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Korean Model of Secondary Education Development:

Approaches, outcomes and emerging tasks

Chong Jae Lee

Professor

Seoul National University

A paper presented to “Seminar on Growth Strategies for Secondary Education in Asia” by World Bank Institute, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, September 19-21, 2005.

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Ⅱ. Conceptual Frameworks for the Development of Secondary Education

1. The Transition path of School System2. Core Functions of School in the System3. Two dimensions of Access: Quality and Equality

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1. The Transition path of School System

Korean School System: Single Track (6-3-3-4)

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Transition Paths Model

PrimarySchool

Middle School

General High School

VocationalHigh School

TertiaryEducation

Workplace

P 1

P 2

P 3

P 4

P 5

P 6 P 7

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2. Core Functions of Schools

Primary Education: Basic Learning

Secondary Education Usually no “Clear Concept of educational functions”

formulated: Identity questions

Middle School: “orientation” to Knowledge, Society, Myself

High School: Exploration of interest, learning capabilities,

vision, career plan.

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3. Two Dimensions of Access

Quality: Quality attributes to be reflected in functions and in the defi

nition of core competences Quality conditions: class size, unit cost,etc.

Equality: elimination and reduction of Unjustified barriers and constraints exist in access to educa

tional opportunities Unjustifiable distribution of educational opportunity among s

ocial class, regions, and schools

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Ⅲ. Development Approaches of Korean Education

Major Policies

Six-year Compulsory Education plan (1954-1959) Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School (1968) High School Equalization Policy (1974) July 30 Educational Reform (1980) Restructuring High School System

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1. Six-year compulsory education plan(1954-1959)

Context In 1945, the enrollment rate of elementary education was

below 50% Three factors of difficulty in Access to educational

opportunity The explosive demand for education after Independence (1945) The Inflow of immigration from North Korea Destruction of school facilities during the Korean War

(1950~1953)(90% destroyed)

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Policy Measure

Six-year compulsory education plan(1954-1959): gradual provision of free compulsory education

Increase the place to accommodate students Low cost approach

Lowering educational standards(Large class, Double shift classroom)

Relying on private schools to accommodate more students

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Outcome Universalization of primary education

year 1951 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

Enrollment Rate 69.8 82.5 89.5 89.9 91.1 92.5 96.4

Emerging Problem Successive strong educational demand for middle

school resulting in the ‘exam hell’ in elementary school to prepare entrance examination to selective middle schools

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2. Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School in 1969

Context Problems of “exam hell” in elementary school Rapid expansion of educational demand for middle school

Policy Measure The abolition of entrance examination to middle school in

1969 Abolish ‘entrance exam to middle schools’ The door to middle schools was open to everyone by

“assignment system”. Every elementary school graduates are assigned to middle schools

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Egalitarian approach: Achieving uniform equality Lowering educational standards to students class size from 60

to 70 Gradual extension of free compulsory education to middle

school from rural areas in 1984 to all area in 2004 Relying on private schools to accommodate more students.

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Outcome the generalization of middle school education Elementary education free from the burden of private tutoring.

Emerging Problem Another successive strong demand to high school and

excessive competition in the entrance examination to high school.

Government had to subsidize private middle schools The rapid growth of middle school students resulted in over-

crowded classrooms, oversized schools, a shortage of qualified teachers and educational facilities.

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3. High School Equalization Policy in 1974 Context

Severe competition to academic high schools resulted in private tutoring

Policy Measure To ease the competition and private tutoring to prepare

entrance exams to selective academic high schools, high school equalization policy(HEP) formulated in 1974.

Abolished entrance examination to high schools and replaced it with state-wide qualification exam (more than 90% could pass)

Assign those passed the Qualification exam randomly to one of any high school from cluster of high schools.

Private high schools are included in high school cluster. As the case of middle schools, government had to subsidize

private high school

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Emerging Problem Expansion at the cost of quality (1970s~1990s) Uniform equality at the cost of diversity and excellence

(1970s~1990s)

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4. July 30 Educational Reform (1980)

Context Excessive competition for the entrance exam Overheated private tutoring

Policy Measure: Reformation Acts of 7.30 In order to normalize the high school education as well as to

reduce the excessive competition for the entrance exam, Prohibition of private tutoring Expand the admission quota to college and university. The abolition of entrance examination administered by

universities and introduce national level state-administered examination.

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Outcome “Open door policy” implemented Expansion of higher education

Emerging Problem Quality problem of higher education State control of “National testing” for admission system to

college & university begun.

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5. Restructuring High School System

Context “Upper Secondary Education” became a “ battlefield”

Policy Measures Structural adjustment of high school enrollment ratio between

General and Vocational high schools Reduce the enrollment size of general high school from 65% to

50% Failed to attain the policy goals

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Ⅳ. Major Outcomes of Korean Secondary Education Development

1. Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education

2. Quality Dimension of Secondary Education

3. Equality Dimension of Secondary Education

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1. Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education

At The cost of quality Low cost approach Bottom-up approach

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Trend of student per faculty (1970 - 2004)

Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education

Primary Middle SchoolAcademic

High SchoolVocational

High SchoolJr. College University

1970 56.9 42.3 32.0 27.5 24.2 22.4

1980 47.5 45.1 33.9 32.6 33.8 34.2

1990 35.6 25.4 25.4 23.4 52.7 41.1

2000 28.7 20.1 20.9 18.2 78.0 39.7

2004 26.2 19.0 15.8 13.4 75.6 39.1

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Performance in mathematics and the impact of the socio-economic background

High achievement Relationship between performance and socio-economic

background below OECD average

Group Reading Math Science Problem Solving

Total 2 3 4 1

Upper 5% 7 3 2 3

Academic Achievement: PISA result Ranking of Korean Student Achievement on the PISA

2003

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3. Equality dimension of Korean Secondary education

The Constitution states the Principle of Equality of Educational opportunity rather than equal results of outcomes

The most significant variables affecting the euqality of educational opportunity!

Socio-economic background variable School quality differences among schools

PISA indicates Korea as ‘less effected by SES’ Egalitarian Policy implementation

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Ⅴ. Emerging Issues in Korean Secondary. Education

1. “School Failure”

2. Private Tutoring

3. High School Equalization Policy

4. Vocational High School

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Three Contributing factors to School crisis situation

Students’ disengagement to teaching and learning

Low-level of teachers’ professionalism & commitment and

morale to teaching

Low-level of trust among students, teachers and parents in the

business of education

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Teaching Perspective

Students Perspective Learning Perspective

Degree of Satisfaction

Giving-up stage (13.6%)

No Interest (16.6%)

Difficult, but trying (34.6%)

Little Participation in

Learning (23.7%)

Refusal for guidance (12.8%)

Loss of Group Teaching (11.3%)

Difficulties (18.5%)

No Desire (16.4%)

Avoidance (8.8%)

very dissatisfied

(20.8%)

crisis (85.0%)

a little dissatisfied

(49.4%)

Academic Status of High School Students & their Mind Set

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Distribution of Schools

N Functioning School

Malfunctioning school

Learning-deficient Schools

Disciplinary-deficient School

Middle School

131 87(66.4%) 13(10.0%) 27(20.6%) 4(3.1%)

General High School

103 26(25.2%) 39(37.9%) 26(22.5%) 12(11.7%)

Vocational High School

105 14(13.3%) 64(61.0%) 27(25.7%) 0(.0%)

Total 339 99(29.2%) 118(34.8%) 93(27.4%) 29(8.6%)

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Over reliance of private institute Inequity in participations of private education

according to classes, incomes and region Exaggerated perception on the effectiveness of

private education Intensification of reliance on the system of private

education

2. Private Tutoring

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Positive Evaluation

The outcomes of HEP was judged affirmative, and it was expanded and applied over 20 districts until 1980.

Since the 3rd era, HEP has been supported by civil organizations and KTU(Korean Teachers & Educational Worker’s Union)

relieving educational problems like competitive entrance to a few top high schools

contribution to equal educational opportunity equalizing educational facilities among regions and

schools

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Negative Evaluation

- The variance in individual difference increase and the variance among schools decrease

Teachers are heavily burdened with heterogeneous student groups

- Mismatches between students needs and educational programs

Little incentives to improve educational program by schools

Parents are determined to prepare their children to the final competition, which in the entrance examination to universities,

Trying to find some other ways which lead to private tutoring

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Decrease in Applicants: vacancy 12%

High Drop-outs: 5%(very high)

High Advancement rate of Higher

Education:49.8%

Mismatch between educational program and

social demands

4. Vocational High School

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Ⅵ. New Challenges and Emerging Tasks

1. Human Qualities Required in Knowledge Based Society: emerging demands for core competences

High Level Cognitive Process Self-Control, Responsibility, Independency Creativity Self-Directed Learning Capability Voluntary Initiatives → Individuality Intrinsic values and Social capital development

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2. Policy Shift

Transition Stage in 1990's: Search for New Vision of Educational Ideals, New Priority & New Strategies

Policy Shift in the governance of educational system – proposed by the Presidential Commission for Educational Reform (PCER)

Quality vs. quantity Administrative accountability vs. Performance based

accountability Bureaucratic regulation and control vs. Autonomy Governance of school systems: professional control,

democratic control, or market control Equality vs. Excellence Provider vs. Consumer orientation

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New policy framework with choice, accountability, and autonomy

Performance-BasedPerformance-BasedAccountability:Accountability:Undefined Performance?Undefined Performance?

ProceduralProceduralAdministrativeAdministrativeAccountabilityAccountability

Choice:Choice:Charter SchoolsCharter SchoolsKorean Model(?)Korean Model(?)

Autonomy:Autonomy:Bottom-Up ChangeBottom-Up Change- Program (Magnet)- Program (Magnet)- Personnel- Personnel- Budget- Budget

Top Down ChangeTop Down ChangePolicy-ProgramPolicy-Program- National Curriculum- National Curriculum- Centralized Mgt.- Centralized Mgt.

AssignmentAssignmentHEP (Korea)HEP (Korea)Busing (US)Busing (US)

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3. Old Approach to New Task?

ExcellenceExcellence

CreativityCreativity

IndividualityIndividuality

Moral FoundationMoral Foundation

New Era for qualityNew Era for qualityGlobalized competition ContextGlobalized competition Context

ExternalExternalControlControl

UniformUniformEducationEducation

MediocrityMediocrityEqualityEquality

Blind CompetitionBlind Competition(Moral Hazard)(Moral Hazard)

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Concluding Remarks (1)

Korean Model of Expanding Access with Low-cost approach

‘Bottom-up’ approach

Egalitarian approach

Has recommendable strategic points.

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Concluding Remarks (2)

Students moving path or ‘upward’ to university has to

be re-examined. Concept of authentic achievement to be developed

Core competences to be defined

Development of specialized Elite vocational education

institute

Selection system to be developed