem t o l e n d i t s e l f
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we1 1 t o t h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c e r t a i n spec ies wh ich have been e x t i r p a t e d
from t h i s reg ion . T r a n s l o c a t i o n s of a v i a n spec ies have been c a r r i e d o u t
q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l l y i n New Zealand ( M o r r i s 1977, Best 1980), b u t o t h e r t h a n
t h e Anser i f o rmes , l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been q i v e n t o t h i s t e c h n i q u e i n
Hawai i . The Hawai ian Thrush, wh ich was once q u i t e abundant ( P e r k i n s 1903)
b u t has s i n c e been l o s t f rom t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t , wou ld seem t o be
a p r ime c a n d i d a t e f o r r e i n t r o d u c t i o n . The b i r d s t i l l e x i s t s i n h i q h
numbers on t h e sou th and s o u t h e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e i s l a n d (van R i p e r and
S c o t t 1979), and c o u l d be e a s i l y c a p t u r e d and t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e Koha
Mounta in Fo res t .
The Koha la Mounta in F o r e s t remains today one o f t h e more i naccess
1 a
i b l e
areas on t h e main Hawai ian I s l a n d s , and because o f t h i s can be p rese rved
i n i t s p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n . B a r r i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new a v i a n
p r e d a t o r s , more success fu l c o m p e t i t o r s , o r an e p i z o o t i c , t h e area w i l l
remain a r e f u g e f o r Hawai ian b i r d s . T h e r e f o r e , s t e p s need t o be taken so
as t o ensure t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h i s sma l l , b u t i m p o r t a n t n a t i v e Hawai ian
r e f u g i um.
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
A l though t h e Kohala Mounta in F o r e s t i s n o t N a t i o n a l Park S e r v i c e
l a n d , i t i s an i s l a n d o f v e g e t a t i o n and t h e problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
e x t i n c t i o n s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e many i s l a n d s o f v e g e t a t i o n i n Hawai i
Volcanoes N a i t o n a l Park. It i s recommended t h a t :
1. N a t i o n a l Park S e r v i c e personne l keep a b r e a s t o f changes i n t h e
a v i f a u n a l compos i t i on o f Kohala Mounta in and see i f any o f t h e
changes would he a p p l i c a b l e t o changes t h a t occu r w i t h i n Hawai i
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Volcanoes Nat iona l Park.
2. I f a t r a n s p l a n t o f t h e Hawaiian Thrush ever does occur i n t o t h e
Kohala Mountain Fores t area from t h e Mauna Loa f o r e s t s , s c i e n t i s t
and Resource Management s t a f f a t Hawai i Volcanoes Nai t o n a l Park
should become i nvo l ved i n t h e e f f o r t .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The f i e l d phase o f t h i s research was made p o s s i b l e by g ran t s from t h e
Frank M. Chapman Fund, Hawaii Audubon Soc ie ty , and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counc i l
f o r B i r d Preserva t ion . The Hawa i ' i P repara to r~y Academy p rov i ded a base o f
ope ra t i ons f o r t h i s study, f o r which I am most g r a t e f u l . A Na t iona l Park
Se rv i ce Con t rac t No. C X 8000 7 0009 i n con junc t i on w i t h a Na t i ona l
Geographic Soc ie ty Grant and suppor t f rom Earthwatch and t h e Center For
F i e l d Research p rov i ded p a r t i a l support d u r i n g p repa ra t i on of t h e
manuscr ipt . M. Robinson typed t h e manuscr ip t , and I thank R. Orenste in ,
C. John Ralph, J. Michael Sco t t , and Sandra G. van R iper f o r t h e i r
p e r c e p t i v e comments on e a r l i e r d r a f t s o f t h i s paper.
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W i 1 son, S. B. and A. H. Evans. 1890-1899. Aves Hawai i e n s e s : The b i r d s
o f t h e Sandwich I s l a n d s . R. H. P o r t e r , London, England.
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TABLE 1 B i r d s recorded i n t he Kohala Mountain Fores t d u r i n g 47 count pe r i ods f rom 1970-1972
Speci es
No. Counts i n To ta l B i r d s Recorded which Species was R e l a t i v e Spec i es Spec i es
Observed No. Aura l No. V isua l Abundance Frequency Inc idence
ko l oa 2 (Anas wyvi 11 i ana )
' i 0 2 (Buteo s o l i t a r i u s )
pueo 2 (As io flammeus)
Red-bi 1 l e d L e i o t h r i x * 34 ( L e i o t h r i x l u t e a )
el od i ous Laughing Thrush* 1 (Gar ru lax canorus)
e l e p a i o (Chasiempis sandwichens is)
Japanese White-eve* 42 ( ~ o s t e r o ~ s j apon i cus )
House Finch* 6 (Carpodacus mexicanus)
'arnaki h i 46 (Loxops v i r e n s )
~ a m r e e p e r 7 (Loxops macula ta)
n u K i 7 T u ( ~ e r n i gnathus l u c i d u s )
' apapane 45 (Himat ione sanguinea)
' i ' i w i 33 ( V e s t i a r i a cocc inea)
* Denotes i n t r oduced species
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TABLE 2
Monthly r e l a t i v e abundance o f b i r d spec ies as determined from 47 count pe r i ods conducted f rom 1970-1972 i n t h e Kohala Mountain Fores t , Hawai 'i
Month ( t o t a l census hours)
Species January February March A p r i l May J u l y November ( t o t a l counted) (1 72.5) (150.5) (375.5) (79.0) (21 5.0) (101.0) (21 .O)
' e l e p a i o .19 (332) (44)
Red -b i l l ed L e i o t h r i x .06 (214) (14)
Japanese White-eye .37 (842) (85)
( )* = t o t a l b i r d s counted t h a t month
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TABLE 3
Number o f a c t i v e n e s t s found f rom 1969-1972 on Kohal a Mountain , Hawai ' i .*
MONTHS SPECIES / Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun J u l Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
' amak ih i 4 10 14 11 8 3
- - - - -
'apapane 1 3 4 2 -
'i ' i w i 2 5 4 1
' e l epa i o 1 1 2 6 4 3 1
Red-b i l l e d L e i o t h r i x 1 3 3 1
Japanese Whi t e - e y e 1 3 2 1 1
R i c e b i r d 1 1 1 1 1 1
Common Mynah 2 4 3 -
Northe rn C a r d i n a l 4 4 5 2 2
S k y l a r k 1 1 1
House F i n c h 1 4 1 0 7
House Sparrow 2 4 2 -
* A n e s t can occupy more t h a n a one month p e r i o d .
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Mean percentage o f j u v e n i l e b i r d s recorded d u r i n g 1,115 hours o f census ing f rom 1970-1972 i n t h e Kohala Mountain Fores t , Hawa i ' i
Month ( t o t a l hours censused)
Species January February March A p r i l May J u l y November ( t o t a l b i r d s (172.5) (150.5) (375.5) (79.0) (215.0) (101.0) (21.0)
counted)
'amaki h i (701)
' e l e p a i o (332)
( )* = t o t a l v i s u a l observa t ions each month
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Figure 1.
Map of a po r t ion of Kohala Mountain, Hawai'i, showing t h e s tudy a r e a (dark hashing) and l o c a t i o n s where comparative censuses were conducted. Eleva t ion con- t o u r s a r e i n meters , double dashed l i n e s a r e jeep roads, and l i g h t hashing denotes p a s t u r e land ad jacent t o t h e f o r e s t .
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Figure 2.
Average monthly numbers of nectarivorous birds recorded during counts from 1970-1972 in the Kohala Mountain Forest, Hawai'i. Numbers at the top in parentheses are sample sizes.
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NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL
MONTHS
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Figure 3.
Average monthly numbers of the common non-nectarivo~ous passerine species recorded during counts from 1970-1972 in the Kohala Mountain Forest, Hawai'i. Numbers at the top in parentheses are sample sizes.
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(21.0) (172.5) (150.5)(375.5) (79.0)(215.0) (10 1.0) 0 - ELEPAiO I\ . *- 4 RED-BILLED I \ L EIOTHRIX i i8 *---a JAPANESE I \ WHITE-EYE
e
I \ 8
8
I \ .9
1- i I b * % 8 0 \ I
e
I \
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NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL
MONTHS