08 - Thermal Insulation

7/28/2019 08 - Thermal Insulation

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8THERMAL INSULATION

Protection against external fire with thermal insulation can make the dif-ference between a sustainable loss and a catastrophe. However, corrosionunder wet thermal insulation can of tenbe a route to a serious accident. Manycryogenic processing units have experienced process piping failures fromexternal corrosion, particularly where the piping was in intermittent use. In1989, a major chemical company replaced a Type 300 series steel column at amultimillion dollar cost, because of corrosion under wet thermal insulation(Pollack and Steely, 1990). These arebut two examples of a phenomenon thatis receiving increasing attention from safety review teams.Insulation may be applied to a surface to perform one or more functionssuch as temperature control (heat conservation or freeze protection), person-nel protection, condensation prevention, or sound attenuation. The majorprocess safety issues related to thermal insulation are:

fire exposure protection of equipmentand piping corrosion under wet insulation spontaneous ignition of insulation wet with f lammable or combustible

liquidsThis chapter will discuss how these process safety considerations areaffected by the properties of insulation, such as thermal performance, mois-

ture absorption, and fire resistance.

8.1 PROPERTIES OF THERMAL INSULATION8.1.1 TIiermal PerformanceInsulation isused toprevent heat loss orgain for processcontrol and it is oftennecessary for the protected process system to function properly. Forexample,if a process fluid condenses or freezes or vaporizes in a line, a hazardouscondition may exist, such as overpressurization, loss of process control orrunaway reaction. For calculating heat transfer rates and determining simpleheat lossor gain, guidelines are published (ASTM, StandardC680).Computerprograms areavailable toaid the engineer in selecting theoptimum thicknessbased on a predetermined set of parameters such as energy costs, local usagerates and capital costs. Insulation is also applied to protect workers frominjury; however, personnel protection isoutside the scope of these Guidelines.


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8.1.2 Absorption of LiquidsAbsorption of moisture or process liquids can lead to a hazardous condition,such as lowered thermal performance, corrosion under wet insulation ora fireif the absorbed liquid is f lammable. Corrosion problems created by moistureabsorption are so significant that they are discussed separately in Section 8.3.

Thermal performance is impaired when the insulation material is wet.Moisture can enter insulation material through a break in the weather barrier,by a leak in steam trace tubing, or by a process leak in the insulated system.When the air spaces in insulation become filled with water or other liquid, theinsulation's conductivity approaches that of the liquid. For example, theconductivity ofwater at 7O0F is 4.1 Btu in/fr hr compared to 0.17 for air. Thismakes the transmission of heat across each space approximately 24 timesgreater when saturated with water as when dry (Malloy1969).

While some insulation materials can regain thermal performance afterbeing dried out, in others, such as calcium silicate, the moisture may never becompletely driven away. Some insulation materials, such as some expandedperlites, may be treated with water repellents. If the liquid absorbed is achemical product, it can create more problems than loss of thermal perfor-mance. Some chemicals can react with the resins or binders in the insulationto cause degradation. Combustibles and some f lammable liquids, such asorganic heat transfer fluids and other oils, may be absorbed in porous insula-tion and self-heat to the point of self-ignition (Britton 1991, Britton and Clem1991). Test methods have been developed that can be used to determine themin imum spontaneous ignition temperature of liquid/insulation combina-tions involving isothermal heating of liquid-soaked cubes of insulation.

Systems that are heat traced with a heat transfer fluid require additionalprecautions to prevent the fluid from leaking into the insulation. Generally,oversize insulation covers both piping and tracer. Since the tracing lines arehidden by the insulation, leaks may go undetected.

Increased weight of wet insulation systems should be addressed in designof support structures, pipe racks, etc., since some insulation materials canabsorb more than twice their dry weight in fluid.

8.1.3 Fire SafetyFire safety is related to three major properties of insulation:

combustibility of the insulation itself combustibility ofabsorbed liquids integrity during fireFormaximum safety, insulation should benoncombustible, nonabsorptive,

and nonmelting. Insulation materials that increase the facility's combustibility


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should be avoided. Avoid using plastic foam insulation materials of thepolyisocyanurate type. Some plastic foam insulation materials that emit toxicgases when subjected to fire are prohibited in some locations. Insulationmaterials are tested according to ASTM E-84 for flame spread and smokedevelopment. Insulation systems can be tested according to ASTM E-119 todeterminetheir resistance toa slowly developing fire. Theconditions specifiedin ASTM E-119 may not truly reflect fire exposure from burning highlyflammable/combustible liquids, such ashydrocarbons. Other methods to testfire resistance have been developed (Britton and Clem 1991).Absorption of flammable material creates a fire hazard even when theinsulation itself is noncombustible. Spontaneous insulation fires may occurwhen acombustible liquid leaks intoporous insulation and reachesa tempera-ture where runaway self-heating occurs (Britton 1991). The insulation pro-vides a large contact surface for reaction and a lower heat loss environment,where the temperature will rise until autoignition occurs, usually only smol-dering. However, sudden influx ofair during efforts to remove the smolderinginsulation isoften the causeof a fire. Greenand Dressel (1989) give anexcellentintroduction to the problem of heat transfer fluid fires. Anoption is to installnonabsorbing insulation, such as cellular glass for a short distance on bothsides of locations (such as flanges) where leaks are likely to occur. Otheroptions are to provide means to carry away leakage, or to eliminate the sourceof the leakage.

The abilities to withstand high temperature exposure, combustion andsmoke development are desirable qualities in an insulation system. Fireresistant insulation material will not only be fire safe; it will also provide fireprotection for the insulated component. In this role, the insulation minimizesthe heat transfer to the protected surface and minimizes the potential forfailure of the equipment and subsequent release of fuel or hazardous mate-rials. Fire resistance is an alternativeto the use ofother protective systems suchas sprinklers or physical barriers to protect critical systems in the plant.A s used in this chapter, fire protectionand fire endurance refer to the abilityof the insulation system to protect equipment from an external fire. Fireresistance refers to the ability of the material to resist transfer of heat from afire to the other side. Resistance is defined by fire resistance ratings (consultNFPA15 and NFPA 251). Insulation used for fire protection is also covered inChapter 16, Fire Protection.The fire envelope refers to the area where flame impingeson equipment orstructures. API RP 520 and 521define the "fire exposed area/' In addition to"fireproofing" the structure in these areas, it is considered appropriate to usefire resistive insulation systems on critical components in these areas, eventhough they may not contain f lammable liquids. Fire protective insulationofelectrical and instrumentation cabling can be important, since loss of power


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or control signals can result in disablement of emergency response equipmentand controls.Fire resistant thermal insulation may be used to protect vessels, critical

equipment, and piping that is subject to exposure to external fire. The insula-tion serves to: Lower the rate of heat input and boiling of liquid inside piping andequipment. For nonreactive systems, this allows the use of a smallerpressure relief device and reduces the quantityof any hazardous effluent

that might have to be handled and disposed of, and it allows additionaltime to evacuate the contents. Insulate heat-sensitive and/or reactive chemicals from excessive temp-erature rise. Protect the structural integrity of vessels and piping by limiting themaximum temperature of the outer wall, for example, the vessel wall inthe vapor space, or the outer wall of a double-walled insulated vessel.

8.1.4 Fabricat ionSome insulation materials perform well thermally,but are difficult to fabri-cate; they do not form well to the substrate or to adjoining insulation sections,or shrink after application and leavegaps in the system. These gaps cause " hotspots" on the jacketing surface or cold spots on hot process temperaturesystems. Poor insulation fit-up and the resulting problems can be reduced ifthe chosen insulation material is fabricated to standard dimensions and istested for linear shrinkage and dimensional stability at the conditions forwhich it is being specified. In addition, allowances should be made for thedifferential expansion between the pipe and the insulation.Determinationof linear shrinkage and dimensional stabilityfor high temp-erature insulation may be conducted using methods given in ASTM C356.Other ASTM guidelines address fabrication tolerances both in the manu-facturers' shops and at the job site (ASTM C585)and various types and shapesof insulation covers. If the insulation isbeing fabricated at thejob site, aqualityassurance program iscritical.

8.1.5 DurabilityIf the insulation does not hold up well inservice, the thermal performance andultimately the safety of the whole system can be affected. Insulation that iscrushed or torn may allow a heat flow path or expose theequipmentorpipingsurface to outside elements such as fire, moisture or corrosive atmospheres.For example, if insulation is damaged on a high temperature line where


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cabling or instrument tubing runs in close proximity, the tubing could becomeoverheated and fail.Insulation is frequently damaged by foot traffic. It isstrongly recommended

that means of access such as catwalks or manlifts be provided whereverpossible toallow maintenanceofequipment without damaging the insulation.Excessive vibration affects both the insulation and the substrate. The sub-

strate may also be subjected to wear by some insulation materials. Fiber-typeinsulation containing short fibers is prone to degradation from excessivevibration. In cellular glass and foam type insulation, wear is controlled by theapplication of an antiabrasivecompound or a layer of fibrous insulation to theinside surface of the foam insulation before it is applied to the substrate.Antiabrasive coatings are available in solvent/resin types (good for low tomoderate temperatures) and water-base types foruse in higher temperatures.

8.2 SELECTION OF INSULATION SYSTEM MATERIALSFor optimum thermal performance,the selection of material is the key factor.However, the choice is not as simpleas selecting the material with the lowestthermal conductivity. After materials engineers and piping designers havemade preliminary choices of materials, the process engineer/safety engineershould look at safety issues of the system as a whole.

Thermal insulation, usuallyasblocks orbatts, provides for thermal efficien-cyas well as fire protection. Cementitious materials, usually applied wet andactivated by fire exposure can be used for fire protection when thermalefficiency in normal operations is not important. Wright and Fryer (1981)present a good summaryof fire protection materials options.

Insulation systems (including jacket, banding, and supports) commonlyinstalled on piping and equipment for reactive chemical service for the pur-pose of fire protection should incorporate the following features: A noncombustible inorganic insulation material such as calcium silicateor cellular glass Double layer construction with alljoints staggered High melting point jacketing Well-securedjacketing, typicallyby stainless steel bands.High melting point jacketing may be stainless steel or other lower cost

jacketing materials developed as alternates. One such material is a sheet steelproduct with a coating ofcorrosion-resistant aluminum-zinc alloy applied bya continuous hot dippingprocess.ASTM C795 identifies requirements fo r insulation materials acceptable fo ruse over austenitic stainless steel including corrosion testing and chemicalanalysis.


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Insulation containing sodium silicate in high concentrations (relative tochloride ion) may be used to inhibit corrosion.

8.3 CORROSION UNDER WET THERMAL INSULATIONCorrosion under wet thermal insulation is recognized as a major problem.Corrosion is often the initiating event for loss of containment, fire, or ex-plosion. Because the corrosion is hidden, it is usually not discovered until if stoo late. Ironically, both the causes and methods of prevention are relativelysimple and have been known for years. Selection of thermal insulation hasbecome routine but potential for deficiencies in fabrication and installationstill occurs.Forexample,aserious problem occurred on amultistoried columnsubjected to monthly testing of the firewater high pressure spray. The metalweather-jacketing system was not designed tobe impenetrable to the upwardspray of the system (Pollackand Steely 1990).8.3.1 Contributing FactorsMaterials of construction fo r piping and equipment are usually selected basedon the internal environment, that is, the process fluids they will contain.Selection of insulation also must consider the external environment, that is,vapors or fluids, such as rainfall, process fluids and corrosive gases, that maybe absorbed by the insulation. The combination of physical and chemicalfactors in the environment will accelerate corrosion..3.1.2 Service TemperatureThe primary temperature range for corrosion is probably 60 to 820C (140 to18O0F). Athigher temperatures, thecorrosion rate ishigher even though wateris driven off faster. High temperatures can cause localized, very aggressivecorrosion at points ofevaporation. Corrosion occurs even at lower tempera-tures; Therefore, it needs to be considered at all service temperatures.8.3.1.2 Intermittent and C yclic Service (Temp erature Transition)In high temperature systems when the water is driven from the insulation,salts collect and may result in very aggressive corrosion when the location isrewetted. In low temperature systems, thawing locations exist that typicallystay wet, creating localized corrosion. Both thawing and vaporizing transitionzones exist on vessel and pipe nozzles, clips, and skirts. Even on the bodyofa single piece of equipment, the temperature may range from below to abovefreezing, creating a temperature transition zone.Corrosion problems are intensified by the cyclical nature of process opera-tions. Service cycles cause temperature cycles and temperature transition


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zones. Many insulated items spend time in a down cycle, for maintenance orfor other reasons. When the equipment cycles down, insulation that typicallyconserves heat can absorb moisture that corrodes the steel until the unit isagain hot and drives the water off.Sometimes the process itself is cyclic, with frequent variations, and conse-quently the corrosion potential is greater. Since no insulation system can beconsidered completely waterproof, the surface beneath the insulation can beintermittently wet and dry At localized points ofwater intrusion or evapora-tion, the system is subject to severe, localized attack, due to concentration ofsalt upon evaporation.8.3.1.3 Equipment DesignIn the past, equipment design typically assumed that vapor barriers wouldremain intact; they do not. New designs can include vapor barrier improve-ments tokeep water out, and methods such as drains and vents to letmoistureescape. Attachment of nozzles, clips, and insulation must be designed tocontrol moisture into and out of the insulation.

Certain designs contribute to especially corrosive situations. The locationof vents and drains, along with faulty sealing methods, allow water entry (andoften retention). Size reductions in towers create water trap potentials. Cor-rosion is likely to occur where fluids or salts could accumulate (Figure 8-1)such as:

Attachments to piping and process equipment (e.g., support brackets). Piping and instrumentation connections, especially vertical segments. Unsealed or damaged jacketing (orremoved for inspection) Low points, especially if jacketingis damaged above the low point. Bottom of absorbent insulation. Dead legs. On vertical equipment where support stiffener rings protrude outside

insulation.System designs must include proximity studies to assure insulation does

not interfere with adjacent pipe, equipment, or structures.8.3.1.4 Materials of Construct ion o f Piping and EquipmentSelection of materials, based on process considerations, has become fairlyroutine, as discussed in Chapters, Materials Selection. Materials known tobesusceptible to corrosion are usually treated with appropriate coatings orinsulation. However, the process engineer must critically analyze, and com-municate to the materials engineer, any ambient conditions that might causeexternal corrosion. These ambient conditions include atmospheric conditionsin the plant as well as the insulation material itself.

Austenitic stainless steels are susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking (SCC)(see Chapter 5, Material Selection, for more on SCC). This problem is most


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Figure 8-1 Areaswhere corrosion under insulation is likely to occur.

prominent in process plants located in coastal areas and those producingchloride-containing chemicals. Some commonly used insulation materialscontain a small amount of leachable chloride ion that might contribute to thistype of corrosion if water is allowed to enter the insulation system. What ismore important, chloride ionscanenter the insulation system either from rain,water washdown ofequipment, fire protection deluge water, or from chlorideabsorbed from the plant atmosphere. Abrasion-resistant coatings used oncellular glass insulation, labels, and paints are other potential sources ofchloride ion that can induce SCCunder insulation, as are polyvinyl chlorideor other plastics containing chlorides.SCC is more likely to occur if the temperature of the stainless steel isbetween about 60 and 1210C (140 to 25O 0F). Cycling temperature conditionsappear to increase the potential for SCC, because water ingress and retentionof the chlorides are more likely under these conditions.8.3.1.5 ClimateProximity to airborne salt is the primary problem; plants on the sea coast aremore prone to problems. The facility itself may provide a source of moistureand contaminants (such as cooling tower fallout areas). Olefins plants with

HEAD NOZZLES

DAVITS

LARGE NOZZLEOR MANWAY

SMALLGUSSETTEDCONNECTIONSVESSEL SUPPORTBRACKETS

TRAPPED WATER

PROBABLE CORROSION ZONI

PROBABLE CORROSION ZONETO P PLATFORM SUPPORTSLIFTING LUGS

INSPECTION OPENINGSUNPREPARED

PLATFORM, LADDER BRACKETSINSULATION THICKNESSSTIFFENER RING, EXPOSEDSTIFFENER RING, HIDDENSUPPORT RING, OFF WALL

ON VESSEL PIPE BRACKETS,GUIDES

FIREPROOFING, VESSELSUPPORT

TRAPPEDWATER


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subambient conditions can result in condensation dripping which creates anunfavorable climate, especially when airborne salts can be washed fromadjacent equipment into insulation.

8.3.1.6 Material Stress Co ndit ionsResidual stresses from fabrication are typically relieved by some sort ofthermal stress relief. However, certain fabrication techniques leave steel inas-fabricated conditions. The cold bending of pipe for noncorrosive service(as defined by process material contained) reduces initial fabrication costssignificantly forsmaller (8inch and under) diameterpipe, but leaves residualstresses that can cause galvanic attack of the outer diameter of the stressedpart.Stainless steels typically have sufficient residual stresses from fabricationso that chlorides will cause severe cracking above 6O 0C (14O0F).

8.3.2 Preventionof Corros ion

The primary methods of preventing corrosion under wet insulation are pre-venting the entry of water into the system and protecting the surface of thepiping or equipment. Since no insulation system can be presumed to beentirely waterproof, protective coatings are extremely important in prevent-ing corrosion. Methods to reduce corrosion under insulation are also listed inTable 8-1. Additional methods ofcorrosion prevention are discussed in Chap-ter 5, Material Selection.

Table 8-1 Design Practices to Reduce Corrosion Under Insulation Incorporate the following corrosion prevention design measures. Avoid primary relianceon m astic seals and caulk ing as a weathe r barrier, both of which tend to dry w ith age andexposure to elevated tempe ratures. W eather-proo fing jacketing should be designed suchthat natural runoff wi ll occur. Nozzles, manways, ladder and lifting lug clips, platfo rmangle iron mounts, bleeder valves, fittings, valves, etc.,should be designed for all connec-tions to be outside the insulation. Use insulating m aterials wh ich contain low concentrations of chlorides or o ther con-taminants that might induce SCC of stainless steel piping and equipment. Inspection portswh ich are designed for wate r-tight construction are available to allow fo rcorrosion inspection of the substrate. To m inim ize galvanic corrosion, avoid d irect contact between dissim ilar m etals by coatingthe parts w ith insula ting coatings or petrolatum tape. Most insulating m aterials contain, or can absorb m oisture in storage and installation . If atight, imperm eable w eather barrier is installed over such insulation, and then placed in hotservice, the m oisture should be allowed to evaporate through release vents.


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8.3.2.1 Preven ting Entry of WaterInstalling and maintaining flashing and caulking at structural or pipingpenetrations of the insulation is used to prevent water ingress. The conditionof the insulation sealant can determine whether corrosion occurs under theinsulation. Hydroscopic insulation must be carefully maintained at joints.Although keeping water out is effective in preventing corrosion, it is verydifficult to do consistently (ASTM 880).5.3.2.2 Protective CoatingsCorrosion problems are most prevalent on insulated steel surfaces operatingin the temperature range of 60 to 1210C (140 to 25O0F). For this service, theimmersion grade epoxy-phenolics and amine-cured coal tar epoxies are fre-quently used, depending on the operating temperature. Proper preparationof the surface iscritical in determininghow well the protective coating works.Surface preparation and protective coatings should be used on all stainlesssteel piping and equipment used in critical systems.

For protecting insulated surfaces from 130 to 54O 0C (270 to 1,00O0F), aNACE Publication (1989) describes coating systems and tapes that are chemi-cally resistant to humid environments containing chlorides and sulfides.Although corrosion may be reduced at very low temperatures, it can beappreciable at intermediate temperatures in the range of -45 to 20C (-50 to350F). For these temperatures, NACE provides recommendations for suitablecoating materials as well as surface preparation and application methodsrequired for reliable performance.Piping systems that run very hot are often not painted; intermittent servicethen leads tovery high corrosion potential. Field construction welds are oftenmade where the pipe was prepainted; these locations are often omitted whenthe rest of the system is painted, but corrosion attack at these locations canoften be severe.

8.3.3 Inspec tion Program sInspection programs to detect corrosion are an important feature of main-tenance of insulation materials and the equipment. Dressel et al. (1991) de-scribe nondestructive testing methods to look for corrosion. Design of theprocess system should facilitate inspection. Unfortunately, removal ofinsula-tion to inspect for corrosion may allow moisture to enter the system. To avoidrepeated repair, removable and replaceable insulation should be used onitems like valves, which require frequent (more than 6 times per year) main-tenance (Britton and Clem 1991). The objective is to maintain the integrityofthe insulation system to prevent entry of moisture.


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Personnel exposure to hazardous components of insulation is a complexissue and beyond the scope of these Guidelines. OSHA and EPA regulationsshould be consulted.

8.4 REFERENCES

8.4.1 Regulations, Code of Pract ice , and Indus try S tandardsThe editions that were in effect when these Guidelines were written areindicated below. Because standards and codes are subject to revision, usersare encouraged to apply only the most recent edition.API RP 520. Sizing, Selection, and Installation o f Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries.Part I 1 Sizing and Selection, 5th ed. 1990. Part U, Installation, 3rd ed. 1988. AmericanPetroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.API RP 521.1990. Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 3rd ed. Amer-

ican Petroleum Institute. Washington, D.C.API Publ. 2218. 1988. Fireproofing Practices in Petroleum and Petrochemical Processing

Plants. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.ASTM 165.1991. Standard Test Methods for M easuring C omp ressive Properties of ThermalInsulations. American Society for Testingand Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C16.1991. Standard Test Method for Loading Refractory Brick at H igh Tem peratures.Thermal Insulation Committeeon Inservice Performance Limitationso f IndustrialInsulation Materials and Accessories, American Society for Testing and Materials,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C356.1992. Standard Test Method for Linear S hrinkage o f Preformed High-Tempera-ture Thermal Insulation Subjected to Soaking Heat. American Society for Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C450. 1988. Standard Practice for Prefabrication and Field Fabrication of ThermalInsulating Fitting C overs for N PS Piping, V essel Lagging, and Dished Head Segments .American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C585. 1990. Standard Practice for Inner and Outer Diameters of Rigid ThermalInsulation for Nominal Sizes of Pipe and Tubing (NPS System). American Society fo r

Testing and Materials, Philadephia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C680.1989. Standard Practice for Determination o f Heat Gain or Loss and the SurfaceTemperatures of Insulated Pipe and Equipment Systems by Use o f a Computer Program.American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTMC692.199Q.StandardTestMethodforEvaluatingtheInf luenceofThermdon th e External Stress C orrosion C racking Tendency ofAustenitic Steel. American Societyfo r Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C795.1989. Standard Specification for W icking-Type Therm al Insulation for Use OverAustenitic Stainless Steel. American Society fo r Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania.


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ASTM C871. 1989. Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Thermal InsulationMaterials fo r Leachable C hloride, Fluoride, Silicate, and Sodium Ions. American Societyfo r Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C929.1988. Standard Practice or Handl ing, Transporting, Shipping, Storage, Receiv-ing and Application of Thermal Insulation Materials to be Used over Austenit ic StainlessSteel. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM C1094. 1988. Standard Guide fo r Removable Insulation Covers. American Societyfo r Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM E84. 1991. Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of BuildingMaterials. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM E119. 1988. Standard Test Methods fo r Fire Tests of Building Construction andMaterials. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadephia, Pennsylvania.ASTM Special Technical Publication 789.1983. Thermal Insulations, Materials and Sys-tems fo r Energy Conservation in the Eighties, F. A. Govan. American Society for Testing

and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.ASTM Special Technical Publication 880.1985. Corrosion o f Metals under Thermal Insula-t ion, Pollock, W. I. and J. M. Barnhart (eds.). American Society for Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.29 CFR1926.58. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.40 CFRPart 61, Subparts A and B.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National

Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP).NFPA 15.1990. Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems fo r Fire Protection. National Fire

Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts.NFPA 30 . 1990. Flammable and Combustible Liquid Codes. National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, Massachusetts.NFPA 251. 1990. Standard Method of Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials.

National Fire Protection Association.UL-1709. 1991. UL Standard for Safety. Rapid Rise Fire Tests of Protection Materials forStructural Steel, 1st ed. Underwriters Laboratories Inc.,Northbrook, Illinois.

8.4.2 Specif ic ReferencesBritton, L. G. 1991. Spontaneous Fires in Insulation. Plant/Operations Progress, Vol.10,

No. 1 (January).Britton, L. G., and H. G. Clem. 1991. Include Safety in Insulation System Selection.

Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol.87, No. 11(November) pp. 87-91.Dressel, M., G. Heinke, and U. Steinhoff. 1991. "Inspect for Maintenance with NDT

Methods." Ammonia Plant and Related Facilities Safety. Vol. 31. (AIChE TechnicalManual) American Institute of Chemical Engineering, New York.

Green, R. L., and D. E. Dressel. 1989. Heat Transfer Fluid Fires and Their Preventionin Vapor Thermal Liquid Systems.A l C h E Spring N ational Meeting, Paper 9D. Amer-ican Instituteof Chemical Engineering, New York.

Malloy, J. F. 1969. Thermal Insulation. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.


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NA CE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers). 1989.A State-of-the-Art Report ofProtection C oatings for C arbon Steel andAusten i t ic Stainless Steel Surfaces Under ThermalInsulation andCementit iousFireproofing. (Publication6Hl89)National AssociationofCorrosion Engineers, Task Groups T-6H-31and T-5A-30, Houston, Texas.

Pollock, W.I., and C.N. Steely, Eds. 1990. C ORR OSION /89 Symp osium: C orrosion UnderW et Thermal Insulation: N ew Techniques fo r Solv ing O ld Problems. New Orleans,Louisiana. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Task Group T-5A-30 andTask Group T-6H-31, Houston, Texas. ISBN 1-877914-14-2.

Wright,J.M., and K.C.Fryer. 1981. Alternative Fire Protection Systems fo r LPG Vessels.GASTECH 81 LNG/LPG Conference. Hamburg, Germany, October 20-23,1981. Gas-tech Ltd., Rickmansworth, Herts, U. K.

8.4.3 Suggested ReadingBuch,R. R., andD. H.Filsinger. 1985.FireHazard Assessment ofFluid-Soaked Thermal

Insulation. 19th Annua l AIC hE Loss Prevention Sympos ium, p. 176. Houston, Texas,July 1985. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York.

Harrison, M . 1982. Industrial Energy Conservation Manuals: N o. U1 Thermal Insulation,Part I I , Heating/Piping/Air Condi t ioning. M IT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Johnson, W. D. 1979. The Role of Thermal Insulation in Industrial Fires. Piping and

Process Equipment, QuIy) pp.17.NACE (National Associationof Corrosion Engineers). C orrosion Under Insulation. (Item#70075, Videotape) National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas.

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