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PersonalityPersonality

Chapter 15Chapter 15

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PersonalityPersonality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.thinking, feeling, and acting.

Each dwarf has a distinct personality.Each dwarf has a distinct personality.

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Psychodynamic Psychodynamic PerspectivePerspective

In his clinical In his clinical practice, Freud practice, Freud

encountered encountered patients suffering patients suffering

from nervous from nervous disorders. Their disorders. Their complaints could complaints could

not be explained in not be explained in terms of purely terms of purely physical causes.physical causes.

Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)

Culver Pictures

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Psychodynamic Psychodynamic PerspectivePerspective

Freud’s clinical Freud’s clinical experience led him experience led him to develop the first to develop the first

comprehensive comprehensive theory of theory of

personality, which personality, which included the included the

unconscious mind, unconscious mind, psychosexual stages, psychosexual stages,

and defense and defense mechanisms.mechanisms. Sigmund Freud

(1856-1939)

Culver Pictures

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Core ConceptsCore Concepts

Psychic DeterminismPsychic Determinism Unconscious MotivationUnconscious Motivation Epigenetic Development Epigenetic Development

(importance of childhood)(importance of childhood) ConflictConflict

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Exploring the Exploring the UnconsciousUnconscious

A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and

memories. Freud asked patients to say memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever came to their minds (free whatever came to their minds (free

association) in order to tap the unconscious.association) in order to tap the unconscious.

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Dream AnalysisDream Analysis

Another method to analyze the Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through interpreting unconscious mind is through interpreting manifestmanifest and and latentlatent contents of dreams. contents of dreams.

The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)

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InstinctsInstincts

1. Eros (libido)1. Eros (libido)

“ “sex” instinct creationsex” instinct creation

2. Thanatos 2. Thanatos

“ “death” instinct death” instinct aggression/destructionaggression/destruction

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Model of MindModel of MindThe mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden, and below the surface lies the hidden, and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious unconscious mind. The preconscious

stores temporary memories.stores temporary memories.

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Personality StructurePersonality Structure

Personality develops as a result of our efforts to Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our biological impulses resolve conflicts between our biological impulses IdId and the constraints of the and the constraints of the EgoEgo & & SuperegoSuperego. .

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Id, Ego and SuperegoId, Ego and SuperegoThe The Id Id unconsciously strives to satisfy unconsciously strives to satisfy

basic sexual and aggressive drives, basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the operating on the pleasure principlepleasure principle, , demanding immediate gratification.demanding immediate gratification.

TheThe ego ego functions as the “executive” and functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the id, the real world, mediates the demands of the id, the real world,

and superego, according to the and superego, according to the reality reality principle.principle.

TheThe superego superego provides standards for judgment provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and moral reasoning.(the conscience) and moral reasoning.

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Personality DevelopmentPersonality Development

Freud believed that personality formed Freud believed that personality formed during the first several years of life divided during the first several years of life divided into into psychosexual stages.psychosexual stages. During these During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies

focus on pleasure sensitive body areas focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called called erogenous zoneserogenous zones..

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Psychosexual StagesPsychosexual Stages

Freud divided the development of Freud divided the development of personality into five psychosexual stages.personality into five psychosexual stages.

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Oedipus ComplexOedipus Complex

A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the feelings of jealousy and hatred for the

rival father. A girl’s desire for her father rival father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the Electra complex.is called the Electra complex.

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IdentificationIdentification

Children cope with Children cope with threatening feelings threatening feelings by repressing them by repressing them and by identifying and by identifying

with the rival with the rival parent. Through parent. Through this process of this process of

identification, their identification, their superego gains superego gains strength that strength that

incorporates their incorporates their parents’ values.parents’ values.

From the K

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CathexisCathexis

FixationFixation

Soldier analogySoldier analogy

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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms

The ego’s protective methods of reducing The ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

1.1. RepressionRepression banishes anxiety- banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.memories from consciousness.

2.2. RegressionRegression leads an individual faced leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.infantile psychosexual stage.

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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms

3.3. Reaction FormationReaction Formation causes the ego causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex.unconscious feelings about sex.

4.4. ProjectionProjection leads people to disguise leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.attributing them to others.

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Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms

5.5. Rationalization Rationalization offers self-justifying offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions.one’s actions.

6.6. DisplacementDisplacement shifts sexual or aggressive shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, less threatening object or person, redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

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Assessing Unconscious Assessing Unconscious ProcessesProcesses

Evaluating personality from an unconscious Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a mind’s perspective would require a

psychological instrumentpsychological instrument (projective tests)(projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.

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Rorschach Inkblot TestRorschach Inkblot Test

The most widely used projective test uses The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their people’s inner feelings by analyzing their

interpretations of the blots.interpretations of the blots.

Lew

Merrim

/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception Test(TAT)(TAT)

Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their projective test in which people express their

inner feelings and interests through the inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Lew

Merrim

/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Evaluating the Evaluating the Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective

1.1. Personality develops throughout life Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood.and is not fixed in childhood.

2.2. Freud underemphasized social and Freud underemphasized social and environmental influences on the environmental influences on the individual.individual.

3.3. Overemphasis on the sexual Overemphasis on the sexual instinct.instinct.

Modern research and revisions

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Evaluating the Evaluating the Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective

Criticism:Criticism:

Part of Freud's theory rests on the repression of Part of Freud's theory rests on the repression of painful experiences into the unconscious mind. painful experiences into the unconscious mind.

But, the majority of children, death camp But, the majority of children, death camp survivors, and battle-scarred veterans are survivors, and battle-scarred veterans are

unable to repress painful experiences unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious mind.into their unconscious mind.

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Evaluating the Evaluating the Psychoanalytic PerspectivePsychoanalytic Perspective

The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable. criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable.

Many of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, Many of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are the after-the-fact explanation.which are the after-the-fact explanation.

However???However???

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Humanistic PerspectiveHumanistic Perspective

By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s determinism and negativity and with Freud’s determinism and negativity and

with the mechanistic psychology of the with the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists.behaviorists.

Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)

Carl Rogers(1902-1987)

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Self-Actualizing PersonSelf-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed that we as individuals are Maslow proposed that we as individuals are

motivated by a hierarchy of needs, beginning motivated by a hierarchy of needs, beginning with physiological needs, but we have a with physiological needs, but we have a natural tendency toward a state of self-natural tendency toward a state of self-

actualization—reaching our full potential.actualization—reaching our full potential.

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Growth and FulfillmentGrowth and Fulfillment

Carl RogersCarl Rogers also believed in an individual's natural self- also believed in an individual's natural self-actualization tendencies and stressed the need for actualization tendencies and stressed the need for

Unconditional Positive RegardUnconditional Positive Regard for fostering personal for fostering personal growth and development. This growth and development. This UPR UPR is an acceptanceis an acceptance

despite flaws and failings. He also stressed the need for despite flaws and failings. He also stressed the need for personal autonomy and self-determination. personal autonomy and self-determination.

Michael R

ougier/ Life Magazine ©

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e Warner, Inc.

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Assessing the SelfAssessing the Self

All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-ConceptSelf-Concept..

In an effort to assess personality, Rogers In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive the individual had a positive self-conceptself-concept..

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Evaluating the Humanistic Evaluating the Humanistic PerspectivePerspective

1.1. Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management.management.

2.2. Shifted focus to free will and positive self-Shifted focus to free will and positive self-growthgrowth

but:but:

1.1. Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and subjective and lack scientific basis.and subjective and lack scientific basis.

2.2. The theories fail to account for the real The theories fail to account for the real existence of evil.existence of evil.

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The Trait PerspectiveThe Trait Perspective

An individual’s unique constellation of durable An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving dispositions and consistent ways of behaving

(traits) constitutes his or her personality.(traits) constitutes his or her personality.

Examples of TraitsExamples of Traits

HonestHonest

DependableDependable

MoodyMoody

ImpulsiveImpulsive

Allport & Odbert (1936), identified 18,000 words representing traits.

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Personality DimensionsPersonality Dimensions

Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two personality could be reduced down to two

polar dimensions, polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion extraversion-introversion and and emotional stability-instability.emotional stability-instability.

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The Big Five FactorsThe Big Five Factors

Today’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’ Today’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’ personality dimensions are too narrow and Cattell’s 16PF personality dimensions are too narrow and Cattell’s 16PF too large. So, a middle range (five factors) of traits does a too large. So, a middle range (five factors) of traits does a

better job of assessment.better job of assessment.PsycholexicalPsycholexical approach (Costa & McCrae) & approach (Costa & McCrae) & factor factor

analysisanalysis

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

AgreeablenessAgreeableness

NeuroticismNeuroticism

OpennessOpenness

ExtraversionExtraversion

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EndpointsEndpoints

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Assessing TraitsAssessing Traits

Personality inventories are questionnaires Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree (often with true-false or agree-disagree

items) designed to gauge a wide range of items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several feelings and behaviors assessing several

traits at once.traits at once.

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MMPIMMPI

TheThe Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally personality tests. It was originally

developed to identify emotional disorders.developed to identify emotional disorders.

The MMPI was developed by empirically testing The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting those that a pool of items and then selecting those that

discriminated between diagnostic groups.discriminated between diagnostic groups.

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MMPI Test ProfileMMPI Test Profile

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NEO-PINEO-PI

based on Big 5based on Big 5 more appropriate for assessing more appropriate for assessing

normal personalitynormal personality

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Evaluating the Trait Evaluating the Trait PerspectivePerspective

1. Traits are better at describing than 1. Traits are better at describing than explainingexplaining

(danger of circular reasoning)(danger of circular reasoning)

2. Trait theories tend to exaggerate 2. Trait theories tend to exaggerate consistency and ignore the consistency and ignore the importance of the situationimportance of the situation

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Evaluating the Trait Evaluating the Trait PerspectivePerspective

The Person-Situation ControversyThe Person-Situation Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the out that traits may be enduring, but the

resulting behavior in various situations is resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not very different. Therefore, traits are not very good predictors of behavior in a given good predictors of behavior in a given

situation.situation.

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Social-Cognitive Social-Cognitive PerspectivePerspective

Bandura (1986, Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) 2001, 2005) believes that believes that

personality is the personality is the result of an result of an

interaction that interaction that takes place between takes place between a person and their a person and their

social context.social context.

Albert Bandura

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Bandura called the process of interacting Bandura called the process of interacting with our environment with our environment reciprocal reciprocal

determinismdeterminism..

The three factors, behavior, cognition, The three factors, behavior, cognition, and environment, are interlocking and environment, are interlocking

determinants of each other.determinants of each other.

Reciprocal InfluencesReciprocal Influences

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Individuals & Individuals & EnvironmentsEnvironments

How we view and treat people How we view and treat people influences how they treat us.influences how they treat us.

Our personalities shape Our personalities shape situations.situations.

Anxious people react to Anxious people react to situations differently than situations differently than calm people.calm people.

Our personalities shape Our personalities shape how we react to events.how we react to events.

The school you attend and the The school you attend and the music you listen to are partly music you listen to are partly based on your dispositions.based on your dispositions.

Different people choose Different people choose different environments.different environments.

Specific ways in which individuals and Specific ways in which individuals and environments interactenvironments interact

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BehaviorBehavior

Behavior emerges from an interplay of Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and internal influences.external and internal influences.

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Personal ControlPersonal Control

External locus of controlExternal locus of control refers to the refers to the perception that chance or outside forces perception that chance or outside forces

beyond our personal control determine our beyond our personal control determine our fate.fate.

Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own

fate.

Social-cognitive psychologists like J.B. Rotter Social-cognitive psychologists like J.B. Rotter emphasize our sense of personal control, emphasize our sense of personal control,

whether we control the environment or the whether we control the environment or the environment controls us.environment controls us.

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Self-efficacySelf-efficacy

belief in one’s ability to succeed in a belief in one’s ability to succeed in a particular situationparticular situation

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Learned HelplessnessLearned Helplessness

When unable to avoid repeated adverse events When unable to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.an animal or human learns helplessness.

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Optimism vs. PessimismOptimism vs. Pessimism

An optimistic or pessimistic attributional An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is your way of explaining positive or style is your way of explaining positive or

negative events.negative events.

Positive psychology aims to discover and Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable promote conditions that enable

individuals and communities to thrive.individuals and communities to thrive.

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Evaluating the Social-Evaluating the Social-Cognitive PerspectiveCognitive Perspective

Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay

less attention to the individual, his unconscious less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics.mind, his emotions, and his genetics.

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Positive Psychology and Positive Psychology and Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology

Positive psychology, such as humanistic Positive psychology, such as humanistic psychology, attempts to foster human psychology, attempts to foster human

fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition, fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition, seeks positive subjective well-being, positive seeks positive subjective well-being, positive

character, and positive social groupscharacter, and positive social groups..

Martin Seligman

Courtesy of M

artin E.P. Seligm

an, PhD D

irector, Positive Psychology C

enter/ University of Pennsylvania