10-2-13Aim: How did Egyptians develop an

“optimistic” outlook on life?

• Do Now –

• Egyptian Worship of Animals, 1-5

• HW - Reading on Status of Women in Egypt

Religion and Education

Religion and Education

• Two main gods were Amon (Thebian deity associated with the sun, creation, fertility, and reproductive forces) and Re (the sun god worshipped at Heliopolis)– Eventually the two

were combined in the cult of Amon-Re

Brief Period of Monotheism

• For a brief period Akhentan challenged the Amon-Re cult by proclaiming Aten as the one and only true god– Once Akhenaten

died, traditional priests restored the Amon-Re cult

The sun disc Aten shining on the names of the royal family

Mummification

• In order to prepare a person for the long and hazardous journey before they could enjoy the pleasures of the afterlife, the body of a dead person was preserved by a process called mummification.

Around 450 B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS documented the art of MUMMIFICATION.

As much of the brain as it is possible is extracted through As much of the brain as it is possible is extracted through the nostrils with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot the nostrils with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is dissolved with drugs. Next, the flank is slit open . . . reach is dissolved with drugs. Next, the flank is slit open . . . and the entire contents of the abdomen removed. The and the entire contents of the abdomen removed. The cavity is then thoroughly cleansed and washed out . . . Then cavity is then thoroughly cleansed and washed out . . . Then it is filled with pure crushed myrrh, cassia, and all other it is filled with pure crushed myrrh, cassia, and all other aromatic substances, except frankincense. [The incision] is aromatic substances, except frankincense. [The incision] is sewn up, and then the body is placed in natron, covered sewn up, and then the body is placed in natron, covered entirely for 70 days, never longer. When this period . . . is entirely for 70 days, never longer. When this period . . . is ended, the body is washed and then wrapped from the head ended, the body is washed and then wrapped from the head to the feet in linen which has been cut into strips and to the feet in linen which has been cut into strips and smeared on the underside with gum which is commonly smeared on the underside with gum which is commonly used by the Egyptians in the place of glueused by the Egyptians in the place of glue.. -- Herodotus

NATRON, a disinfectant and dehydration agent, was the main ingredient used in the mummification process. A compound of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate (salt and baking soda), natron essentially dried out the corpse.

The body was filled with Nile mud, sawdust, lichen and cloth scraps to make it more flexible.

Small COOKING ONIONS or linen pads were sometimes used to replace the eyes.

Beginning in the third dynasty, the internal organs (lungs, stomach, liver and intestines) were removed, washed with palm wine and spices, and stored in four separate CANOPIC JARS made of limestone, calcite or clay.

However, the HEART was left in the body because it was considered the center of intelligence

MUMMIFICATION TOOLS:

The ancient embalmers used very few tools. The basic tool kit included a KNIFE to make the abdominal incision, hooked bronze RODS to extract brain matter, a wooden ADZE-like tool to remove internal organs, and a FUNNEL to pour resins into the cranial cavity through the nose.

The Judgment• The Egyptians viewed the heart as the seat of

intellect and emotion.• Before entering the pleasures of eternity, the

dead person had to pass a test in which Anubis, the god of the dead, weighed the person’s heart against Ma’at, the goddess of justice and truth, who was represented by a feather.

The Judgment

• If the deceased’s good deeds outweighed the bad, then his heart would be as light as the feather (heavy hearts bore the burden of guilt and evil), and Osiris would welcome the newcomer to the next world.

• If the deceased fell short in his judgment, his body would be eaten by a monster that was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus.

Osiris

• Patron of the underworld, the dead, and past pharaohs

• Cult of Osiris demanded observance of high moral standards– As lord of the underworld,

Osiris had the power to determine who deserved the blessing of immortality and who did not

Social Hierarchy

Social Hierarchy• Pharaoh

– Egyptian kings of a centralized state– Claimed to be gods living on earth in human form

• Bureaucrats– Because the pharaoh was an absolute ruler there was little room

for a noble class as in Mesopotamia– Instead professional military forces and an elaborate bureaucracy

of administrators and tax collectors served the central government• Patriarchal

– Vested authority over public and private affairs in men– However, more opportunities for women than in Mesopotamia as

evidenced by Queen Hatshepsut reigning as pharaoh• Peasants and slaves

– Supplied the hard labor that made complex agricultural society possible

– Among the slaves were the Hebrews

Specialization

Brewing and Breadmaking Plowing and Sowing

Sailing Harvesting papyrus and Herding

Specialization• Nile societies were

much slower than their Mesopotamian counterparts to adopt metal tools and weapons

• Did develop pottery, textile manufacture, woodworking, leather production, stonecutting, and masonry occupations

Egyptian pottery makers

Economic Exchange

Economic Exchange

• The Nile provided excellent transportation which facilitated trade.

• Nile flows north so boats could ride the currents from Upper to Lower Egypt.

• Prevailing winds blow almost year-round from the north so by using sails, boats could then make their way back upriver.

Economic Exchange

• Egypt needed to trade because, beside the Nile, it had few natural resources– For example, Egypt had very few

trees so all its wood came from abroad, especially cedar from Lebanon

• Much trade between Egypt and Nubia– Importance of trade was reflected

in the names of southern Egyptian cities

• Aswan comes from the ancient Egyptian word swene which means “trade”

• Elephantine owed its name to the elephant ivory trade

LIVESTOCK was important to the Egyptian economy, supplying meat, milk, hides, and dung for cooking fuel.

A variety of DOMESTICATED ANIMALS were raised, including cattle, oxen, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks and geese. Peasants probably enjoyed meat on special occasions..

DRAFT ANIMALS such as oxen increased agricultural productivity.

HERDSMEN and SHEPHERDS lived a semi-nomadic life, pasturing their animals in the marshes of the Nile.

Barley and emmer, were used to make BEER and BREAD, the main staples of the Egyptian diet. Grains were harvested and stored in GRANARIES until ready to be processed.

The quantities harvested each season far exceeded the needs of the country, so much was exported to neighbouring countries, providing a rich source of INCOME for the Egyptian treasury

Grapes were processed into WINE for the noble class, but beer was the favorite drink of the common people.

Food was served in POTTERY BOWLS, but NO UTENSILS were used for eating.

Most HOUSES were made of BRICK. The banks of the Nile provided the mud used to make bricks.

Brick makers collected MUD, added STRAW and WATER to it as needed, and stomped it with their feet until it reached the right consistency. The mixture was then placed in a MOLD. Once shaped, the bricks were removed from the mould and left on the ground to dry in the sun.

Egyptian PEASANTS would have lived in SIMPLE MUD-BRICK HOMES containing only a few pieces of furniture: BEDS, STOOLS, BOXES and LOW TABLES.

SKILLED ARTISANS were considered SOCIALLY SUPERIOR to common laborers. They learned their art from a master who ensured stylistic continuity in the beautiful objects they created for the living and the dead.

Skilled CARPENTERS manufactured a wide range of products, from roofing beams to furniture and statues. Their tools included saws, axes, chisels, adzes, wooden mallets, stone polishers and bow drills.

Other artisans included STONE MAKERS and SCULPTORS, BEAD MAKERS, BRICK LAYERS, and POTTERS.

WOMEN engaged in WEAVING, PERFUME MAKING, BAKING and NEEDLEWORK. Very few artistic creations were signed, and exceptional ability was rewarded through increased social status.

Women of all classes COULD EARN WAGES, OWN PROPERTY and EMPLOY WORKERS, but their main role was within the family. The title most women had was "MISTRESS OF THE HOUSE". They were considered EQUAL WITH MEN BEFORE THE LAW, and could sue for damages and divorce.

New Technologies

Ramps and stone-cutting required to

build pyramids

New Technologies

• Papyrus– The raw material came from the

plant Cyperus papyrus which grew along the banks of the Nile

– Used not only in the production of paper but also used in the manufacture of boats, rope and baskets

• Shipbuilding– Wooden boats– Multiple-oars– Sails– Rope trusses to strengthen hulls

Art and Writing

Art and Writing• Pyramids

– Symbols of the pharaoh’s authority and divine stature; royal tombs

– Pyramid of Khufu involved the precise cutting and fitting of 2,300,000 limestone blocks with an average weight of 2.5 tons

– Estimated construction of the Khufu pyramid required 84,000 laborers working 80 days per year for 20 years

The Sphinx and Great Pyramid of Khufu at

Giza. 

The EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE was one of the earliest languages to be written down, perhaps only the Sumerian language is older.

First appearing on stone and pottery dating from 3100 B.C. to 3000 B.C., it remained in use for almost 3,000 years.

The last inscription was written in A.D. 394.

The word HIEROGLYPH literally means "sacred carvings". The Egyptians first used hieroglyphs for inscriptions carved or painted on temple walls.

This form of PICTORIAL WRITING was also used on:

• Tombs

• Sheets of papyrus

• Wooden boards covered with a stucco wash

• Potsherds

• Fragments of limestone.

Mesopotamia and EgyptMesopotamia Egypt

Agriculture +“Land between the rivers” (Tigris and Euphrates forms Fertile Crescent

+Artificial irrigation

+”Gift of the Nile”

+Artificial irrigation

Specialization +Pottery, textiles, woodworking, leather, brick making, stonecutting, masonry

+Pottery, textiles, woodworking, leather production, stonecutting, masonry

Cities -Numerous, densely populated city-states (Ur and Babylon)

-Fewer cities with high centralization (Memphis and Thebes)

Social Hierarchy -Noble class

-Patriarchal

+Slaves

-Absolute authority of the pharaoh made a noble class unnecessary (had bureaucrats instead)

-Patriarchal, but the presence of Queen Hatsheput may indicate greater opportunities for women

+Slaves

Mesopotamia and Egypt

Mesopotamia Egypt

Religion and Education -Polytheism

-No afterlife

-Polytheism, but brief period of monotheism under Akhentan

-Afterlife and judgment (mummification)

New Technologies -Superior in metallurgy -Papyrus, shipbuilding, pyramids

Economic exchange -Trade by land and water -Trade principally by water along the Nile

-Trade more important because Egypt lacked natural resources beside the Nile

Art and Writing -Cuneiform -Hieroglyphs (more pictorial than cuneiform)