1.0 BIODIVERSITY

BY : MDM. NURFAZLINI ISMAIL

1.1 Biodiversity And Classification

• State the types of biodiversity (genetic, species and ecosystem)

• State hierarchical classification

Types of Biodiversity

Refers to genetic variation within a population and between populations

Refers to variety of species in an ecosystem or throughout the biosphere

Refers to different ecosystems in the biosphere that offer a variety of habitat

Hierarchical Classification

• In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus introduced a system for grouping species in increasingly broad categories.

• The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are domain, kingdom,phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.

• A taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy is called a taxon.

Hierarchical Classification

Domain

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

species

Binomial Nomenclature

• In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus published a system of taxonomy based on resemblances.

• The two-part scientific name: Genus species.

• The first letter of the genus is capitalized, and the entire species name is italicized

• Both parts together name the species. This is the species specific epithet.

1.2 Domain Bacteria and Archea

• State the two domain of prokaryotes, Bacteria (E. coli) and Archaea (Sulfolobus sp.).

• State the importance of bacteria

PROKARYOTE

DOMAIN BACTERIA

e.g: E. coli

DOMAIN ARCHAE

e.g: Sulfolobus sp.

Importance Of Bacteria: Recycling of chemical elements in ecosystem (nitrogen fixation)• Control the breakdown of plants and

animals

• Rhizobium sp., are used for nitrogen fixation for leguminous crops.

• Fixing aerobic bacteria Rhizobium sp. that lives in the root nodules of legume incorporation of excess nitrogen into plant tissues of legumes.

• Rhizobium sp. are used widely for soil enrichment in agriculture.

Importance Of Bacteria: Symbiotic Relationship (E. coli in Human Intestine)

• Bacteria Escherichia coli that live in human intestine help for milk digestion.

• E. coli produce enzymes which are needed for milk(lactose) digestion.

• These friendly enterobacteria help in the growth of healthy intestinal flora and converting some components of food into valuable vitamins that your body can use.

Importance Of Bacteria: Pathogenic

• Pathogens: bacteria that causes diseases.

• Some bacteria attack tissues directly, while others produce toxins.

• Example of diseases caused by bacteria:

• Tetanus

• Syphilis

• Tuberculosis

• Cholera

Importance Of Bacteria: Medical Research & Technology• Bacterial plasmid are widely used in genetic engineering as vector.

• Able to accept foreign gene

• Bacteria are used to overcome oil spill.

• Bacteria that can digest petroleum are used to clean up oil spill pollution.

• Some bacteria are useful for food production

• Eg.: yogurt, cheese, alcoholic beverages are produced through fermentation by bacteria.

• Bacteria are used in sewage treatment (e.g: in septic tanks)

• Bacteria convert organic materials of sewage into carbon dioxide, methane & hydrogen gasses

1.3 Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Protista

• State the unique characteristics of Protista

• State the classification of Protista based on the unique feature :

• Two major phyla of algae(photosynthetic pigment)

• For major phyla of Protozoa (locomotion)

Unique characteristics of Protista

• The simplest eukaryotic organisms

• Most are unicellular, but some are colonial and multicellular.

• Protists can reproduce asexually or sexually, or by the sexual processes of meiosis and syngamy.

• Protists, the most nutritionally diverse of all eukaryotes, include:

• Photoautotrophs - contain chloroplasts.

• Heterotrophs - absorb organic molecules or ingest larger food particles.

• Mixotrophs - combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition.

Algae

Protozoa

Phylum Chlorophyta (Chlamydomonas sp.)

Phylum Ciliophora (Paramecium sp.)

Phylum Phaeophyta (Fucus sp.)

Phylum Apicomplexa (Plasmodium sp.)

Phylum Rhizopoda (Amoeba sp.)

Phylum Euglenophyta (Euglena sp.)

CLASSIFICATION OF

PROTISTA

Major Phyla Of Algae

(based on photosynthetic pigment)

Chlorophyta ( Chlamydomonas sp.)Phaeophyta ( Fucus sp.)

Contain chlorophyll a & b Contain chlorophyll a, c and

fucuxanthin (brown pigment)

Euglenophyta

(Euglena sp.)

Flagella

Rhizopoda

(Amoeba sp.)

Pseudopodia

Ciliophora

(Paramecium sp.)

Cilia

Apicomplexa

(Plasmodium sp.)

Body gliding

Major Phyla Of Protozoa (based on locomotion)

1.4 Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Fungi

• State the unique characteristics of Fumgi

• State the classification of Fungi.

• State the importance of Fungi

Unique Characteristics of Fungi

• Most fungi are multicellular some are unicellular (yeast)

• They are essential for the well-being of most terrestrial ecosystems because they break down organic material and recycle vital nutrients.

• Differ in terms of

• Nutritional mode

• Body structure

• Growth and reproduction

Kingdom Fungi : Nutrition Mode

Heterotrophic mode of nutrition (feed by absorption). Absorbs nutrients from environment outside its body by secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes.

Saprophytic

Absorb nutrients from cells of

non living organic materials

Parasitic

Absorb nutrients from

cells of living hosts

Mutualistic

Absorb nutrients from other

organism but reciprocate

with function beneficial

Kingdom Fungi : Body Structure

• Bodies are constructed of basic building units called hyphae

• Networks of branched hyphae called mycelia ; adapted for absorption.

• Most fungi have cell walls made of chitin.

• Are divided into cells by cross wall or septa (singular septum)

Reproductive structure

Spore-producingstructures

Hyphae

Mycelium

20 µm

Kingdom Fungi : Body Structure

Kingdom Fungi : Body Structure

(b) Coenocytic hypha

Septum

(a) Non coenocytic hypha

Pore

Nuclei

Nuclei Cell wallCell wall

Some fungi have hyphae divided into cells by

septa, with pores allowing cell-to-cell movement

of organelles.

lack septa.

Kingdom Fungi : Body Structure

(b) Haustoria - penetrate cell walls of plants ++ or +-

(a) Hyphae adapted for trapping and killing prey

Nematode

Plant

cell

wall

Haustorium

Plant cellplasmamembrane

Plant cell

Fungal hypha

Hyphae25 µm

Some unique fungi have

specialized hyphae called

haustoria that allow them to

penetrate the tissues of their

host.

Kingdom Fungi : Growth and Reproduction

• Reproduced by releasing spores that are produced either sexually

or asexually

• Most fungi reproduce sexually with nuclear exchange rather than

gametes

• Asexual reproduction by the formation of spores

Major Classification of Fungi

(based on spore-bearing structure)

Phylum Zygomycota

Rhizopus sp.Phylum Ascomycota

Penicillium sp

Phylum Basidiomycota

Agaricus sp.

Zygosporangium Basidia / basidiumAscus / asci

Phylum/structure Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota

Hyphae Coenocytic Septa Septa

Sexual spores Zygospores Ascospores Basidiospores

Sexual Spore

bearing structure

Zygosporangium Asci/Ascus Basidia/

basidium

Asexual spores Sporangiospore Conidia Uncommon

Asexual spore

bearing structure

Sporangium Conidiophores -

Example Rhizopus sp. Penicillium sp. Agaricus sp.

Phylum Zygomycota

Rhizopusgrowingon bread

SEXUALREPRODUCTION

Youngzygosporangium(heterokaryotic)

Gametangia withhaploid nucleiMating

type (–)

Matingtype (+)

Diploid (2n)

Haploid (n)

Heterokaryotic (n + n)

PLASMOGAMY

Key

Diploidnuclei

Zygosporangium

100 µm

KARYOGAMY

MEIOSIS

Sporangium

Spores

Dispersal andgermination

ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Dispersal andgermination

Sporangia

Mycelium50 µm

Phylum Ascomycota

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Dikaryotic (n + n)

Conidiophore

Mycelium

ASEXUALREPRODUCTION

Germination

Hypha PLASMOGAMY

Haploid spores (conidia)

Conidia;mating type (–)

Matingtype (+)

SEXUALREPRODUCTION

Dikaryotichyphae

Ascus(dikaryotic)

Mycelia

KARYOGAMY

Diploid nucleus(zygote)

Germination

Asci

Dispersal

Dispersal

Ascocarp

Eightascospores

Fourhaploidnuclei MEIOSIS

Phylum Basidiomycota

Importance of Kingdom Fungi : As decomposer

• Most fungi are saprotrophs• decomposers that absorb

nutrient from organic wastes and dead organisms

• Able to degrade cellulose and lignin

• Recycle nutrients such as phosphate and ammonia which will be taken up by plants

Importance of Kingdom Fungi : As symbionts

• Mycorrhizae (fungus-root) is a symbiotic association between fungus & a plant root

• Mycorrhizae can improve delivery of phosphate ion and other mineral to plants.

• The fungus receives organic nutrients such as carbohydrates from plants

• Lichens (fungi & cyanobacteria or green algae

Importance of Kingdom Fungi : As pathogen – in plant

• Responsible for many serious plant disease including epidemic diseases that spread rapidly

• Cryphonectria sp. (ascomycete fungus) causes chestnut blight

• Spores of fungus enter cracks in bark and produce hyphae, killing the trees.

Importance of Kingdom Fungi : As pathogen – in animal• Candidiasis – a yeast infection of

mucous membranes of the mouth, throat or vagina among the most common fungal infection

• Systemic infections that infect internal tissues and organs through many regions of the body.

• Histoplasmosis in serious infection of the lungs, caused by inhaling spores of fungus, common in soil contaminated with bird feces.

Importance of Kingdom Fungi : Commercial Food Production

• Capability of yeasts to produce ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide from glucose through fermentation is exploited to make wine, beer, tempeh and other fermented beverages (used in making bread)

Importance of Kingdom Fungi : Pharmaceutical

• Penicillium notatum produce penicillin which is most infectively used antibiotics.

• Drugs derived from fungi include the antibiotic griseofuluin (used clinically to inhibit the growth of fungi), lovastation (used to lower blood cholesterol levels) and cyclosporine ( used to suppress immune responses in patient who receive organ transplants)

Penicillium: Fungal production of an antibiotic

The mold Penicillium produces an antibiotic that inhibits bacteria

growth resulting in a clear area between the mold and the bacteria

Staphylococcus

Zone ofinhibitedgrowth

Staphylococcus

Zone ofinhibitedgrowth

Penicillium

1.5 Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Plantae

• Describe alternation of generation as the unique characteristic of Plantae

• State the classification of Plantae into four groups

• State the classification of bryophytes into three divisions/phyla

• State the classification of pteridophytes into two divisions/phyla

• State the classification of gymnosperm into four divisions/phyla

Occurs in the life of

plants, where

gametophyte (n)

generation alternates

with the sporophyte

(2n) generation.

Gametophyte

generation produce

gametes by mitosis

Sporophyte

generation produce

spores by meiosis

Unique Characteristic of Plantae : Alternation of Generation

Unique Characteristic of Plantae : Alternation of Generation

Gametophyte(n)

n

n

Mitosis

Gamete

FERTILIZATIONMEIOSIS

Mitosis

Sporen

n

2n Zygote

Mitosis

Sporophyte(2n)

Bryophytes Pteridophytes

Bryophytes

Non vascular plants Vascular plants

Seedless Seed

Pteridophytes

Protected seed

Naked seed

Angiosperms

Gymnosperms

Classification Of Plantae

A vial of dried Sphagnum

moss would’ve been used for

making bandages during

WW1

Sanitary napkins made from Sphagnum moss

Sphagnum moss

“Tollund Man,” a bog mummy:

The acidic, oxygen poor conditions can preserve bodies.

Marchantia sp.

Phylum Hepatophyta

Polytrichum sp.

Phylum Bryophyta

Anthoceros sp.

Phylum Anthocerophyta

Classification Of Bryophytes

Phylum Lycopodiophyta / Lycophyta

Selaginella sp.

Dryopteris sp.

Phylum Pteridophyta

Classification Of Pteridophytes

Lycopodium sp.

Selaginella apoda,a spike moss

Isoetesgunnii,a quillwort

Strobili(clusters ofsporophylls)

2.5 cm

Diphasiastrum tristachyum, a club moss

1cm

Pteridophytes : Lycopodiophyta / Lycophyta

Pteridophytes : Pteridophyta

Dryopteris sp. (fern)

Cycas sp.

Cycadophyta

Pinus sp.

Pinophyta /

ConiferophytaGinko sp.

Ginkophyta

Gnetum sp.

Gnetophyta

Classification Of Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms : Coniferophyta/Pinophyta

Cycas sp. Gingko sp. Gnetum sp.

1.6 Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Animalia

• Describe the unique characteristics of Kingdom Animalia

• State the classification of Kingdom Animalia into nine phyla

Unique Characteristics : Overview

• Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers.

• Nutritional Mode: Animals are heterotrophs that ingest their food.

• Animals are multicellular eukaryotes.

• Their cells lack cell walls.

• Their bodies are held together by structural proteins such as collagen.

• Nervous tissue and muscle tissue are unique to animals.

• Have diverse body plans

• basic structure and functional design of body

• Most animals are capable of locomotion

• Most animals have nervous system and muscle systems

• enable them to respond to stimuli

• Most reproduce sexually:

• small flagellated sperm & larger egg

• Go through a period of embryonic development

Unique Characteristics : Level of Organization

Level of Organization

Porifera

Cell level

Cnidaria

Tissue level

• Platyhelminthes

• Nematoda

Organ level

• Annelida

• Mollusca

• Arthropoda

• Echonodermata

• Chordata

Organ-system

Diploblastic (2 layers)

Only composed of ectoderm

and endoderm.

Unique Characteristics : Germ Layer

Triploblastic (3 layers)

Composed of ectoderm,

mesoderm and endoderm.

Unique Characteristics : Body Symmetry

Lack of symmetry animals

that are irregular in shape

Any imaginary plane through the body

divides it into similar halves; parts of the

body are arranged around a central axis

A body plan with

right and left

halves that are

mirror images of

one another

Unique Characteristics : Body Cavity

Lack a body cavity

between digestive cavity

and outer body wall

Body cavity

incompletely lined

with mesodermBody cavity

completely lined

with mesoderm

Unique Characteristics: Body Cavity

Unique Characteristics : Developmental Mode• Protostome

• embryo undergoes spiral cleave during early embryonic development

• balstocoel develop into mouth

• Deustrotome= embryo undergoes radial cleave

• during early embryonic development

• blastocoel develop into anus

Unique Characteristics : Segmentation

• Occurs when animal bodies are divide into repeating units or segment.

• Found in more complex organism

• Earthworm show external segmentation

• Segments may fuse (cephalothorax) as in arthropods

• Chordates show internal segmentation (backbone)

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Porifera(Leucosolenia sp.)

The choanocytes are located in the many

flaggelated chambers.

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Cnidaria(Obelia sp.)

• Shows alternation of generation

• Exhibit dimorphism/two body form:

polyp and medusa

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Platyhelminthes (Tanea sp.)

Endoparasite. Attach to the host intestinal wall and

absorbs nutrients from the host

Hook

Suckers

Proglottid

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Nematoda(Ascaris sp.)

Ascariasis. Happens for example by consuming soil-contaminated vegetables or

fruits that have not been carefully peeled, washed or cooked. It can also occur when

hands or fingers that are covered with infected soil are put into the mouth.

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Nematoda(Brugia malayi sp.)

Can cause elephantiasis (visible enlargement of arms, legs, or genitals to

elephantoid size). Occurs when human lymphatic vessels are blocked by female (10

cm) and male worms (4 cm) and lead to great swelling of limbs. Culex sp., Aedes sp.

and AnophelesAnopheles sp. mosquito is the vector

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Annelida (Pheretima sp.)

Farmer’s friend. They are important in soil

ecology because their activities (burrowing

through the soil) mix and aerate the soil.

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Arthropoda(Valanga sp.)

The most successful phylum. They live in almost

every terrestrial habitat and in fresh water.

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Mollusca (Achatina sp.)

Molluscs are soft-bodied animals, but most are protected by

a hard shell. They exhibit torsion to protect delicate head &

foot by pulling them into the mantle cavity

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Echinodermata (Asterias sp.)

Role of crown of thorn star fish - threaten the coral reef

Star fish threat the coral reef by eating small, hard, stony coral polyps & several types of

soft leather coral

Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Chordata (Amphioxus sp.)

Spend most of their time partly buried in sandy or muddy substrates