13 Lecture Presentation

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LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lectures by

Erin Barley

Kathleen Fitzpatrick

Meiosis and Sexual

Life Cycles

Chapter 13



Overview: Variations on a Theme

• Living organisms are distinguished by theirability to reproduce their own kind

• Genetics is the scientific study of heredity andvariation

• Heredity is the transmission of traits from onegeneration to the next

• Variation is demonstrated by the differences in

appearance that offspring show from parentsand siblings




Concept 13.1: Offspring acquire genes from

parents by inheriting chromosomes

• In a literal sense, children do not inheritparticular physical traits from their parents

•

It is genes that are actually inherited




Inheritance of Genes

• Genes are the units of heredity, and are madeup of segments of DNA

• Genes are passed to the next generation viareproductive cells called gametes (sperm and

eggs)• Each gene has a specific location called a

locus on a certain chromosome

• Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes




Comparison of Asexual and Sexual

Reproduction

• In asexual reproduction, a single individualpasses genes to its offspring without the fusion

of gametes• A clone is a group of genetically identical

individuals from the same parent

• In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise

to offspring that have unique combinations ofgenes inherited from the two parents




Figure 13.2

(a) Hydra (b) Redwoods

Bud

Parent

0.5 mm



Concept 13.2: Fertilization and meiosis

alternate in sexual life cycles

• A life cycle is the generation-to-generationsequence of stages in the reproductive history

of an organism




Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

• Human somatic cells (any cell other than agamete) have 23 pairs of chromosomes

• A karyotype is an ordered display of the pairsof chromosomes from a cell

• The two chromosomes in each pair are calledhomologous chromosomes, or homologs

• Chromosomes in a homologous pair are the

same length and shape and carry genescontrolling the same inherited characters




Figure 13.3

Pair of homologousduplicated chromosomes

Centromere

Sisterchromatids

Metaphase

chromosome

5 m

APPLICATION

TECHNIQUE



• The sex chromosomes, which determine the sex of the individual, are called X and Y

• Human females have a homologous pair of Xchromosomes (XX)

• Human males have one X and one Ychromosome

• The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are

called autosomes




• Each pair of homologous chromosomes includesone chromosome from each parent

• The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cellare two sets of 23: one from the mother and onefrom the father

• A diploid cell (2n ) has two sets ofchromosomes

• For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n = 46)




• In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred,each chromosome is replicated

• Each replicated chromosome consists of twoidentical sister chromatids




Figure 13.4

Sister chromatids

of one duplicatedchromosome

Key

Maternal set of

chromosomes (n

3)Paternal set ofchromosomes (n 3)

Key

2n 6

Centromere

Two nonsisterchromatids ina homologous pair

Pair of homologouschromosomes(one from each set)



• A gamete (sperm or egg) contains a single setof chromosomes, and is haploid (n )

• For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23)

•

Each set of 23 consists of 22 autosomes and asingle sex chromosome

• In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sexchromosome is X

• In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may beeither X or Y

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.



• Fertilization is the union of gametes (the spermand the egg)

•

The fertilized egg is called a zygote and hasone set of chromosomes from each parent

• The zygote produces somatic cells by mitosisand develops into an adult

Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the

Human Life Cycle




• At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testesproduce haploid gametes

• Gametes are the only types of human cellsproduced by meiosis, rather than mitosis

• Meiosis results in one set of chromosomes ineach gamete

• Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life

cycles to maintain chromosome number


Fi 13 5



Figure 13.5

Key

Haploid (n )Diploid (2n )

Egg (n )

Haploid gametes (n 23)

Sperm (n )

Ovary Testis

Mitosis anddevelopment

Diploidzygote

(2n

46)

Multicellular diploid

adults (2n 46)

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION



The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles

• The alternation of meiosis and fertilization iscommon to all organisms that reproducesexually

• The three main types of sexual life cycles differin the timing of meiosis and fertilization




• Gametes are the only haploid cells in animals• They are produces by meiosis and undergo no

further cell division before fertilization

•

Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote thatdivides by mitosis to develop into a multicellularorganism


Figure 13 6



Figure 13.6

Key

Haploid (n )

Diploid (2n )

Gametes


Zygote

MitosisDiploidmulticellularorganism

(a) Animals

n

n

n

2n 2n 2n

2n 2n

n n

n

n n

n

n

n

n

n MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS

FERTILIZATION

FERTILIZATION

Mitosis Mitosis

Mitosis

Mitosis Mitosis

Gametes

Spores

Gametes

Zygote

Zygote

Haploid multi-cellular organism(gametophyte)

Diploidmulticellularorganism(sporophyte)

Haploid unicellular ormulticellular organism

(b) Plants and some algae (c) Most fungi and some protists

Figure 13 6a



Figure 13.6a Key

Haploid (n )

Diploid (2n )

Gametes


Zygote

MitosisDiploidmulticellularorganism

(a) Animals

n

2n

n

n

2n



• Plants and some algae exhibit an alternation ofgenerations

• This life cycle includes both a diploid andhaploid multicellular stage

• The diploid organism, called the sporophyte,makes haploid spores by meiosis




• Each spore grows by mitosis into a haploidorganism called a gametophyte

• A gametophyte makes haploid gametes bymitosis

• Fertilization of gametes results in a diploidsporophyte


Figure 13 6b



Figure 13.6b

2n 2n

n


Mitosis Mitosis

Mitosis

GametesSpores

Zygote

Haploid multi-cellular organism(gametophyte)

Diploidmulticellularorganism(sporophyte)

(b) Plants and some algae

n n

n

n

Haploid (n )

Diploid (2n )

Key



• In most fungi and some protists, the onlydiploid stage is the single-celled zygote; thereis no multicellular diploid stage

• The zygote produces haploid cells by meiosis

• Each haploid cell grows by mitosis into ahaploid multicellular organism

• The haploid adult produces gametes by

mitosis




• Depending on the type of life cycle, eitherhaploid or diploid cells can divide by mitosis

• However, only diploid cells can undergomeiosis

• In all three life cycles, the halving and doublingof chromosomes contributes to geneticvariation in offspring




Concept 13.3: Meiosis reduces the number of

chromosome sets from diploid to haploid

• Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by thereplication of chromosomes

•

Meiosis takes place in two sets of celldivisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II

• The two cell divisions result in four daughtercells, rather than the two daughter cells in

mitosis• Each daughter cell has only half as many

chromosomes as the parent cell




The Stages of Meiosis

• After chromosomes duplicate, two divisionsfollow

– Meiosis I (reductional division): homologs pairup and separate, resulting in two haploid

daughter cells with replicated chromosomes – Meiosis II (equational division) sister

chromatids separate

• The result is four haploid daughter cells with

unreplicated chromosomes


Figure 13.7-1



g

Pair of homologouschromosomes indiploid parent cell

Duplicated pairof homologouschromosomes

Chromosomesduplicate

Sisterchromatids

Diploid cell withduplicatedchromosomes

Interphase

Figure 13.7-2






Sisterchromatids


Homologouschromosomes separate

Haploid cells withduplicated chromosomes

Meiosis I

1

Interphase

Figure 13.7-3 I h






Sisterchromatids


Homologouschromosomes separate

Haploid cells withduplicated chromosomes

Sister chromatidsseparate

Haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes

Interphase

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

2

1



• Meiosis I is preceded by interphase, when thechromosomes are duplicated to form sisterchromatids

• The sister chromatids are genetically identicaland joined at the centromere

• The single centrosome replicates, forming twocentrosomes





BioFlix: Meiosis



• Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases – Prophase I

– Metaphase I

– Anaphase I

– Telophase I and cytokinesis


Figure 13.8



MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase ITelophase I and

Cytokinesis

Centrosome(with centriole pair)

Sisterchromatids

Chiasmata

Spindle

Homologouschromosomes

Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope

Duplicated homologouschromosomes (red and blue)pair and exchange segments;2n 6 in this example.

Centromere(with kinetochore)

Metaphaseplate

Microtubuleattached tokinetochore

Chromosomes line upby homologous pairs.

Sister chromatidsremain attached

Homologouschromosomesseparate

Each pair of homologouschromosomes separates.

Cleavagefurrow

Two haploid cellsform; each chromosomestill consists of twosister chromatids.

MEIOSIS I: Separates sister chromatids

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase IITelophase II and

Cytokinesis


Haploid daughtercells forming

During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;four haploid daughter cells result, containing unduplicated chromosomes.

Figure 13.8a



Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I andCytokinesis

Centrosome

(with centriole pair)

Sisterchromatids

Chiasmata

Spindle

Homologouschromosomes

Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope

Duplicated homologouschromosomes (red and blue)pair and exchange segments;2n 6 in this example.

Centromere(with kinetochore)

Metaphaseplate

Microtubuleattached tokinetochore

Chromosomes line upby homologous pairs.

Sister chromatidsremain attached

Homologouschromosomesseparate

Each pair of homologouschromosomes separates.

Cleavagefurrow

Two haploidcells form; eachchromosomestill consistsof two sisterchromatids.



Prophase I • Prophase I typically occupies more than 90%

of the time required for meiosis

•

Chromosomes begin to condense• In synapsis, homologous chromosomes

loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene




• In crossing over, nonsister chromatidsexchange DNA segments

• Each pair of chromosomes forms a tetrad, agroup of four chromatids

• Each tetrad usually has one or morechiasmata, X-shaped regions where crossingover occurred




Metaphase I • In metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase

plate, with one chromosome facing each pole

•

Microtubules from one pole are attached to thekinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad

• Microtubules from the other pole are attached tothe kinetochore of the other chromosome




Anaphase I • In anaphase I, pairs of homologous

chromosomes separate

•

One chromosome moves toward each pole,guided by the spindle apparatus

• Sister chromatids remain attached at thecentromere and move as one unit toward the

pole




Telophase I and Cytokinesis • In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the

cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; eachchromosome still consists of two sisterchromatids

• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously,forming two haploid daughter cells




• In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; inplant cells, a cell plate forms

• No chromosome replication occurs betweenthe end of meiosis I and the beginning ofmeiosis II because the chromosomes arealready replicated




•Division in meiosis II also occurs in four phases

– Prophase II

– Metaphase II

– Anaphase II

– Telophase II and cytokinesis

• Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis


Figure 13.8b



Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase IITelophase II and

Cytokinesis


Haploid daughtercells forming

During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;four haploid daughter cells result, containing unduplicated chromosomes.



Prophase II • In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms

• In late prophase II, chromosomes (each stillcomposed of two chromatids) move towardthe metaphase plate




Metaphase II • In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are

arranged at the metaphase plate

• Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the twosister chromatids of each chromosome are nolonger genetically identical

• The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to

microtubules extending from opposite poles




Anaphase II • In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate

• The sister chromatids of each chromosomenow move as two newly individualchromosomes toward opposite poles




Telophase II and Cytokinesis • In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at

opposite poles

• Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begindecondensing




•

Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm• At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter

cells, each with a haploid set of unreplicatedchromosomes

• Each daughter cell is genetically distinct fromthe others and from the parent cell




A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

•

Mitosis conserves the number of chromosomesets, producing cells that are geneticallyidentical to the parent cell

• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes

sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid),producing cells that differ genetically from eachother and from the parent cell


Figure 13.9a



Prophase

Duplicatedchromosome

MITOSIS

Chromosomeduplication

Parent cell

2n 6

Metaphase

AnaphaseTelophase

2n 2n

Daughter cellsof mitosis

MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS I

MEIOSIS II

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I

Haploidn 3

Chiasma

Chromosomeduplication Homologous

chromosome pair

Daughtercells of

meiosis I

Daughter cells of meiosis II

n n n n

Figure 13.9b



SUMMARY

Property Mitosis Meiosis

DNAreplication

Number ofdivisions

Synapsis ofhomologouschromosomes

Number ofdaughter cellsand geneticcomposition

Role in theanimal body

Occurs during interphase beforemitosis begins

One, including prophase, metaphase,anaphase, and telophase

Does not occur

Two, each diploid (2n ) and geneticallyidentical to the parent cell

Enables multicellular adult to arise fromzygote; produces cells for growth, repair,

and, in some species, asexual reproduction

Occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins

Two, each including prophase, metaphase, anaphase,and telophase

Occurs during prophase I along with crossing overbetween nonsister chromatids; resulting chiasmatahold pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion

Four, each haploid (n ), containing half as manychromosomes as the parent cell; genetically differentfrom the parent cell and from each other

Produces gametes; reduces number of chromosomesby half and introduces genetic variability among the

gametes



•

Three events are unique to meiosis, and allthree occur in meiosis l

– Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I:Homologous chromosomes physically connect

and exchange genetic information – At the metaphase plate, there are paired

homologous chromosomes (tetrads), instead ofindividual replicated chromosomes

– At anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes,instead of sister chromatids, that separate




•

Sister chromatid cohesion allows sisterchromatids of a single chromosome to staytogether through meiosis I

• Protein complexes called cohesins are

responsible for this cohesion• In mitosis, cohesins are cleaved at the end of

metaphase

• In meiosis, cohesins are cleaved along the

chromosome arms in anaphase I (separation ofhomologs) and at the centromeres in anaphase II(separation of sister chromatids)




Concept 13.4: Genetic variation produced in

sexual life cycles contributes to evolution

• Mutations (changes in an organism’s DNA) are

the original source of genetic diversity

• Mutations create different versions of genescalled alleles

• Reshuffling of alleles during sexual reproductionproduces genetic variation




Origins of Genetic Variation Among

Offspring

• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosisand fertilization is responsible for most of thevariation that arises in each generation

• Three mechanisms contribute to geneticvariation

– Independent assortment of chromosomes

– Crossing over – Random fertilization




Independent Assortment of Chromosomes •

Homologous pairs of chromosomes orientrandomly at metaphase I of meiosis

• In independent assortment, each pair ofchromosomes sorts maternal and paternal

homologs into daughter cells independently ofthe other pairs




•

The number of combinations possible whenchromosomes assort independently intogametes is 2n , where n is the haploid number

• For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8

million (223) possible combinations ofchromosomes


Figure 13.10-3



Possibility 1 Possibility 2

Two equally probablearrangements ofchromosomes at

metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughtercells

Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4



Crossing Over

•

Crossing over produces recombinantchromosomes, which combine DNA inheritedfrom each parent

• Crossing over begins very early in prophase I,

as homologous chromosomes pair up gene bygene




•

In crossing over, homologous portions of twononsister chromatids trade places

• Crossing over contributes to genetic variationby combining DNA from two parents into a

single chromosome


Figure 13.11-1 Prophase I of meiosis

Nonsister chromatidsheld together



of meiosis held togetherduring synapsis

Pair of homologs






Pair of homologs

Chiasma

Centromere

TEM






Pair of homologs

Chiasma

Centromere

TEM

Anaphase I






Pair of homologs

Chiasma

Centromere

TEM

Anaphase I

Anaphase II






Pair of homologs

Chiasma

Centromere

TEM

Anaphase I

Anaphase II

Daughtercells

Recombinant chromosomes



Random Fertilization •

Adds to genetic variation because any spermcan fuse with any ovum (unfertilized egg)

• The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4million possible chromosome combinations

from independent assortment) produces azygote with any of about 70 trillion diploidcombinations

•

Crossing over adds even more variation• Each zygote has a unique genetic identity





Animation: Genetic VariationRight-click slide / select “Play”



The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic

Variation Within Populations

• Natural selection results in the accumulation ofgenetic variations favored by the environment

• Sexual reproduction contributes to the geneticvariation in a population, which originates frommutations




Figure 13.UN04

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