Personality Testing

Definitions: J.P. Guilford (1959)

“An individual’s personality, then, is his unique pattern of traits.”

– A trait is “any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from others.”

Definitions: Mackinnon (1959)

Personality refers to “factors” inside people that explain their behavior

The sum total of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique.

Definitions: DSM-IV-TR (2000)

“Are enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal context.

Definitions: R.B. Cattell (1950)

The personality of an individual is that which enables us to predict what he will do in a given situation”

3 Facts to Consider When Defining “Personality”

Individuals are unique

Individuals behave differently in different situations

Although individuals are unique and behave inconsistently across situations, there is considerable commonality in human behavior

History WW-I: saw the first real organized assessment of

personality- seeing if new recruits could make adjustment to the military.– Just focused on one facet of personality– Very specific (e.g., ability to follow orders, submission to

authority, degree of comfort when socializing with others)

Over the next 2 decades multiscaled test emerged that examined assertiveness, anxiety, impulsiveness

History 1930’s and 1940’s—Allport and Murray began

writing about personality and theories of personality

Then came two camps:– Objective –empirically derived tests – Projective—produced items and interpretations based

on the theory of personality. This method was more unstructured and less defined (e.g., TAT)

History

Empirically based tests used statistics and a criterion to develop test items– Item correlations– Factor analytic approach– Criterion-referenced approach– These two branched from empirically

based tests of the early part of the century

Today

New tests have emerged but most tend to be variants of the original themes and theories of personality

Most excepted to use a theory and to test out items on a criterion as well as using statistics

“Personality” as a construct may include:– Emotional responses– Social behavior– Emotional thoughts and behaviour– Motivations– Values– Interests

Methods of Measuring Personality:– Paper & pencil tests: questionnaires, inventories– Situational exercises– Field or natural observations– Projective measures

Value of Personality Questionnaires

Value to the individual (face validity)

– Self-insight

– Points of discussion

– Norms provide comparison info

Value of Personality Questionnaires Value to research (construct validity)

– Study relationships of personality w/ other variables– Study changes over time

Value for Counseling - marital therapy - university counseling centers

Value for personnel management – Screening– Prediction of success– Placement & counseling

Disadvantage of Personality Tests

Social Desirability Faking “Good” Faking “Bad” Random Responding

Two Main Personality Theories

1. Trait theory: people differ based on stable attributes (called “traits”)– characteristics lie on a continuum– e.g., the Big Five

2. Type theory: people can be sorted into categories (either one type or the other)

There are many different personality inventories that measure traits or types

The Big Five

OCEAN

Openness to Experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Personality Tests – Using Traits NEO – Personality Inventory Revised (NEO

PI-R, 1992)

- Unaware of the Big Five, Costa & McCrae built the NEO Inventory in 1978

– Assessed Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience

– Added Agreeableness and Conscientiousness– Items are behavioral statements

The NEO PI-R (cont.) Examples of Items:Neuroticism - Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my

head.

Extroversion - I don’t get much pleasure from chatting with people.

Openness - I have a very active imagination

Agreeableness - I believe that most people will take advantage of you if you let them.

Conscientiousness - I pay my promptly and in full.

The NEO PI-R (cont.)

Example Neuroticism facet: Anxiety

I am not a worrier. I am easily frightened. I rarely feel fearful or anxious. I often feel tense and jittery. I am seldom apprehensive about the future. I often worry about things that might go wrong. I have fewer fears than most people. Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head.

Personality Tests – Using Traits NEO – Personality Inventory Revised (NEO

PI-R, 1992)– 5 traits x 6 facets each x 8 items each = 240 total– Items are all very face valid - anchored by SD to

SA– No Validity Scales– Raw scores for the domain converted to T scores– Norms provided for adults (21 and up) & college

age individuals (17 - 20)– Norms come from 500 men and 500 women (U.S)

List of Domain and Facet ScoresNeuroticism Extraversion OpennessAnxiety Warmth Fantasy

Angry Hostility Gregariousness Aesthetics

Depression Assertiveness Feelings

Self-Consciousness Activity Actions

Impulsiveness Excitement-Seeking Ideas

Vulnerability Positive Emotions Values

Agreeableness ConscientiousnessTrust Competence

Straightforwardness Order

Altruism Dutifulness

Compliance Achievement Striving

Modesty Self-Discipline

Tender-Mindedness Deliberation

The NEO PI-R (cont.) Other test characteristics:

- criterion validity: conscientiousness- construct validity (e.g., openness to exp.)- practical uses?- relies on honesty of examinee- reliability of domain scales – excellent (highest

is .92 for N, lowest is .86 for A)- reliability of facet scales – acceptable

(highest is .80 for ideas facet of O, lowest is .58 for Actions facet of O)

Personality Tests – Using Traits

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

Gough (1957) “sane person’s MMPI” revised in 1987 based on 20 concepts to predict behavior in social/interpersonal situations 13 special purpose scales (e.g., leadership,

managerial potential)

California Psychological Inventory CPI - one of the most popular personality inventory

Measures: various facets of normal personality; helps to make predictions about behaviours

Gough’s theory (3 assumptions): Important characteristics in all societies and cultures Understandable and useful for both sides Valid predictors of future behavior in similar social contexts

CPI 462 true-false items covers 20 scales:

– Dominance, Social Presence, Sociability, Self-Acceptance, Self-Control, Responsibility, Well-Being, Achievement vs. Conformity, Achievement vs. Independence, Psychological Mindedness, Flexibility, Capacity for Status, Empathy, Tolerance, Femininity vs. Masculinity, Independence, Good Impression, Socialization,Communality (p.380)

– 3 scales provide measures of test-taking attitudes

CPI (cont.) test construction: empirical approach (13 scales),

internal consistency (4), combo of both (3) either high or low scores administration: 1 hr scores: count the “true” responses profiles extensive norms: 6000 gender specific norms converts raw scores to T scores CPI had factor loading on 4 of 5 - Big 5 Factors

(extroversion, openness, neuroticism, conscientiousness) - not agreeableness

CPI (cont.)

• interpretation of profiles: (p.383)

1. profile “validity”

2. height of scales

3. high and low scores

4. analyze patterns (examples)

CPI (cont.) Other test characteristics

– Construct validity: 20 scales are not independent– Predictive validity: best predicts

academic underachievement potential delinquency Job performance in a number of careers Performance in school

CPI

Advantages:1. Looks at interpersonal relating well 2. Predicts underachieving, potential delinquency,

job performance 3. Has good norming sample

16 Personality Factor (16PF) Raymond Cattell developed the Cattel Sixteen Personality

Factor Test (1949) Revised 4 times (1956, 1962, 1968, 1993) Survey all words in the the English language that described

personal characteristics (approx. 4000) Categorized the words into 45 groups and approx. 15 factors Designed to measure more personality traits and conflicts

than psychopathology 185 items across 16 scales 3 Point Likert Scale

16PF Suggests Personality is made up of 16 independent traits -

Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional Stability, Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, Social Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, Abstractedness, Privateness, Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, Tension (p. 389)

Each item is scored a between 0,1, or 2 depending if the item is scored correctly

Raw score are changed to standard scores know as sten (out of 10). Standard scores are calculated in reference to the norm group.

Psychometrics of 16PF

Reliability: test-retest (.80 x2wk; .70 x3wk) Internal consistency reliability .74 Only sporadic studies found reliability below .70 Most validity studies have validity coefficients

above .70

16PF Supports: 1. Less time to give than MMPI-2

2. Has 5 global factors than correspond to the BIG FIVE

3. Reliability and Validity

Criticisms: 1. Overeducated sample

2. New version more complicated to score

3. Converts raw scores to “stens”- hard for people to understand

16PF Applications

Research and Clinical Settings Vocational Psychology Personnel selection and placement With adults or adolescents (16-year-

olds) and 5th grade reading level

Type Theories of Personality Type A - Coronary-prone behavior pattern:

aggressive, need to achieve more and more, workaholic, hidden lack of self-esteem (always need to prove self), always hurried, hostile

Type B – easygoing, noncompetitive, relaxed People fall on a continuum somewhere between the

two

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Myers-Briggs: based on Jungian theory of personality

– Classifies individuals along 4 theoretically independent dimensions.

MBTI (cont.)

1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : How is your general attitude toward the world?

2. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : How do you acquire information?

3. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) : How is information processed?

4. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): How do you make decisions?

MBTI Scales

Extroversion-Introversion Scale

E: Oriented primarily toward the outer world; focus on people and objects

I: Oriented primarily toward the inner world; focus on concepts and ideas

Sensing-Intuition Scale

S: Individual reports observable facts through one or more of the five senses

N: Reports meanings, relationships and/or possibilities that have been worked out beyond the reach of the conscious mind

MBTI Scales

Thinking-Feeling Scale

T: Judgment is impersonally based on logical consequences

F: Judgment is primarily based on personal or social values

Perception-Judging Scale

P: Preference for using a perceptive process for dealing with the outer world

J: Preference for using a judgment process for dealing with the outer world

MBTI Psychometrics Test-retest intervals range from:

1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : .73 to .83

2. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : .69 to .87

3. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) :.56 to .82

4. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): .60 to .87

Internal Consistency intervals range from: 1. Introversion / Extroversion(E-I) : .55 to .65

2. Sensing / Intuition (S-N) : .64 to .73

3. Thinking / Feeling (T-F) :.43 to .75

4. Judging / Perceiving (J-P): .58 to .84

MBTI (cont.)

Uses:– Career counseling– Team building– Family counseling

Criticisms:– Profiles generally positive– Barnum effect– Validation evidence is sticky– Factor analysis shows Big Five solution

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

MMPI-II – most widely used psychological test

10 clinical scales and several Auxiliary

MMPIMMPITable 4-6

The MMPI (cont.)

Scale Descriptor: Psychopathic Deviate Tend to act without considering consequences. Experience absence of emotional response. May feign guilt and remorse when in trouble. Are impulsive. Are not seen as overwhelmed by emotional turmoil.

The MMPI (cont.)

Example Items: I am about as able to work as I ever was. I work under a great deal of tension. I am sure I get a raw deal from life. I find it hard to keep my mind on a task or job. I am certainly lacking in self-confidence I have difficulty in starting to do things. When in a group of people I have trouble thinking of

the right things to talk about. I cannot keep my mind on one thing.

Original MMPI

Items on the clinical scales of the original MMPI were selected on the basis of their ability to discriminate between normal and clinical groups.

Clinical groups were comprised of depressed, paranoid, schizophrenic, hypomanic, hypocrondriacal

Normal groups were comprised of University of Minnesota students

Initially items were selected from various sources – clinical cases, textbooks, and previous tests

MMPI II

MMPI-II was normed on a nationally representative sample – 1138 men and 1462 women

MMPI added several content and supplementary scales

A high score on a particular scale indicates the likelihood that the individual possesses those characteristics

Projective Personality Tests

The Projective Techniques Projective tests allow the examinee to respond

to vague stimuli with their own impressions Assumption is that the examinee will project his

unconscious needs, motives, and conflicts onto the neutral stimulus

Word association tests, inkblot tests, sentence completion tests, storytelling in response to pictures, etc.

The Projective Techniques (cont.)

Three features:- Disguised: no face validity- Global: the whole personality- Reveals unconscious aspects of personality

- Types:- Inkblot: Rorschach- Picture interpretation: TAT- Sentence completion: Rotter Incomplete SB- Picture construction: DAP

The Rorschach Inkblot Test

The Rorschach Inkblot Test is the most commonly used projective test– In a 1971 survey of test usage, it was used

in 91% of 251 clinical settings survey– It is one of the most widely used tests that

exists– It is widely cited in research

History The earliest use of inkblots as projective surfaces

was J. Kerner's (1857)– He was the first to claim that some people make

idiosyncratic or revealing interpretations

In 1896, Alfred Binet suggested that inkblots might

be used to assess personality (not psychopathology)

History

Herman Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, was the first to suggest (1911) the use of inkblot responses as a diagnostic instrument– In 1921 he published his book

on the test, Psychodiagnostik (and soon thereafter died, age 38)

History Rorschach's test was not well-received, attracting little

notice– David Levy brought it to the United States - thought it was scientifically

unsound.– His student, Samuel Beck, popularized its use here, writing several

papers and books on it starting with Configurational Tendencies in Rorschach Responses (1933)

Several other early users also published work on he Rorschach– Several offered their own system of administration, scoring, and

interpretation, leading to later problems in standardization

What is the Rorschach? The stimuli were generated by dropping ink onto a card and folding it

– They are not, however, random: the ten cards in the current test were hand-selected out of thousands that Rorschach generated

Ten blots – 5 black/white, 2 red/gray (II & III) and 3 color (VIII – X)

Thought to tap into the deep layers of personality and bring out what is not conscious to the test taker

The following are the inkblots

Administering the Rorschach The test is usually administered with as little instruction and

information as possible

– The tester asks 'What might this be? and gives no clues or restrictions on what is expected as a response

– Anxious subjects often do ask questions, and vague answers are offered

– Some advocate sitting beside the subject to avoid giving clues by facial expression

– If only one response is given, some hint to find more may be offered: "Some people see more than one thing.“

Administering the Rorschach

The cards are shown twice:

– The first time responses are obtained - free association phase

– The second time they are elaborated – inquiry phase

Rorschach (cont.)Exner’s Comprehensive Scoring System

1. Location

- W = whole (intellectual potential)

- D = subdivisions (common sense)

- Dd = details (compulsive tendencies)

- DW (confabulated detail)

2. Content (i.e., general class to where response belongs)

- people, part of a person, clothing, animal, part of an animal, nature, anatomical

Rorschach (cont.)

3. Determinants (i.e., specific property of the blot)

- F = shape/outline (rational approach)

- M = movement (imagination)

- C = color (emotional reactions)

- Y = shades of grey (depression)

4. Form Quality

5. typical vs. unusual response

6. time

Rorschach (cont.)

norms = unrepresentative inter-rater reliability test-retest reliability construct validity criterion validity

Psychometric Properties of the Rorschach

The Rorschach is a popular test, however, it has been plagued by low reliability and validity.

Obviously, it is difficult to measure any of the usual psychometric properties in the usual way

– Validity and reliability are usually low because of the open-ended multiplicity of possibility that is allowed and by the lack of universally-accepted standardized instructions, administration protocol, and scoring procedure

Interpreting the Rorschach

Uses norms for five groups: nonpatient, outpatient nonpsychotic, inpatient character problem, inpatient depressive, inpatient schizophrenics one

Deviation from norms can mean an invalid protocol, or brain damage, or emotional problems, or a low mental age (or just an original person)

Psychometric Properties of the Rorschach

Reliability studies that have been done find r-values varying from 0.1 to 0.9

Parker (1983) analyzed 530 statistics through meta-analysis (9 studies) and found an internal reliability of .83

W responses has been linked to general intelligence (r = 0.4); Movement responses are said to suggest strong impulses or high motor activity; DW (confabulatory) responses are taken as signs of a disordered state; low response rate is associated with mental retardation, depression, and defensiveness

Overall, more research is needed to determine the reliability and validity of the Rorschach.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Construct a story about what you see on the

following picture

Describe: - what led up to the scene - what is happening - what the characters in the story might think or feel - how the story will end

Thematic Apperception Tests The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): 30

grayscale pictures + one blank for elicitation of stories – each contain a dramatic event or critical situation

Most subjects see 10-12 cards, over two sessions

Based on Murray's (1938) theory of 28 social needs (sex, affiliation, dominance, achievement, attitudes etc.)

People would project into their story their needs Attention is paid to the protagonist in each story

and his/her environmental stressors Many variations on this 'story-telling' test exist

TAT (cont.)

Administration: not standardized- Not the same 20 cards- Not the same order- Seldom 2 sessions- Instructions differ

• Scoring is Minimal• Low Reliability & Validity

TAT – scoring/interpretationScoring Congruence with picture stimuli Conformity with directions Conflict

Psychometric properties: internal consistency is low; high reliability but diminishes with time, 2 months, r

= .80; 10 months r = .50; Inter-rater reliability vary with studies: range .3 to .9

Examples of Projectives

Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB)

Complete the following sentences to express your real feelings:

- I like ……..- My greatest fear ……..- This PSY 3090.D instructor is ……..

RISB (cont.) Designed to screen for emotional maladjustment Info about wishes, desires, likes, dislikes, fears, and

locus of control 40 items: easy to administer (group or ind.) Rigorous scoring system: high interrater r Scoring ranges from 0 to 6 Responses are scored as to the degree of conflict

expressed, optimism shown, length of responses, omissions

Psychometrically sound but less used

Draw-a-Person Test

- Originally to assess children’s intelligence- Now: a screening procedure for emotional disturbance- Cannot constitute a diagnosis

- The administration:• Draw a person• Draw a person of the opposite sex• Draw yourself

Draw-a-Person Test Administrator Asks:

- Can you please draw a person?- Draw whatever you like in any way you like?

Administrator Then Asks:

- Draw a person of the opposite sex?

Draw-a-Person Test (cont.) Subjective vs. quantitative scoring system Clinician looks for:

– Sequence of body parts– Verbalizations during the drawing process– Size & placement of figures on the page– Amount of action depicted– Systematization in doing the task– Number of erasures– Shading– Gender of picture– Over attention to certain body parts

Draw-a-Person Test (cont..)

Among the plausible but empirically untrue relations that have been claimed:

- Large size = Emotional expansiveness or acting out

- Small size = emotional constriction; withdrawal, or timidity

- Overworked lines = tension, aggression

- Distorted or omitted features = Conflicts related to that feature

- Large or elaborate eyes = Paranoia

Other common projective tests CAT – Children Apperception Test – (Bellak, 1975) Word Association Test – Rapaport et al. (1946, 1968) – 60

words: neutral and traumatic – scored: popularity, RT, content, test-retest responses

Sentence Completion – Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank – 40 sentences – evaluated on 7 point scale by “need for therapy” to “extremely good adjustment”

House-Tree-Person Test (Buck, 1948) & Draw-A-Person (Machover, 1949): Subject is asked to draw– Scoring is on absolute size, relative size of elements, omissions

"If there is a tendency to over-interpret projective test data without sufficient empirical grounds, then projective drawing tests are among the worst offenders."

Kaplan & Saccuzo, Psychological Testing, 2001, p. 467

Sources of Inaccuracy in Personality Testing

Personality assessment largely depends on self-report

Response sets may affect personality results

Social Desirability

Some test takers choose socially acceptable answers or present themselves in a favourable light

People often do not attend as much to the trait being measured as to the social acceptability of the statement

This represents unwanted variance

Social Desirability (cont.)

Example items:

– Friends would call me spontaneous.

– People I know can count on me to finish what I start.

– I would rather work in a group than by myself.

– I often get stressed-out in many situations.

Faking

Faking -- some test takers may respond in a particular way to cause a desired outcome

– may “fake good” (e.g., in employment settings) to create a favourable impression

– may “fake bad” (e.g., in clinical or forensic settings) as a cry for help or to appear mentally disturbed

– may use some subtle questions that are difficult to fake because they aren’t clearly face valid

“Faking Bad”– People try to look worse than they really are

Common problem in clinical settings

– Reasons: Cry for help Want to plea insanity in court Want to avoid draft into military Want to show psychological damage

– Most people who fake bad overdo it

Random Responding

Random responding may occur when test takers are unwilling or unable to respond accurately.

– likely to occur when test taker lacks the skills (e.g., reading), does not want to be evaluated, or lacks attention to the task

– try to detect by embedding a scale that tends to yield clear results from vast majority such that a different result suggests the test taker wasn’t cooperating

Random Responding– Detection:

Duplicate items:

“I love my mother.”

“I hate my mother.”

Infrequency scales:

“I’ve never had hair on my head.”

“I have not seen a car in 10 years.”

Impression Management

– Mitigating IM:

Use positive and negative impression scales (endorsed by 10% of the population)

Use lie scales to “flag” those who score high (e.g., “I get angry sometime”).

Inconsistency scales (e.g., two different responses to two similar questions)

(Use multiple assessment methods (other than self-report)