of G.… · Web vie

Teaching of General ScienceScientist and Their Works

1. Isaac Newton (Durdana Saleem)

He was president of The Royal Society. Was an associate of the French Academy of Science A MP.(Member of Parliament) for Cambridge University. Warden of the Royal Mint.

Professor of Mathematics & The Newton (N) was adopted as the unit of force in the System International (SI).

You may know Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) as "that apples-and-gravity guy," Master of Astronomy, Chemistry, Mathematics, Physics and Theology.

The Principia Mathematica, Optical Spectrum of Light, Principals of Gravity, Theories of Motion, Orbital Motion of the Planets, Newtonian Physics (Mechanics), One general law of nature, ReflectiveTelescope.

2. Albert Einstein (Meryam Sher)

He developed the general theory of Relativity. He is best known for the mass energy Equivalence :

He discovered the “law of Photoelectric Effect”. He established the “law of Quantum Theory”. He laid the foundation of “Photon Theory of Light”. He published more than 300 Scientific Papers. 150 Non- Scientific works.

Noble Prize in Physics (1921), Malteucci Medal (1921), Copley Medal, Time Polson of the century

3. Louise Pasture (Tooba Rauf & Dure-e-Najaf)

He was a French chemist and microbiologist. He is well known for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial

fermentation and pasteurization. Awards: Copley Medal, Rumford Medal, Leeuwenhoek Medal

Inventions or discoveries of Louis pasture:

1. He resolved a problem of the nature of tartaric acid in 1849.he solve that mystery that tartaric acid is non-direction.

2. Germ theory: According to that theory he proves that every disease has a cause active micro-organism that living.

3. Pasteurization: He invented pasteurization through food and beverages are preserved and stored for a long period.

E = mc2

4. Vaccination : He introduced vaccination a word which not known before. Vaccination is actually a technique by which small and less powerful micro-organisms are injected in the body by which body become able to fight against large diseases.

5. Immunology: He invented this theory according to which after a certain time of medical treatment patients body develop immune against germs.

He invent cures of following diseases:

Chicken Cholera, Anthrax, Rabies, Small Pox.4. Jabir – Bin – Hay an (Zainab)

Discovered “Caustic Soda”. First to evoke Water Gold. First to introduce the method of separation of NOAH. First to discover Nitric Acid & Hydrochloric Acid. First to retrieve the Sulphuric Acid & termed in Alzaj Oil Manufactured incombustible paper. He made some sort of Paint that prevents Iron – Rust.

He was the first one o introduce the method of separating Gold from Silver solution by acid, which is the predominant mode to this day.

5. Edward Jenner (Arooba)

Known as “Father of Immunology”. Was an English Scientist. Famous for his discovery of “Smallpox Vaccine”.

First successful vaccine ever to be developed & remains the only effective preventive treatment for the fatal smallpox disease.

Discovery was medical breakthrough & saved countless lives. In 1980, the “World Health Organization” declared Smallpox an eliminated disease.

During his training in chipping Sudbury, an interesting thing happened that led to his famous discovery in the later years. He overheard a girl say that she could not get the dreaded Smallpox disease because she had already, had another disease known as Cowpox.

In the 18th century Smallpox was considered to be the most deadly and persistent human pathogenic disease.

In his last days his right side paralyzed, he never fully recovered and finally died of an apparent stroke on 26 Jan 1823 in Berkeley.

6. Marie Curie (Aqsa Farooq & Freeha)

Born in Kingdom of Poland. Field: Physics & Chemistry. Studied in University of Paris. Works: Radio Activity Rays, Polonium, Radium.

2

Got Noble Prize in Physics. Got Noble Prize in Chemistry. Discovered Alfa, Beta, Gamma rays & their signs.

7. Al – Beruni (Aneela Farooq)

His full name is Bin Ahmad Al Khwarizmi Al Beruni. He was master of History, Languages, Math, Earth & Palmistry. His first book was “ Asar Al Baqia ” . Found the age of Earth (24779). His total works are 146. He discovered about drugs & medicines. He was Buried in Ghazni.

8. Alexander Graham Bell (Nida Inam)

Born in 1847, Scotland. Scientist, Inventor, Engineer & Innovator. His famous work is the invention of Telephone. Other inventions / work in Optical

1. Telecommunication2. Hydrofoils3. Aeronautics

Other Invention: Metal Detector

9. Blaise Pascal (Ghina Anwar)

Pascal’s father was a King & later become president.

Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christian philosopher.

He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father.

Works: Contribution to hydrostatic, experimentations with the barometer & theoretical work on the equilibrium of Fluids.

He was known for his theories of Liquids and gasses and their interrelations.

Also his was best known for his work regarding the relationship between the dynamics of hydrodynamics and rigid bodies.

Equilibrium of Liquids by Pascal is an extension to Simon Stevin’s research on hydrostatic paradox; it was termed as the Final law of hydrostatics, the famous Pascal’s Principle.

He worked on a book “Essay on Conics”, its highlight was “Mystic Hexagram”. Died suffering from TB.

3

10. Robert Brown (Hafsa Shabbir)

Botanist and palaeobotanist.

He made important contributions to botany largely through his pioneering use of the microscope.

His contributions include one of the earliest detailed descriptions of the cell nucleus and Cytoplasmic streaming.

His First observation was of Brownian motion. Worked on plant Pollination and Fertilisation.

He was the first to recognise the fundamental difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.

He did some of the earliest studies in Palynology. He did contributions in plant taxonomy.

11. Marconi (Afshan Nisar)

An Italian who invented “Radio” (1895). Won Noble Prize in Physics for this accomplishment. Born near Bologna in Italy in 25 April 1874. He proved the concept of communication by the waves. Cause of Death: Heart Failure.

12.Charles Babbage (Momna)

Charles Babbage was born on 26 Dec 1791 in London. Son of a Banker. Studied from Cambridge University. Interested in Mathematics. He invented difference engine. Fields: Philosophy & Code – Breaking. Died in London in 1871.

13. Charles Lyell (Fatima Asif)

Sir Charles was the most famous lawyer and geologist of his time and one of the most important British scientist in the history.

His primary belief was that all the past changes of earth can be detailed by the forces now acting. The notation becomes the fundamental basis of modern geology.

Lyell wrote “Principle of Geology”, a landmark work in geology that explores James Hutton doctrine of uniformitarianism. Its first volume was published in 1830 and third and last volume was published three years later.

His another work “Antiquity of Man”, was published in 1863, and discussed the proofs of the long existence of human beings on the earth.

He was one the earliest man to embrace Darwin’s theory of natural selection in biology.

4

Lyell’s geological contributions ranged from volcanoes and geological dynamics through stratigraphy, palaeontology and glaciology to subject that would now be considered as part of prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology.

Lyell was made a foreign member of Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1866.

14. Thomas Edison (Sana Zahid)

Thomas Edison was born on February 11, 1847 in Milan, Ohio. He was the first inventor to apply principles of mass production. His inventions are photograph, motion picture camera and electric bulb. He died in 1931.

15. Muhammad Ibn Musa (Sumbal Zakir)

(Al- Khwarizmi)

He was born in a Muslim country Khwarizm which was taken by Russia 1973. He was the founder of algebra and several other branches of mathematics.

He made major contribution to the field of Algebra, trigonometry, astronomy, geography and cartography.

The name algebra was derived from his 830 books on the subject of Hisab al-jabr wa al-muqabala and developed analytical equation linear and quadratic equation.

He developed the trigonometric table containing the sin functions, which were later extrapolated to tangential functions.

He developed the calculus of two errors, which lead him to the concept of differentiation.

He also developed the concept of algorithms in mathematics. Logarithms with base e (natural logarithms) and with base 10 known as common logarithm for rapid and computations,

He was also known as an astronomer and geographer.

16. Ibn – Sina (Sumaiya Khalid)

Born in 980 A.D in a village Afshan, near Bukhara. Father was an advocate. At the age of 10 he became Hafiz – e – Quran.

Contributions: Medicine, Psychology, Pharmacology, Geology, Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Philosophy.

He was also a poet & Islamic Scholar. Important contribution: Book “Al – Quran”. At the age of 18 he was reputed Physician. Learned about medicine at the age of 16.

17. Elizabeth Blackwell (Mahak Tahir)

She was the first openly identified woman to graduate from medical school.

At first, she was even kept from classroom medical demonstrations, as unsuitable for a woman but very soon the students started getting impressed by her ability.

she graduated first in her class in 1849.

5

When Blackwell lost sight in one eye, she returned to New York City in 1851, giving up her dream of becoming a surgeon.

In the 1860s she organized a unit of female field doctors during the Civil War.

In 1857, Blackwell along with her sister Emily founded their own infirmary, named the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children.

she published in 1852 as The Laws of Life, with Special Reference to the Physical Education of Girls. In 1856, she adopted Katherine “Kitty” Barry, an orphan of Irish origin.

18. Alexander Fleming (Sana Hakeem & Iqra)

Born in Scotland 1881. He looked for medicine that would heal infections. He discovered Penicillin. Penicillin cured many diseases like magic spell. Died in London in 1955. Died because of Heart failure.

19. Edward Teller (Rida Masood)

Born in Hungary in 1980. Graduated in chemical engineering. Received his Ph.D. in physics at the University of Leipzig.

Contribution in diverse fields such as: Nuclear Physics, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, Statistical Mechanics, Edward Teller – Atomic Bomb.

He had idea for thermonuclear weapon in 1951. He worked on his work and tested first Hydrogen bomb.

Published more than a dozen books on subjects ranging from energy policy to defence issues.

Received numerous awards for his contributions to Physics and public life Awarded with 23 honorary degrees Called the father of hydrogen bomb.

Two months before his death he was awarded with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civil honour, during a special ceremony at the white house.

20. Georg Simon OHM (Durdana & Tooba & Quart )

Born in 1787. Discovered the most fundamental laws of current electricity. Discovered laws relating to the strength of current in a wire. He found that electricity acts like water in a pipe.

OHM discovered that current in a circuit is directly proportional to electric pressure & inversely to the resistance of conductors.

6

This mathematical tool of OHM has greatest use in determining an unknown factor of voltage, current or resistance in an electric circuit in which the other two factors are unknown.

Died in 1854.

Multiple Choice Questions (s)

1. Isaac Newton was rewarded with the post of….

a) The Royal Society b) The Lord Society c) The Common Society

2. Isaac Newton was a member of …..

a) Political Party b) Common Society c) Parliament for CambridgeU

3. Isaac Newton was Master of

a) Biology b) Astronomy c) None of these

4. Principle of Gravity was given by

a) Isaac Newton b) Faraday c) Brown Smith

5. Isaac Newton gave principle(s) of

a) Principle of Gravity b) Principle of Mathematics c) Both

6. Einstein received Noble Prize in…..

a) 1920 b) 1921 c) 1922

7. General theory of Relativity was developed by?

a) Newton b) Louis Pasture c) Einstein

8. Einstein published Scientific papers almost..

a) 200 b) 300 c) 3000

9. “E = mc2” was formed by…

a) Jabir – Bin – Hayan b) Einstein c) Newton

10. Einstein received Medal(s)

a) One b) Two c) Four

7

11. Louis belongs to….

a) France b) Egypt c) America

12. Louis invented theory through which food can be preserved for long time, the theory is:

a) Vaccination b) Pasteurization c) Germ Theory

13. Louis invented cure of a disease which is cause by a dog’s bite, name of that diseases is..

a) Chicken Cholera b) Anthrax c) Rabies

14. Louis resolved a mystery about the acid----------

a) Amino acid b) Nitric Acid c) Tartaric Acid

15. Louis proved that every diseases causes by a-----------

a) Living Organism b) Germs c) Active Micro Organism

16. Where Jabir – Bin – Hayan born?

a) Tus b) France c) Egypt

17. What was Jabir – Bin - Hayan’s first work in field of chemistry?

a) Nitric Acid b) Water Gold c) Caustic Soda

18. What was Jabir – Bin – Hayan’s Field of work?

a) Maths b) Physics c) Chemistry

19. Who discovered Alzaj Oil?

a) Louis Pasture b) Newton c) Jabir – Bin – Hayan

20. The world Health Organization declared smallpox in ……….

a) 1980 b) 1880 c) 1990

21. Edward Jenner’s Father died when he was …………..

a) Two Years old b) Four Years old c) Five Years old

22. Jenner conducted an experiment on one of his patient named …………

a) Ethane b) James Phipps c) John Horney

23. After completing his training Jenner went to ……… Hospital.

a) City Hospital b) St. George’s Hospital c) St. Edward Hospital

8

24. Edward Jenner got paralyzed from……

a) Left Side b) Right Side c) Both Sides

25. Marie promoted the use of Radium in…

a) World war I b) World war II c) World war III

26. Marie Curie was born in

a) Poland b) U.S c) Germany

27. What was the Marie Curie’s discovery?

a) Gravitational Laws b) Acids c) Radio Activity Rays

28. Marie Curie’s Field was…..

a) Biologist b) Physicist & Chemistry c) A & B

29. Marie Curie got Noble Prize in…

a) Physic b) Chemistry c) Both

30. Marie Curie studied in which university?

a) University of Paris b) Oxford University c) Howard University

31. What was the title given to Al – Beruni?

a) Al- Khvarzami b) Al – Ustadah c) Both

32. Where the tomb of Al – Beruni is?

a) Ghazni b) Ghazi c) Al- Hare

33. What is the total number of Al – Beruni work?

a) 143 b) 145 c) 146

34. How many years Al – Beruni spent in India?

a) 17 b) 27 c) 7

35. What was Al – Beruni’s famous work?

a) Age of Earth b) Acids c) None

36. Graham Bell invented…

a) Telephone b) Radio c) radio waves

9

37. Graham Bell was …

a) Scientist b) Inventor

38. Graham Bell born in

a) Scotland b) England

39. Graham Bell invented …

a) Voice Detector b) Metal Detector

40. Graham Bell’s work in optical …..

a) Hydrofoils b) Hydrogen

41. Who was Pascal’ father?

a) President b) King later become president

42. Where was the Pascal’s family settled in 1631?

a) New- York b) Paris

43. On which book Pascal started working?

a) Easy on Hexagram b) Easy on Conics

44. What was (were) Pascal’s field of works?

a) Mathematics b) Physicist

45. Pascal learned ….. language(s) from his father.

a) Latin b) German

46. Robert Brown was a …..

a) Psychologist b) Botanist

47. Robert Brown discovered……

a) Ballpoint pen b) Brownian motion

48. Birth location of Robert Brown was

a) London b) Montrose Scotland

49. Robert Brown received his medical education from….

a) Edinburgh university b) Oxford universityCalifornia

c) Both

c) France

c) None

c) Both

c) king

c) Germany

c) both

c) both

c) Latin & Greek

c) Physiologist

c) Helicopter

c) California

c) University of

10

50. Robert Brown’s work on plant…..

a) Pollination b) Fertilization

51. Marconi won a Noble Prize in…..

a) Physics b) Chemistry

52. Marconi was born in…..

a) London b) Qurtaba

53. Cause of Death of Marconi…..

a) Cancer b) Heart Failure

54. Who was the inventor of Radio?

a) Marconi b) Graham Bell

55. When Radio was invented?

a) 1875 b) 1829

56. Charles Babbage was the son of a

a) Banker b) Farmer

57. Charles Babbage was interested in ….

a) Computer Science b) Chemistry

58. Charles Babbage born in ….

a) London b) America

59. Charles Babbage invented…..

a) Telephone b) Electric Bulb

60. Charles Babbage’s works of field(s) ….

a) Philosophy b) Chemistry

61. Sir Charles Lyell was the most famous geologist ad..............

a) Engineer b) Teacher

62. Charles Lyell wrote.............

a) Principles of Geology b) Principles of teaching

c) Both

c) Maths

c) Italy

c) TB

c) None

c) 1895

c) Lawyer

c) Maths

c) Italy

c) Difference engine

c) Both

c) Lawyer

c) Principles of law

11

63. Charles Lyell was …

a) Geologist & Lawyer b) Geologist c) Lawyer

64. Charles Lyell’s work “Antiquity if Man” was published in

a) 1836 b) 1832 c) 1863

65. Charles Lyell was made a foreign .................. or the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1866.

a) Manager b) Partner c) Member

66. Thomas Edison was ............. son of his parents.

a) Sixth b) Seventh c) Fifth

67. He is famous due to his ................ invention.

a) Phonograph b) Camera c) Electric bulb

68. He was an ............. inventor.

a) English b) American c) Pakistani

68. He was born in ...............

a) Lahore, Pakistan b) Milan, Ohio c) Sydney, Australia

69. He created first ..................

a) School b) Research Laboratory c) University

70. Thomas Edison invented …….

a) Motion Camera b) Radio c) Calculator

71. A Muslim country Kwarism was taken by Russia in .............

a) 1994 b) 1990 c) 1973

72. Al-Khwarizmi was recognized as the founder of ...............

a) Chemistry b) Maths c) Physics

73. He developed the calculus of ...................

a) Eight errors b) six errors c) two errors

74. Logarithms with base ............. is known as common logarithm.

a) e b) 6 c) 10

12

75. Table of sin function was developed by ...............

a) Al-Beruni b) Al-Khwarizmi c) Ibn-ul-Haishum

76. Ibn – Sina born in…….

a) France b) Bukhara c) Scotland

77. At what age Ibn – Sina learnt about medicine?

a) 16 b) 17 c) 18

78. What was (re) the main contributions of Ibn – Sina ?

a) Medicine b) Psychology c) Both

79. Ibn- Sina Became Hafiz – e – Quran at the age of ….

a) 10 b) 15 c) 18

80. Ibn – Sina contributed in …..

a) Physics & Chemistry b) Psychology & Pharmacy 81.

Elizabeth Blackwell was the first female doctor in ... a) London

b) United State

c) Both

c) Europe82. She studied her medical at …

a) Oxford b) Geneva Medical College c) Paris university

83. She worked in clinics in London and Paris for …. years,

a) 3 b) 2 c) 5

84. She organized a unit of female field doctors with her

a) Daughter b) Mother c) Sister

85. She founded their own infirmary, named the

a) Paris infirmary b) New York Infirmary

86. When Penicillin was discovered?

a) Aug 1956 b) Sep 1928

87. Alexander Fleming was also a …..

a) Physician b) Chemist

c) London infirmary

c) Oct 1756

c) Biologist

13

88. Alexander Fleming got Noble Prize in ………..

a) 1946 b) 1943 c) 1949

89. Fleming discovered……

a) Cobalt b) Bulb c) Penicillin

90. Fleming died because of………

a) TB b) Heart failure c) Both

91. With how many rewards Edward Teller was awarded?

a) 21 b) 32 c) 23

92. Edward Teller didn’t spoken at the age of …..

a) Two Years b) 4 years c) 3 years

93. Edward Teller is called the father of ……

a) Atomic bomb b) Hydrogen bomb c) Nuclear bomb

94. Edward Teller published his book…..

a) 6 b) 12 c) more than a dozen

95. Edward did his Ph.D. in

a) Physics b) Chemistry c) Both

96. George Simon OHM was a

a) Biologist b) Chemist c) Mathematician

97. OHM gave a complete theory of…

a) Electricity b) Germ c) Magnate

98. OHM was awarded with the prize of

a) Science Society b) Maths Society c) Royal Society

99. OHM discovered some laws relating to the strength of current in

a) wire b) water c) air

100. OHM discovered that current in a circuit is directly proportional to ….

a) magnetic Pressure b) Electric pressure c) Both

14

Question & Answers:

Q1. In which fields Isaac Newton worked?

Ans. He was Master of : Astronomy, Chemistry, Mathematics, Physics and Theology. His other works are:

The Principia Mathematica Optical Spectrum of Light Principals of Gravity Theories of Motion Orbital Motion of the Planets Newtonian Physics (Mechanics) One general law of nature & Reflective Telescope.

Q2. What is the Einstein Equation?

Ans. Einstein is best known for the Mass Energy Equivalence:

E = mc2

Q3. What is vaccination theory of Louis pasture?

Ans. Louis introduced vaccination a word which not known before. Vaccination is actually a technique by which small and less powerful micro-organisms are injected in the body by which body become able to fight against large diseases.

Q4. Write any two achievements of Jabir – Bin – Hayan?

Following are the two achievements of Jabir – Bin – Hayan:

Discovered “Caustic Soda” Discovered “Nitric Acid”

Q5. Who is the father of Immunology?

Ans. Edward Jenner.

Q6. In which science field (s) Marie Curie won Noble Prize?

Ans. She was the first women who won two Noble Prizes in two Science fields:

Physics Chemistry

15

Q6a. Marie Curie was known for what?

Ans. She was known for:

Radium Polonium Radio Activity Rays

Q7. What are Al – Beruni great works?

Ans. Following are the works of Al – Beruni:

Mathematics Astronomy Physics Natural Science Geography Chronologist History

Q8. Why did Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone?

Ans. The Telephone revolutionized long – distance communication, which allow people to speak with each other quickly, clearly & affordably.

Q9. What is the most significant contribution of Pascal in the history of Maths?

Ans. The development of “Probability theory” is considered to be the most significant contribution in the history of Mathematics

Q10. What Did Robert Brown, the Botanist, Discover?

Ans. Robert Brown, the botanist, discovered among other things, the cell nucleus and Cytoplasmic streaming. He was also the first to make an observation of the early work on plant pollination and fertilisation, and Brownian motion.

Q11. Who was Marconi?

Ans. Marconi was an Italian who invented the radio in 1895. He won Noble Prize in Physics for this accomplishment.

Q12. In which fields Charles Babbage worked?

Ans. These are the fields in which Charles Babbage worked:

Philosophy Code – Breaking

16

Q13. What was Charles Lyell’s primary belief?

Ans. Lyell’s primary belief was that “ all the past changes of the earth can be detailed by the forces now acting”.

Q14. Write the names of Thomas Edison’s invention?

Ans. inventions of Thomas Edison’s are:

o Phonograph

o Motion Picture Camera o Electric Bulb

Q15. Where the word algebra is derived from?

Ans. The word algebra was derived from the name of Muhammad Ibn Musa’s 830 books on the subject of Hisab al-jabr wa al-muqabala.

Q16. What are the main contributions of Ibn – Sina in Physics?

Ans. In Physics he compared forms of Energy, Heat, Light, Mechanical & such concepts of Force, Volume & Infinity.

Q17. Why Elizabeth Blackwell was rejected from all the leading school of medical???

Ans. She was rejected from all leading schools of medical because she was the first girl in America who wanted to be a Doctor. At first, she was even kept from classroom medical demonstrations, as unsuitable for a woman but very soon the students started getting impressed by her ability.

Q18. What is Penicillin? When & where Alexander Fleming discovered it?

Ans. Penicillin is an Antiseptic medicine, discovered in Sep 1928, in his laboratory.

Discovery:

Fleming, being a bacteriologist, was searching for cures to treat bacterial infections. One day in 1928 he discovered that bacteria he had been growing on a culture plate had been killed in an area close to where a mould was accidentally growing. He isolated the mould and showed that it released a substance that inhibited bacterial growth. He named the substance penicillin after the name of the mould. Fleming reported his ground-breaking results in the scientific paper "On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenza" published in British Journal of Experimental Pathology 10, 226-236 (1929).

Q19. In which diverse field Edward Teller contributed?

Ans. In the following diverse fields Edward Teller contributed:

Nuclear Physics Plasma Physics Astrophysics Statistical Mechanics

17

Q20. What is OHM’s law?

Ans. OHMs law is made from three mathematical equations that shows the relationship between electric voltage, current & resistance.

I = V / R

V = I x R

(Voltage = Current by Resistance)

R = V / I

(Resistance = Voltage by Current)

I = V / R

(Current = Voltage by Resistance)

Evaeducation.weebly.com 18

Climate

Definition:

Climate is a measure of the average pattern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time.

Climate (from Ancient Greek klima, meaning inclination) is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period. The standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations.

What is meant by Climate Change?

The term “climate change” is used by the media, funding agencies and in professional

journals but without a clear and adequate definition as to what this term means. Here are a few definitions:

1. Dictionary.com – climate change – a long-term change in the earth’s climate, especially a change due

to an increase in the average atmospheric temperature: Melting glaciers imply that life in the Arctic is affected by climate change.

A change in global climate patterns apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards, attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels.

Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time. It reflects changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities.

Climate, Weather, Season Page 1

In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of

human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.

What are important concepts related to climate change?

There are three important concepts related to climate change, its impact and the responses of natural and human systems. These concepts are defined below.

3. Vulnerability: In the literature of climate change, vulnerability is defined as the combined measure of threats to a particular system. Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with the adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes (Mc Carthy et al., 2007).

4. Adaptation: Adaptation refers to the ability of a system to adjust to climate change in order to reduce its vulnerability, and enhance the resilience to observed and anticipated impacts of climate change.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) defines adaptation as 'adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changing environment. Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities'.

Adaptation occurs in physical, ecological, and human systems. It involves the following.

4. Changes in social and environmental processes o Perceptions of climate risko Practices and functions to reduce risko Exploration of new opportunities to cope with the changed environment

In other words, adaptation can be understood as an ongoing process addressing many factors and stresses, rather than just climate change in specific.


Mitigation: Mitigation refers to any strategy or action taken to remove the GHGs released into the atmosphere, or to reduce their amount.

IPCC defines mitigation as 'technological change and substitution that reduce resource inputs and emissions per unit of output with respect to climate change. Mitigation means implementing policies to reduce GHG emissions and enhance sinks'.

Adaptation and mitigation are complementary to each other. For example, if mitigation measures are undertaken effectively, lesser will be the impacts to which we will need to adapt. Similarly, if adaptation measures (or the degree of preparedness) are strong, lesser might be the impacts associated with any given degree of climate change.

What is the difference among climate, weather & season?

Key Change: Weather is the conditions of the present time; Sunny, rainy, windy, snowy, etc.and temperature. Climate is the average temperature and precipitation amount. Season is; Summer, Autumn/Fall, Winter, Spring.

Weather changes in cycles. Cycles of weather changes are called seasons. There are fourseasons: winter, spring, summer and autumn. Some seasons are hot. Some seasons are cold. Someseasons are wet. Some seasons are dry.

Winter is the cold season. Summer is the hot season, these seasons are often dry. Spring is the season between winter and summer. The air begins to warm in the spring. Autumn, or fall, is the season between summer and winter. The air begins to cool in the fall. Spring and fall are often wet.

Cycles of weather changes differ from place to place. The long-term pattern of weather in any part of the world is called climate.


There are three major climate zones: tropical, temperate, and polar. Climate zones differ in temperature and precipitation. Tropical climates are usually warm and wet most of the year. Much of Central and South America are in the tropical climate zone. Temperate climates cycle through all four seasons— winter, spring, summer, and autumn. Much of the United States is in a temperate climate zone. Polar climates are usually cold and dry most of the year. Antarctica is in a polar climate zone.

Weather is very important. It determines what clothes we should wear. It even affects what we can do for fun. For example, is it warm enough to wear shorts today? Is it cold enough to go ice skating now?Weather forecasters tell us what the weather will be like. They find out from meteorologists.Meteorologists are scientists who study weather.

Weather happens every day. But what exactly is weather? Weather is made up of many parts. One part is temperature. Temperature is how hot or cold the air is. Another part of weather is precipitation. Precipitation is water that falls from the sky to Earth. The water can be a liquid. It can be a solid. Or it can be a mixture of the two. Rain, snow, sleet, and hail are types of precipitation. A third part of weather is wind. Wind can be a gentle breeze. It can also be a strong tornado. All of these parts are affected by air pressure. Air pressure is the fourth major part of weather. As the phrase implies, air pressure is the pressure that air exerts on Earth's surface.

“Weather reflects short-term conditions of the atmosphere while climate is the average daily weather for an extended period of time at a

certain location.”Comparison chart

Climate WeatherDefinition Describes the average conditions expected Describes the atmospheric conditions at a

at a specific place at a given time. A specific place at a specific point in time.region's climate is generated by the Weather generally refers to day-to-dayclimate system, which has five temperature and precipitation activitycomponents: atmosphere, hydrosphere,cryosphere, land surface, and biosphere.

Components Climate may include precipitation, Weather includes sunshine, rain, cloudtemperature, humidity, sunshine, wind cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezingvelocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, rain, flooding, blizzards, ice storms,and hail storms over a long period of time. thunderstorms, steady rains from a cold

front or warm front, excessive heat, heatwaves and more

Forecast By aggregates of weather statistics over By collecting meteorological data, like airperiods of 30 years temperature, pressure, humidity, solar

radiation, wind speeds and direction etc.Determining Aggregating weather statistics over Real-time measurements of atmosphericfactors periods of 30 years ("climate normal’s"). pressure, temperature, wind speed and

direction, humidity, precipitation, cloudcover, and other variables

About Climate is defined as statistical weather Weather is the day-to-day state of theinformation that describes the variation of atmosphere, and its short-term (minutesweather at a given place for a specified to weeks) variationinterval.

Time period Measured over a long period Measured for short termStudy Climatology Meteorology

What factors affect the climate of an area?

There are many different factors that affect climate around the world. It is the varying influence of these factors that lead to different parts of the Earth experiencing differing climates. The most important natural factors are:

7. Distance from the sea8. Ocean currents9. Direction of prevailing winds10. Shape of the land (known as 'relief' or 'topography')11. Distance from the equator12. The El Niño phenomenon.

It is now widely accepted that human activity is also affecting climate, and that the impact is not the same everywhere. For example, changes appear to be happening faster near the poles than in many other places. In this tutorial we will look at some of these factors in more detail.

1. Distance from the sea (Continentality)

The sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. The centre of continents are subject to a large range of temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture from the sea evaporates before it reaches the centre of the land mass.

2. Ocean currents

Ocean currents can increase or reduce temperatures. The diagram below shows the ocean currents of the world .The main ocean current that affects the UK is the Gulf Stream.

The Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current in the North Atlantic flowing from the Gulf of Mexico, northeast along the U.S coast, and from there to the British Isles.

The Gulf of Mexico has higher air temperatures than Britain as it is closer to the equator. This means that the air coming from the Gulf of Mexico to Britain is also warm. However, the air is also quite moist as it travels over the Atlantic ocean. This is one reason why Britain often receives wet weather.

The Gulf Stream keeps the west coast of Europe free from ice in the winter and, in the summer, warmer than other places of a similar latitude.


3. Direction of prevailing winds

Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to inland areas. Winds that blow to Britain from warm inland areas such as Africa will be warm and dry. Winds that blow to Britain from inland areas such as central Europe will be cold and dry in winter. Britain's prevailing (i.e. most frequently experienced) winds come from a south westerly direction over the Atlantic. These winds are cool in the summer, mild in the winter and tend to bring wet weather.

4. The shape of the land ('relief')

Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas because as air is forced over the higher ground it cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall.

The higher the place is above sea level the colder it will be. This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see snow on the top of mountains all year round.

5. Distance from the equator

The distance from the equator affects the climate of a place. At the poles, energy from the sun reaches the Earth's surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere than at the equator. This means the climate is cooler further from the Equator. The poles also experience the greatest difference between summer and winter day lengths: in the summer there is a period when the sun does not set at the poles; conversely the poles also experience a period of total darkness during winter. In contrast, daylength varies little at the equator.

6. El Niño

El Niño, which affects wind and rainfall patterns, has been blamed for droughts and floods in countries around the Pacific Rim. El Niño refers to the irregular warming of surface water in the Pacific. The warmer water pumps energy and moisture into the atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall patterns. The phenomenon has caused tornadoes in Florida, smog in Indonesia, and forest fires in Brazil.


El Niño is Spanish for 'the Boy Child' because it comes about the time of the celebration of the birth of the Christ Child. The cold counterpart to El Niño is known as La Niña, Spanish for 'the girl child', and it also brings with it weather extremes.

Human influence

The factors above affect the climate naturally. However, we cannot forget the influence of humans on our climate. Early on in human history our effect on the climate would have been quite small. However, as populations increased and trees were cut down in large numbers, so our influence on the climate increased. Trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. A reduction in trees will therefore have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

The Industrial Revolution, starting at the end of the 19th Century, has had a huge effect on climate. The invention of the motor engine and the increased burning of fossil fuels have increased the amount of carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas - more on that later) in the atmosphere. The number of trees being cut down has also increased, reducing the amount of carbon dioxide that is taken up by forests.

In Short:

10. Latitude & Longitude - Where you are positioned on the earth11. Altitude - How high you high, higher = cooler12. Prevailing Winds - depends where the winds come from, warm or cold areas13. Distance from Oceans - Ocean's moderate climate, closer you are, less variation you get14. Ocean Currents - Ocean currents can bring warm air from far away15. Geography - What the area is like. Topography, vegetation, nearness to mountains etc all affect

the climate.

How can we save our environment?

Tips

12. Turn off the water tap when brushing your teeth. This simple action can save tons of water.13. Do not burn garbage. As it causes air pollution.

14. If you or someone you know doesn't see the "point" of doing these things, watch or show him or her a movie like An Inconvenient Truth, Who Killed the Electric Car?, and The Day After Tomorrow to show them the effects of what will happen if we don't work to save our environment.

15. Rather than buy a printed book consider the library, a book swap or if you want to purchase, purchase an eBook. Try EcoBrain.com for eBooks on green living and environmental education.

16. Measure your eco-footprint online. There are many sites that offer this. Once it is measured, see what you can do to reduce your home's impact on the environment.

17. Reduce your waste before recycling! Buy loose products and minimise packaging on the products you buy at the shops. Take a reusable bag with you.


What are the responsibilities of a society to conserve environment?

14. Successfully established diagnosis techniques for diseased Para rubber trees and completed genetic sequencing

15. Tightened management of chemical substances across the entire Bridgestone Group

16. Strengthened environmental management system aimed at further reducing our impacts on the environment

17. Selected locations for a guayule research farm and associated process research centre

18. Continued the zero waste to landfill status with regard to waste products at all plants in Japan

19. Rolled out water management*1 measures in Japan, the United States, Europe and Thailand, etc.

20. Developed TRISAVER in Japan, a manufacturing technology for truck and bus tire using our

proprietary retread techniques that helps to reduce resource usage and achieve a greater

degree of fuel-efficiency

21. Reduced CO2 emission per sales from the company's total operations and also its products'

“after-sales” by 17.9% of 2005 levels*2

22. Bridgestone's Wilson Plant in the U.S. became the first tire factory in the world to obtain ISO

50001 certification for its energy management system, and the Bridgestone Technical Center

Europe in Rome was the first in Italy to obtain this

23. Trialing policies designed to pave the way for procurement of sustainable materials*3

24. Trialing water management policies with the goal of using water resources in a

sustainable manner*4

25. Aiming to reduce CO2 emission from manufacturing by 35% compared to 2005 levels by the

year 2020 (per sales)

26. Pursuing use of renewable energy

27. Expanding energy-saving diagnostics at production bases and improving production

equipment and methods to achieve greater energy and production efficiency


Contribution to the conservation of environment through products and services

16. Exhibited a concept tire of “100% sustainable materials” at the 2012 Paris Motor Show

17. Accelerated research on sustainable materials (guayule, Russian dandelion, and biomass-

derived synthetic rubber, etc.)

18. Expanded the solutions business using retread tires

19. Reduced the tire rolling resistance coefficient by 7.0% compared to 2005, while maintaining

wet grip performance

20. Expanded the lineup of ECOPIA fuel-efficient tires and increased supply globally (76 countries)

21. Released fuel-efficient tire with the highest grade (AAA-a) given under Japan’s tire

labeling system

22. Rolled out “Criteria for Eco Products” globally

23. Developing products and technologies that contribute to improved resource productivity

24. Developing technologies that contribute to the expanded use of sustainable materials*

25. Further expanding the solutions business using retread tires

26. Aiming to reduce the tire rolling resistance coefficient in 2020 by 25.0% compared to

2005, while maintaining wet grip performance

27. Expanding Bridgestone's fuel-efficient tire line up and make it available worldwide

28. Expanding availability of eco products in accordance with “Criteria for Eco Products”

Global Warming & Green House

Global Warming:

A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.

What is Global Warming?

Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape from Earth. This is a type of greenhouse effect.

Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are 95-100% certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized nations.

Green House :

A glass building in which plants that need protection from cold weather aregrown.

A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse) is a building in which plants are grown. These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings. A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame.

A greenhouse is a structural building with different types of covering materials, such as a glass or plastic roof and frequently glass or plastic walls; it heats up because incoming visible solar radiation (for which the glass is transparent) from the sun is absorbed by plants, soil, and

Global Warming & Green House Page 10

other things inside the building. Air warmed by the heat from hot interior surfaces is retained in the building by the roof and wall. In addition, the warmed structures and plants inside the greenhouse re-radiate some of their thermal energy in the infrared spectrum, to which glass is partly opaque, so some of this energy is also trapped inside the glasshouse

Green House Effect?

The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824, discovered in 1860 by John Tyndall, was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, and was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by Guy Stewart Callendar.

What is the Difference between Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect?

Key Difference: Global warming is when the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and the oceans rise. Greenhouse effect is the retention of the heat by the greenhouses gases on the surface of the Earth, allowing the planet’s temperature to rise.

Global warming and the greenhouse effect are two terms that have been constantly under debate among environmentalists, who are currently fighting to reduce the effect of these dangerous conditions on the Earth. Both global warming and greenhouse effect are related to each other and are greatly responsible for early springs, really hot summers, really cold winters and even most of the natural disasters that are happening around the world. These two play an important part in the sustainability of the Earth and are completely different from each other.


Global warming is the constant increase in the temperature of the planet, while greenhouse effect is the rise greenhouses gases which trap heat on the surface absorbed by the atmosphere from the sun. Greenhouse effect is a contributing factor to the global warming. Even with all the limitations placed on emission control, the temperature of the Earth is expected to continue to rise. As they say the damage is done, however we can control how fast the temperature rises.

Global Warming Greenhouse Effect

Global warming is when the Greenhouse effect is theretention of the heat by the

average temperature of theDefinition greenhouses gases on theEarth’s atmosphere and the surface of the Earth, allowing theoceans rise. planet’s temperature to rise.

There is no clear indication as towhen the effects of global

Discovery warming were discovered. It Joseph Fourier in 1824became popular topic ofdiscussion during the last 50-60years.

Combustion of fossil fuels, Increase of greenhouse gases,

mining, combustion of fossilCauses pollution, mining, deforestation, fuels, deforestation, population,

population, etc global warming, etc.

Rising sea levels, melting of ice droughts, flooding, melting ofglaciers, extinction of species,snow, extreme weatherEffects oxygen depletion, volcanoes, conditions, natural calamities,earthquakes, acidification, rising sea level, etc.depleted food supply, etc

Though the damage is already Though the damage is alreadydone, however to reduce the done, however to reduce theacceleration rate of global acceleration rate of global

Solutions warming it is important to cut warming it is important to cutdown on emissions in any way down on emissions in any waypossible, planting of new trees, possible, planting of new trees,reducing dependency on cars, reducing dependency on cars,etc. etc.


Lesson 1: Forms of Energy and Energy Transformations

Contents

5. Introduction

6. Lesson

Content o

2.1 Heat o

2.2 Light o

2.3 Sound

o 2.4 Electrical Energy

o 2.5 Chemical Energy

o 2.6 Nuclear Energy

o 2.7 Mechanical Energy

o 2.8 Energy Conversion

Introduction

Energy is the ability to do work. It is one of the basic human needs and is an essential component in any development programme. In this lesson, we are going to look at the forms that energy exists, namely: heat, light, sound, electrical, chemical, nuclear and mechanical. These forms of energy may be transformed from one form to the other, usually with losses.

ObjectivesBy the end of this lesson you should be able to:

5. describe the various forms of energy namely, heat, light, sound, electrical, chemical, nuclear and mechanical

6. describe how energy may be transformed from one form to another

Lesson Content

Heat

Heat energy, also referred to as thermal energy, is really the effect of moving molecules. Matter is made up of molecules, which are in continual motion and in a solid, vibrate about a mean position. The motion of any molecule increases when the energy of the substance is increased. This may cause an increase in the temperature

of the substance or lead to a change of state. The higher the temperature, the greater the internal energy of the substance.

Heat energy is the most easily lost or dissipated form of energy. It is also the form of energy into which other forms of energy can easily change. However, heat can be changed into other forms of energy with a lot of waste. Also called Solar Energy

Light

Sunset: Image provided by courtesy of Flickr- www.flickr.com

Light energy is a type of wave motion. That is, light is a form of energy caused by light waves. It enables us to see, as objects are only visible when they reflect light into our eyes.

Sound

Sound energy is also a type of wave motion. We are heard by others when we talk because of the sound energy we produce. It is due to the effect of the air molecules vibrating when we talk. The vibrating molecules hit our eardrums, which enable us to hear others talk. Sound energy may be converted into electrical energy for transmission, and later the electrical energy can be converted back into sound energy at the receiving end. An example of such transformations could be seen in the microphone and the loudspeaker.

Sound, like heat energy is easily lost. The transformation of one form of energy into another may be accompanied by losses in the form of sound and/or heat that are often not desirable.

Electrical Energy

Transmission of electrical energy: Image provided by courtesy of Flickr- www.flickr.comElectrical energy is really the effect of moving electrical charges from one point to another in a conductor. Electrical charges moving through a conductor is called electricity. Electrical energy may be easily changed into

other forms of energy to suit our particular needs. Lightning is an example of electrical energy. Electric current is the means by which electrical energy is most easily transported to places where it is needed and converted into other forms.

Chemical Energy

This is the energy stored within chemical compounds. A chemical compound is formed by the rearrangement of atoms that is accompanied by energy loss or gain. This energy is the chemical energy gained or lost in the formation of the compound.

Food, biomass, fuel and explosives have a store of chemical energy. The energy from food is released by chemical reactions in our bodies in the form of heat. Fuels like coal, oil and natural gas contain chemical energy that may be converted into other forms of energy like heat and light. The chemical energy present in a given fuel is determined by its calorific value – the heat liberated when 1 Kg of the fuel is burnt. Batteries and explosives also contain chemical energy that could be converted into other forms of energy, some beneficial, others harmful.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Energy, also known as atomic energy, is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. It is this energy that holds the nucleus together and could be released when the nuclei are combined (fusion) or split (fission) apart. Nuclear energy can be used for peaceful purpose as well as destructive purposes (as in the atomic bomb). Considering peaceful purposes, nuclear energy is used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants, produce steam for driving machines, powering some submarines and spacecrafts. In these applications, the nuclei of uranium atoms are split in a process called fission. Nuclear energy is also the source of the sun’s energy. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion.

Albert Einstein put forward the following equation that provides the basis for calculating the amount of energy released when the nucleus of an atom is split. E = mc2

The equation means that when the nucleus of an atom is split, the amount of energy released, E, in joules, is equal to the loss of its mass, m, in kilograms, times the speed of light squared, c2, in m/s2. Because c2 is a very large figure (300,000,000 X 300,000,000 = 90,000.000,000,000,000 ), a small amount of mass can be converted into an enormous amount of energy. An atom of uranium splits into two smaller atoms and loses roughly 0.1 percent of its mass that is converted into a vast amount of energy. One-kilogram mass of any substance completely converted into energy equals 90,000,000,000,000,000 J or 25 billion kilowatt hours!! This is more than the electrical energy needs of the United States for two days!!

Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is the kind of energy that can do mechanical work directly. Naturally occurring sources of mechanical energy include winds, waterfalls and tides.

There are two kinds of mechanical energy, namely kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion. A moving body of mass, m Kg and velocity v m/s possesses kinetic energy of magnitude mv2 joules. Thus, the magnitude of the kinetic energy of an object depends both the mass and the velocity of the object. Flowing water and winds have kinetic energy.

Potential energy is the energy of a body due to its position or shape. This form of energy could be considered as energy stored in a body to be released when it begins to move or change its position or shape. Quite often, potential energy changes to kinetic energy. A ball at the top of a slope, water behind a dam, a compressed spring

and a stretched elastic band possess potential energy. For a body of mass, m Kg located at a height h metres above a particular chosen level such as ground level or sea level, its potential energy is mgh joules, where g = acceleration due to gravity, in m/s2. For an elastic spring stretched x m, its potential energy is (1/2)kx2

joules, where k = spring constant, in N/m.

Energy Conversion

One important property of energy is its ability to change from one form to another form. For example, chemical energy from fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) can be converted into heat energy when burned. The heat energy may be converted into kinetic energy in a gas turbine and finally into electrical energy by a generator. The electric energy may subsequently be converted into light, sound or kinetic energy in our homes through various household appliances.

During any energy conversion, the amount of energy input is the same as the energy output. This concept is known as the law of conservation of energy and sometimes referred to as the First Law of Thermodynamics. This law states: energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another. Thus, the total energy of an isolated system is always constant and when energy of one form is expended an equal amount of energy in another form is produced. In every energy conversion, some high-grade energy is converted into low-grade energy as heat. Thus, the total amount of low-grade energy in the universe is increasing while high-grade energy is decreasing. Even though energy is never destroyed, we usually complain that the world is suffering from an energy shortage. Indeed we are suffering from shortage of high-grade energy that has the potential of producing useful power! Energy may change form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.

Reflection

Let us consider the following energy transformations that we encounter on daily basis in our everyday activities.

When we turn on our flashlight, chemical energy stored in the batteries is converted into light energy. When we turn on the television, electrical energy changes into light and sound. Even though

undesirable, some amount of heat is also produced. When we move a vehicle, the engine converts the chemical energy stored in the fuel into heat, sound

and kinetic energy. Note that the heat and the sound that are produced are not desirable. When we talk on the telephone, the sound we produce is first transformed into electrical energy by the

microphone that is transmitted along wires. In the case of cellular phones, the sound is converted into electromagnetic waves and transmitted through the air. The speaker of the phone on the other end changes the electrical energy/ electromagnetic waves back into sound energy.

An electric cooker in our homes changes electrical energy into heat and light. (As the hot plate gets hotter and hotter we see it glowing).

Summary

In this lesson, we looked at the various forms in which energy may exist, namely: heat, light, sound, electrical, chemical, nuclear and mechanical. We also learnt that these forms of energy may be transformed from one form to the other, usually with losses.

Assignment

Describe to your junior brother in SSS 3 the following forms of energy:

Heat Light Sound Electrical Chemical Nuclear Mechanical

www.evaucation.weebly.comGarrat, J. (1995). Design and technology. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.Ramage, J.(1997). Energy: A guidebook (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Schwaller, A. E. & Gilbert, A. F. (1996). Energy technology: Sources of power (2nd ed.).

Bonn: International Thomson Publishing.

Introduction to Energy

What is Energy?Energy makes change; it does things for us. It moves cars along the road and boats over the water. It bakes a cake in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favorite songs on the radio and lights our homes. Energy makes our bodies grow and allows our minds to think. Scientists define energy as the ability to do work.

Forms of EnergyEnergy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, sound, and motion. There are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories: potential and kinetic.

Potential EnergyPotential energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational energy. There are several forms of potential energy.

�Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that holds these particles together. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical energy.

�Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.

�Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom; it is the energy that holds the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion.

�Gravitational energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

Kinetic EnergyKinetic energy is motion; it is the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects.

�Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make some of the electrons move. Electrons moving through a wire is called circuit electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy.

�Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.

�Thermal energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances; it is the vibration and movement of the atoms and molecules within substances. The more thermal energy in a substance, the faster the atoms and molecules vibrate and move. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.

�Motion energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another. Objects and substances move when a force is applied according to Newton’s Laws of Motion. Wind is an example of motion energy.

�Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate; the energy is transferred through the substance in a longitudinal wave.

Forms of Energy

POTENTIAL KINETICChemical ElectricalEnergy Energy

StoredRadiantMechanicalEnergyEnergy

Gravitational ThermalEnergy Energy

Nuclear MotionEnergy Energy

SoundEnergy

6 Intermediate Energy Infobook

Conservation of EnergyTo scientists, conservation of energy is not saving energy. The law of conservation of energy says that energy is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn’t disappear. We change it from one form of energy into another.

A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into motion energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.

EfficiencyEfficiency is the amount of useful energy you get from a system. A perfect, energy efficient machine would change all the energy put in it into useful work—a technological impossibility today. Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of usable energy.

Most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human body is a good example. Your body is like a machine, and the fuel for your machine is food. Food gives you the energy to move, breathe, and think.

Your body isn’t very efficient at converting food into useful work. Your body’s overall efficiency is about 15 percent most of the time. The rest of the energy is transformed into heat. You can really feel that heat when you exercise!

Sources of EnergyWe use many different energy sources to do work for us. They are classified into two groups—renewable and nonrenewable.In the United States, most of our energy comes from nonrenewable energy sources. Coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium are nonrenewable energy sources. They are used to make electricity, heat our homes, move our cars, and manufacture all kinds of products. These energy sources are called nonrenewable because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, for example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. We can’t make more crude oil deposits in a short time.

Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, and wind energy. They are called renewable because they are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity.

ElectricityElectricity is different from the other energy sources because it is a secondary source of energy. We must use another energy source to produce electricity. In the U.S., coal is the number one energy source used for generating electricity.

Electricity is sometimes called an energy carrier because it is an efficient and safe way to move energy from one place to another, and it can be used for so many tasks. As we use more technology, the demand for electricity grows.

Energy Transformations

Chemical Motion Chemical Motion

Radiant Chemical Electrical Thermal

U.S. Energy Consumption by Source, 2010

NONRENEWABLE, 91.8% RENEWABLE, 8.2%

Petroleum35.1% Biomass 4.4%Uses: transportation, Uses: heating, electricity,manufacturing transportation

Natural Gas 25.2% Hydropower 2.6%Uses: heating, manufacturing, Uses: electricityelectricity

Coal 21.3% Wind 0.9%Uses: electricity, manufacturing Uses: electricity

Uranium 8.6% Geothermal 0.2%Uses: electricity Uses: heating, electricity

Propane 1.6% Solar 0.1%Uses: heating, manufacturing Uses: heating, electricity

Data: Energy Information Administration

© 2012 The NEED Project P.O. Box 10101, Manassas, VA 201081.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 7

Physical and Chemical Properties

All substances have properties that we can use to identify them. For example we can identify a person by their face, their voice, height, finger prints, DNA etc.. The more of these properties that we can identify, the better we know the person. In a similar way matter has properties - and there are many of them. There are two basic types of properties that we can associate with matter. These properties are called Physical properties and Chemical properties:

Physical Properties that do not change theproperties: chemical nature of matterChemical Properties that do change thaproperties: chemical nature of matter

Examples of physical properties are: colour, smell, freezing point, boiling point, melting point, infra-red spectrum, attraction (paramagnetic) or repulsion (diamagnetic) to magnets, opacity, viscosity and density. There are many more examples. Note that measuring each of these properties will not alter the basic nature of the substance.

Examples of chemical properties are: heat of combustion, reactivity with water, PH, and electromotive force.

The more properties we can identify for a substance, the better we know the nature of that substance. These properties can then help us model the substance and thus understand how this substance will behave under various conditions.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

We are all surrounded by matter on a daily basis. Anything that we use, touch, eat, etc. is an example of matter. Matter can be defined or described as anything that takes up space, and it is composed of miniscule particles called atoms. It must display the two properties of mass and inertia.

7. Introduction

7. Physical (Properties and Changes)

Chemical (Properties and Changes)

Example Problems

Introduction

The different types of matter can be distinguished through two components: composition and properties. The composition of matter refers to the different components of matter along with their relative proportions. The properties of matter refer to the qualities/attributes that distinguish one sample of matter from another. These properties are generally grouped into two categories: physical or chemical.

Figure 1: Visual With Examples. Content from S.M.

Physical (Properties and Changes)

Physical Property

A physical property is one that is displayed without any change in composition. (Intensive or Extensive)

1. Intensive: A physical property that will be the same regardless of the amount of matter.

13. Density: m/v14. Colour: The pigment or shade15. Conductivity: electricity to flow through the substance16. Malleability: if a substance can be flattened17. Lustre: how shiny the substance looks

2. Extensive: A physical property that will change if the amount of matter changes.

16. Mass: how much matter in the sample17. Volume: How much space the sample takes up18. Length: How long the sample is

Physical Change

Change in which the matter's physical appearance is altered, but composition remains unchanged. (Change in state of matter)

18. Three main states of matter are: Solid, Liquid, Gas28. Solid is distinguished by a fixed structure. Its shape and volume do not change. In

a solid, atoms are tightly packed together in a fixed arrangement.29. Liquid is distinguished by its malleable shape (is able to form into the shape of

its container), but constant volume. In a liquid, atoms are close together but not in a fixedarrangement.

18. Gas is made up of atoms that are separate. However, unlike solid & liquid, a gas has no fixed shape and volume.

Example: When liquid water (H2O) freezes into a solid state (ice) -- It appears different/changed;However, the composition is still: 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass.

Figure 2: States of Matter

Chemical (Properties and Changes)

Chemical Property: Any characteristic that gives a sample of matter the ability/inability to undergo a change that alters its composition.

Examples: Alkali metals react with water; Paper's ability to burn.

Chemical Change: Change in which one or more kinds of matter are transformed to new kinds of matter with altered compositions.

(Or Chemical Reaction):Examples:

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide or 2 Mg+ O2 → 2 MgO

Iron + Oxygen → Iron Oxide/ Rust or 2 Fe + 3O2 → Fe2O3

[With higher knowledge of these different properties and changes, we receive a better understanding of the nature of different samples of matter that exist. Using the components of composition and properties,

we have the ability to distinguish one sample of matter from the others.]

Example Problems

21. Milk turns sour. This is a ________________

Chemical Change Physical Change Chemical Property Physical Property None of the above

22. HCl being a strong acid is a __________, Wood sawed in two is ___________

Chemical Change, Physical Change Physical Change, Chemical Change Chemical Property, Physical Change Physical Property, Chemical Change None of the above

23. CuSO4 is dissolved in water


24. Aluminium Phosphate has a density of 2.566 g/cm3


25. Which of the following are examples of matter?

A Dog Carbon Dioxide Ice Cubes copper (II) nitrate A Moving Car

26. The formation of gas bubbles is a sign of what type of change?

27. True or False: Bread rising is a physical property.

28. True or False: Dicing potatoes is a physical change.

Is sunlight matter?

The mass of lead is a _____________property.

Answers:1)chemical change 2)chemical property, physical change 3) physical change 4)physical property 5)All of the above 6) chemical 7) False 8) True 9) No 10) physical property

Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical properties are those that can be observed without changing the identity of the substance. The general properties of matter such as colour, density, hardness, are examples of physical properties. Properties that describe how a substance changes into a completely different substance are called chemical properties. Flammability and corrosion/oxidation resistance are examples of chemical properties.

Question: What is the difference B/w a Chemical property & Physical property?

A Physical property; is an aspect of matter that can be observed or measured without changing it. Examples of this property include: Colour, Molecular weight & volume.

A Chemical property: may only be observed by changing the chemical identity of a substance. This property measures the potential for undergoing a chemical change. Examples of this property include: reactivity, flammability & oxidation states.

The difference between a physical and chemical property is straightforward until the phase of the material is considered. When a material changes from a solid to a liquid to a vapour it seems like them become a difference substance. However, when a material melts, solidifies, vaporizes, condenses or sublimes, only the state of the substance changes. Consider ice, liquid water, and water vapour, they are all simply H2O. Phase is a physical property of matter and matter can exist in four phases – solid, liquid, gas and plasma.

Some of the more important physical and chemical properties from an engineering material standpoint will be discussed in the following sections.

2. Phase Transformation Temperatures3. Density4. Specific Gravity5. Thermal Conductivity6. Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion7. Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity8. Magnetic Permeability9. Corrosion Resistance

ELECTROLYSIS

Key Words and Definitions:

compound – composed of two or more substances, ingredients, elements, or parts

electrolysis – chemical change, especially decomposition, produced in an electrolyte by an electric current.

electrolyte – a compound decomposable, or subjected to decomposition, by an electric current

element – a substance composed of atoms having an identical number of protons in each nucleus; elements cannot be reduced to simpler substances by normal chemical means.

hydrogen – A colorless, highly flammable gaseous element, the lightest of all gases and the most abundant element in the universe.

molecule – the smallest part of a substance that retains the chemical and physical properties of the substance and is composed of two or more atoms.

oxygen – an element that at standard temperature and pressure is colorless, tasteless, and odorless (required for nearly all combustion and in the cellular functioning of animals)

Background:When you add salt to the water, the salt ions (which are highly polar) help pull the water molecules apart into ions. Each part of the water molecule has a charge. The OH- ion is negative, and the H+ ion is positive. This solution in water forms an electrolyte, allowing current to flow when a voltage is applied. The H+ ions, called cations, move toward the cathode (negative electrode), and the OH- ions, called anions, move toward the anode (positive electrode).

At the anode, water is oxidized: 2H O T O + 4H+ + 4e- 22

At the cathode, water is reduced: 4HO+4e- T2H +4OH- 22

Note that there is a net balance of electrons in the water. Bubbles of oxygen gas (O2) form at the anode, and bubbles of hydrogen gas (H2) form at the cathode. The bubbles are easily seen. Twice as much hydrogen gas is produced as oxygen gas.

The net reaction: 2H2O T 2H2 + O2

Electrolysis is a technique used by scientists to separate a compound or molecule into its component parts. By adding electricity to a liquid and providing a path for the different particles to follow, a liquid such as water can be separated into hydrogen and oxygen.

In the electrolysis of water, how many grams of oxygen gas will be produced for every gram of hydrogen gas formed?

Reaction: 2H2O(l) ===> 2H2(g) + O2(g)

For every molecule of hydrogen gas produced, one molecule of oxygen will be produced. This means that for every mole of oxygen produced, 2 moles of hydrogen will be produced. However, the mass of one mole of hydrogen, is not the same as the mass of one mole of oxygen. Since Hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1, every mole of Hydrogen has a mass of 1 gram. The atomic mass of Oxygen is 16, so one mole of oxygen will have a mass of 16 grams. So now we need to transpose ratios:

We want the ratio of oxygen mass:hyrdogen mass. We know that Oxygen mol:Hydrogen

mol=1:2 expressed as a fraction We then convert Oxygen mol to oxygen mass by multiplying the ratio by the ratio of atomic mass to moles of oxygen We then multiply our ratio by the ratio of atomic mass to moles of hydrogen to convert hydrogen to mass

We then reduce the fraction and we get 8 grams of Oxygen to each gram of Hydrogen.

Mole ratio

Molar mass in grams

At the medium hydrogen is as and Oxygen is as .

Amount of moles in 1g of Hydrogen

Amount of formed

Mass of

So 8g of gas will be formed for every 1g of .

Law of Conservation of Mass

The Universe is made up of matter and energy. Stone, table and hydrogen gas are some examples of matter. Matter occupies as pacific space and has specific mass. Energy is the ability of an object to do work.

It is measured in Joules. It is an established fact that matter and energy are inter changeable and both are conserved during a process. A process may be classified as a physical process or a chemical process.

In a physical process there is no change in composition of matter and the state of matter alone changes. Falling of water downhill, melting of ice and boiling of water are some examples of physical change. In a chemical process there is a change in the composition of matter. Burning of coal, digestion of food and ripening of fruit are some examples of chemical process. Most of the chemical processes are irreversible in nature. Law of conservation of energy, Law of conservation of mass and equivalence of mass and energy are dealing with such physical and chemical process.

Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy

Law of conservation of energy was stated by Antoine Lavoisier in 17th century. Lavoisier did his experiments on combustion and oxygen. He found that oxygen is the most essential element for a combustion reaction. He also found that during combustion reaction the mass is conserved. In other words the mass of reactants and products are equal and mass is neither generated nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.

Hence the Law of conservation of mass states that during a

chemical reaction mass is neither created nor destroyed.

Law of Conversation of Mass Page 1

Experimental Verification of Law of Conservation of Mass:

The law can be verified by the below mentioned experimental setup. Take a conical flask and a test tube. Take 10ml barium chloride solution in the conical flask and 10ml copper sulphate solution in the test tube. Measure the initial mass of reactants and note it.Now mix the solutions together. Copper sulphate reacts with barium chloride to give a white precipitate of barium sulphate. Now we have to take the weight of the products formed. We can observe that the mass of reactants before the reaction and the products formed after the reaction will be equal.

Although law of conservation of mass is applicable in all chemical reactions it is not applicable in the case of nuclear reaction where a fraction of the mass is converted to energy.

Law of Conservation of Energy :

Law of conservation of energy is otherwise known as the First Law of thermodynamics. According to this law "The total energy of an isolated system is conserved". In other words "energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, one form of energy is changed to another form of energy in a process".

The above statement shows that in all processes, physical or chemical, there is a change in the form of energy and there is no energy created or spent in a process.

Energy is in different forms like potential energy, kinetic energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy etc. In a process, energy is converted from one form to another.


Conservation of Energy Example:

Let us consider two examples to illustrate the law of conservation of energy.

Example-1Free Falling Object from a Height

Let us consider an object placed above a certain height from the ground level. As it is raised to a certain height, it has certain potential energy due to its position and as it is in rest it has no kinetic energy.

When the object starts falling, the potential energy stored is converted to kinetic energy and when the object reaches the ground the entire potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. Hence at ground level the kinetic energy of the object is maximum and potential energy is zero.

Example-2

Oscillating Pendulum

In the case of a pendulum the potential energy is maximum at the extreme position. When it is moving towards the mean position the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. Hence the kinetic energy is maximum at the mean position while the potential energy is minimum at mean position.


Equivalence of Mass and Energy

The relationship between matter and energy was discovered by Einstein. Before

that, matter and energy were treated as two distinct parameters. But Einstein

proved that matter can be converted to energy and it is related by his equation

E = mc2

This is also known as equivalence of mass and energy. Here E is energy released in Joules. M is mass of the object in kg and c is velocity of light m. (velocity of light is taken as 3 x 10 8 m approximately)

Energy Released due to Mass Defect:

Let us look at a sample problem to understand the equivalence of mass and energy.

Solved ExampleQuestion: Calculate the energy released by the complete disintegration of 238g of Uranium-238.Solution: The energy released = mc2

0.238 x (3 x 108)2

2.142 x 1016 Joules or 21420000000000 Kilo Joules

The above problem illustrates the associated with nuclear reaction is much more greater than a chemical reaction.

Efficiency and Conservation of Energy:

1. Although energy is conserved and cannot be created or destroyed, there is a severe energy crisis in our daily life.

2. This is because of the efficiency of the process. When energy is converted to work, part of the energy is wasted as heat energy to the universe.

3. The rate at which energy is converted to work is called the efficiency of the system.4. Efficiency is the important tool to use the energy resources properly and to cultivate maximum

from them.

Conservation of Mass Examples:

The following problems will show the conservation of mass in chemical reactions.

Solved ExamplesQuestion 1: In a chemical reaction 100g Baking soda mixture containing sodium bicarbonate and vinegar on heating gives 43g of carbon dioxide gas. What mass of solid residue will left in food?Solution:

In according to law of conservation of mass, total mass of reactants is equal to total mass of products. Here baking soda mixture on heating gives solid residue and carbon dioxide.

M Baking soda = M solid residue + M CO2

Hence the mass of solid residue is 100g - 43g= 57g

Question 2: How much oxygen will add with 12g carbon to give 44g carbon dioxide assuming complete combustion of carbon?Solution:In according to law of conservation of mass

Mass of carbon + mass of oxygen = Mass of carbon dioxide12g + x = 44g

so mass of oxygen = 32g

Edited by:www.evaeducation.weebly.com


Photosynthesis vs RespirationPhotosynthesis and respiration are reactions that complement each other in the environment. They are in reality the same reactions but occurring in reverse. While in photosynthesis carbon dioxide and water yield glucose and oxygen , through the respiration process glucose and oxygen yield carbon dioxide and water.

They work well since living organisms supply plants with carbon dioxide which undergoes photosynthesis and produces glucose and these plants and bacteria give out oxygen which all living organisms need for respiration.

Comparison chart

Photosynthesis Respiration

Production of ATP YesYes; theoretical yield is 38 ATP molecules perglucose but actual yield is only about 30-32.

Reactants 6CO2 and 12H2O and light energy C6H12O6 and 6O2

Requirement of Can occur only in presence of Sunlight not required; cellular respirationsunlight sunlight occurs at all times.

Equation6CO2 + 12H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + C6H12O6 --> 6CO2 +6H2O + ATP6O2 + 6H20 (energy)

The production of organic carbonProduction of ATP via oxidation of organicsugar compounds. [1] glycolosis: breaking

(glucose and starch) from inorganicProcess

down of sugars; occurs in cytoplasm [2] Krebscarbon (carbon dioxide) with the Cycle: occurs in mitochondria; requires energyuse of ATP and NADPH produced in [3] Electron Transport Chain-- in mitochondria;the light dependent reaction converts O2 to water.

Fate of oxygen and Carbon dioxide is absorbed andcarbon dioxide oxygen is released.

Energy required or Requires energyreleased?

Oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released.

Releases energy in a step wise manner as ATP molecules

Main function Production of food. Energy Capture. Breakdown of food. Energy release.

Carbon dioxide and water combine Chemical reaction in presence of sunlight to produce

glucose and oxygen.

Glucose is broken down into water and carbon dioxide (and energy).

Photosynthesis

2 stages: The light dependent reaction, light independent

Stagesreaction. (AKA light cycle & calvin cycle)

Respiration

4 stages: Glycolysis, Linking Reaction (pyruvate oxidation), Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Chain (oxidative phosphorylation).

H+ gradient across thylakoidWhat powers ATP membrane into stroma. High H+synthase concentration in the thylakoid

lumen

ProductsC6 H12 O6 (or G3P) and 6O2 and6H20

What pumpsprotons across the Electron transport chainmembrane

Occurs in whichChloroplasts

organelle?

Final electronNADP+ (forms NADPH )

receptor

Occurs in which Occurs in plants, protista (algae),organisms? and some bacteria.

Electron source Oxidation H2O at PSII

Catalyst - Asubstance that

Reaction takes places in presence ofincreases the rate

chlorophyll.of a chemicalreaction

H+ proton gradient across the inner mitochondria membrane into matrix. High H+ concentration in the intermembrane space.

6CO2 and 6H2O and energy(ATP)

Electron transport chain. Electrochemical gradient creates energy that the protons use to flow passively synthesizing ATP.

Mitochondria Glycolysis (cytoplasm)

O2 (Oxygen gas)

Occurs in all living organisms (plants and animals).

Glucose, NADH + , FADH2

No catalyst is required for respiration reaction.

High electronFrom light photons. From breaking bonds

potential energy

Definitions of photosynthesis and respiration

Photosynthesis is a process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds in presence of sunlight. Respiration is the set of metabolic reactions that take in cells of living organisms that convert nutrients like sugar into ATP (adenosine tri phosphate) and waste products.

Processes involved

Processes in photosynthesis are divided on basis of requirement of sunlight while respiration processes are divided on basis of requirement of oxygen. Hence in photosynthesis you have the light dependent reactions and the dark reactions while in respiration there is aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.

In photosynthesis light dependent reactions, ultra violet light strikes chlorophyll pigments which excites electrons leading to separation of oxygen molecules from carbon dioxide. In the dark reactions, carbon molecules now independent of oxygen are converted into carbohydrates and stored in plant cells as energy and food source. In aerobic cellular respiration oxygen is utilized to convert organic compounds into energy and in anaerobic respiration converts organic compounds into energy without using oxygen.

Site of Reactions

Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts and organelles of a plant cell. Respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria in the cell of a living organism.

Reaction kinetics

The electron acceptor in photosynthesis is NAD+ while in respiration the electron acceptor is NADH. In cellular respiration reaction 36 molecules of ATP are produced in complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose.

Rock cycleFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A diagram of the rock cycle. Legend: 1 = magma ; 2 = crystallization (freezing of rock); 3 = igneous rocks; 4 = erosion ; 5 = sedimentation ; 6 = sediments & sedimentary rocks ; 7 = tectonic burial and metamorphism ; 8 = metamorphic rocks ; 9 = melting .

The rock cycle is a fundamental concept in geology that describes the dynamic transitions through geologic time among the three main rock types: sedimentary , metamorphic , and igneous . As the diagram to the right illustrates, each of the types of rocks are altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. An igneous rock such as basalt may break down and dissolve when exposed to the atmosphere , or melt as it is subducted under a continent . Due to the driving forces of the rock cycle, plate tectonics and the water cycle , rocks do not remain in equilibrium and are forced to change as they encounter new environments. The rock cycle is an illustration that explains how the three rock types are related to each other, and how processes change from one type to another over time.

The cycle

Structures of Igneous Rock. Legend: A = magma chamber (batholith); B = dyke/dike; C = laccolith ; D = pegmatite; E = sill ; F = stratovolcano ; processes: 1 = newer intrusion cutting through older one; 2 = xenolith or roof pendant; 3 = contact metamorphism; 4 = uplift due to laccolith emplacement.

Transition to igneous

When rocks are pushed deep under the Earth's surface, they may melt into magma . If the conditions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it will cool and solidify into an igneous rock. A rock that cools within the Earth is called intrusive or plutonic and will cool very slowly, producing a coarse-grained texture. As a result of volcanic activity, magma (which is called lava when it reaches Earth's surface) may cool very rapidly while being on Earth's surface exposed to the atmosphere and are called extrusive or volcanic rocks. These rocks are fine-grained and sometimes cool so rapidly that no crystals can form and result in a natural glass , such as obsidian . Any of the three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks) can melt into magma and cool into igneous rocks.

Post-volcanic changes

Rock masses of igneous origin have no sooner cooled than they begin to change. The gases with which the magma is charged are slowly dissipated, lava flows often remain hot and steaming for many years. These gases attack the components of the rock and deposit new minerals in cavities and fissures. The zeolites are largely of this origin. Even before these "post-volcanic" processes have ceased, atmospheric decomposition or weathering begins as the mineral components of volcanic and igneous rocks are not stable under surface atmospheric conditions. Rain, frost, carbonic acid, oxygen and other agents operate continuously, and do not cease until the whole mass has crumbled down and most of its ingredients have been resolved into new products or carried away in aqueous solution. In the classification of rocks these secondary changes are generally considered unessential: rocks are classified and described as if they were ideally fresh, though this is rarely the case in nature.

Secondary changes

Epigenetic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than one of these alterations will be found in progress in the same rock. Silicification , the replacement of the minerals by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in felsic rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, etc. Kaolinization is the decomposition of the feldspars , which are the most common minerals in igneous rocks, into kaolin (along with quartz and other clay minerals); it is best shown by granites and syenites . Serpentinization is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite); it is typical of peridotites , but occurs in most of the mafic rocks. In uralitization secondary hornblende replaces augite ; this occurs very generally in diabases; chloritization is the alteration of augite (biotite or hornblende) to chlorite , and is seen in many diabases, diorites and greenstones . Epidotization occurs also in rocks of this group, and consists in the development of epidote from biotite, hornblende, augite or plagioclase feldspar.

Transition to metamorphic

This diamond is a mineral from within an igneous or metamorphic rock that formed at high temperature and pressure.

Rocks exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or chemically to form a different rock, called metamorphic. Regional metamorphism refers to the effects on large masses of rocks over a wide area, typically associated with mountain building events within orogenic belts. These rocks commonly exhibit distinct bands of differing mineralogy and colors, called foliation . Another main type of metamorphism is caused when a body of rock comes into contact with an igneous intrusion that heats up this surrounding country rock. This contact metamorphism results in a rock that is altered and re-crystallized by the extreme heat of the magma and/or by the addition of fluids from the magma that add chemicals to the surrounding rock (metasomatism). Any pre-existing type of rock can be modified by the processes of metamorphism.

Transition to sedimentary

Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are variably unstable and subject to the processes of weathering and erosion . Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller fragments and carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is buried by additional material. While an individual grain of sand is still a member of the class of rock it was formed from, a rock made up of such grains fused together is sedimentary. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from the lithification of these buried smaller fragments (clastic sedimentary rock), the accumulation and lithification of material generated by living organisms (biogenic sedimentary rock - fossils), or lithification of chemically precipitated material from a mineral bearing solution due to evaporation (precipitate sedimentary rock). Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart from larger rocks of any type, due to processes such as erosion or from organic material, like plant remains. Biogenic and precipitate rocks form from the deposition of minerals from chemicals dissolved from all other rock types.

of G.… · Web vie

Documents

Transcript of of G.… · Web vie