UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES

SCHOOL OF CONTINUING AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EXTRA-MURAL STUDIES

In collaboration with

CENTRE FOR OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

MASTER IN PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

COURSE: LDP 601: FUNDAMENTALS OF MANAGEMENT

GROUP 4 ASSIGNMENT: DIRECTING, ORGANISATION CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT

Authored by:

Joseph Maina Bedan Githundi Jackson Kamugi

Wairimu Wanyahoro

LECTURER: Ms. Salome Koskei

Date of Submission: 1st February, 2014

1

Table of Contents

Content Page

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………..3

2.0 Directing…………………………………………………………....3

3.0 Leadership………………………………………………………….3

3.1 Characteristics of Leadership………………………………4

3.2 Types of Leadership………………………………………..4

3.3 Types of Leaders and Power……………………………….5

3.4 Importance of Leadership……….....................................6

3.5 Approaches to Leadership Styles………………………….6

3.6 Contemporary Leadership models………………………..12

4.0 Organization Change and Development……………………….14

4.1 Theories of Change ………...........................................15

4.2 Change management Process……………………………18

4.3 Resistant to Change……………………………………...18

4.4 Change Management…………………………………….20

4.5 Organization Development………………………………22

4.6 Culture of the Organization……………………………..24

5.0 Conclusion………………………………………………………..25

6.0 Reference…………………………………………………………25

2

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Directing as the process in which managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of

workers to achieve predetermined goals while organization change and development (OD) is a

field of study that addresses change and how it affects organizations and the individuals with

those organizations…Kidombo. H., J. et al (2013). The paper will discuss in details what entails

Directing in an organization, Leadership and various approaches to it. The paper will also

elaborate more on the organization change and development which are vital process in the

modern world which is faced with dynamism. The Paper will discuss in details what entails in

the two topics, theories and approaches of modern day organization. Finally the paper will have a

conclusion and a reference to sum it up.

2.0 DIRECTING

This is the Process by which managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of the

workers and employees in order to achieve the company’s goals. It is the heart of the

management process. Planning, organizing controlling and staffing functions of management

require the key support of the directing function and consists of human factors. Directing

function is required at all levels of the organization. Every manager provides guidance and

inspiration to his subordinates. Directing function is concerned with the human factor in

organization. The function helps in converting plans into performance and hence, without this

function, people become inactive and physical resources are meaningless. Directing involves

delegation and allocation of work and supervision of people. It thus involves the use of

leadership skills.

3.0 LEADERSHIP

Leadership is an important aspect of management and the ability to lead is one of the keys to

being an effective manager. The success of any endeavour is attributed largely to leadership.

There are different definitions but for the sake of this paper, we shall pinpoint two:

a. Leadership is the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and

enthusiastically towards achievement of group goals.

3

b. The process of articulating visions, embodying values and creating the environment

within which things can be accomplished.

The success of failure of any endeavour can be attributed largely to leadership

3.1 Characteristics of Leadership:

a. Is a process not an individual position

b. Involves a relationship between a leader and followers in a given situation

c. Is a complex concept involving the leaders, the followers and the situation

d. Consists of activities and is directional

e. Is the central point around which goals are accomplished

f. Initiates actions

g. Integrates efforts

h. Means of employee motivation

i. Provides stability and balance for organizational survival and growth

j. Is concerned with efficient utilization of resources

Therefore, directing is the heart of the management process just as the heart plays an important

role in the human body of pumping blooding to all parts of the body so that life is sustained.

Directing is thus the essence of management process.

3.2 TYPES OF LEADERS

a) Autocratic Leadership – This approach refers to where all authority centers on

the leader. The manger enforces decisions by use of rewards and punishments,

communication is in one direction – from manager to subordinate and conformity

and obedience on the part of followers is expected.

b) Democratic / Participatory Leadership / Mysofair – This considers the

suggestions of members and leaders. It is a human relations approach where all

group members are seen as important contributors to a decision

c) Laissez – Faire Leadership – ‘Allow them to do’ style – the leader exercises

very little control of influence over the group members. Members are given a goal

and left alone to decide how to achieve it. The role of the leader is facilitative.4

3.3 TYPES OF LEADERS AND POWER

a. Charismatic Leaders – Those whose influence is derived from the personality and

cannot be acquired by training since it is natural e.g. Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela,

Napoleon

b. Traditional Leaders – Their position is assured by birth, e.g. Kings, queens and

tribal chieftains. It is limited and not applicable to workplaces except in family

businesses

c. Situational Leaders – Their influence is effective by being in the right place at the

right time. It is impromptu and temporary e.g. someone stepping in to control traffic

in a jam

d. Appointed Leaders – Refers to those whose influence arises from the position e.g.

managers and supervisors. It is a bureaucratic type of leadership where legitimate

powers comes from the position in the hierarchy

e. Functional Leaders – Are those whose influence comes from the work done rather

than position such as experts

The concepts of leadership and power are closely related. Power is the capacity to influence

others through the control of instruments of reward and punishment – which can be tangible or

intangible. Sources of power are:

a. Legitimate Power – Derived from the position eg. Kingship, managerial

b. Reward Power – Derived from control of resources e.g. promotion, recommendation,

training etc

c. Referent Power – Derived from associating with powerful people

d. Coercive Power – Uses the ability to force other people to act against their wishes

through the fear of punishment

e. Expert Power – Derived from the possession of expert knowledge or information that

others need but have no alternative access

5

3.4 IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

According to Peter f. Drucker, ‘‘Leadership is a human characteristic which lifts a person’s

vision to highest heights, raises performance to higher standards and builds personality beyond

its normal situations.’’

Leadership is important in the following ways:

a) Leaders not only guide, but provide a psychological shield to their followers (Managers –

employees) as the average person prefers to be led by an effective and efficient leader.

The presence of a leader (manager) makes followers (subordinates) behaviour consistent,

and raises morale, thus high quality of work.

b) Creates and sustains teamwork and groups. The will to work and accomplish a task is

triggered by effective leadership. Usually without leadership, a group disintegrates,

destroys its team spirit and fritters away its energy. Leadership inspires and motivates the

group.

c) Leaders are role models who set examples

d) Leaders create confidence in workers

e) Promotes morale which leads to high productivity and organizational stability

f) Maintains unity and cohesiveness of the group

g) Maintain discipline of the group and among group members

3.5 APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP STYLES

From Mahatma Gandhi and Winston Churchill, to Martin Luther King and Steve Jobs, there can

be as many ways to lead people as there are leaders. Fortunately, business people and

psychologists have developed useful frameworks that describe the main ways that people lead.

When you understand these frameworks, you can develop your own approach to leadership, and

become a more effective leader as a result.

6

In this Paper, we'll highlight some of the common approaches to leadership that you can use.

We'll also look at some specific leadership styles, and we'll explore the advantages and

disadvantages of each type.

So, let's look at some useful approaches – shown mainly in the order they appeared – that you

can use to become a more effective leader. Your own, personal approach is likely to be a blend

of these, depending on your own preferences, your people's needs, and the situation you're in.

3.5.1 Lewin's Leadership Styles

Psychologist Kurt Lewin developed his leadership styles framework in the 1930s, and it provided

the foundation of many of the approaches that followed afterwards. He argued that there are

three major leadership styles:

a) Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their team members, even if their

input would be useful. This can be appropriate when you need to make decisions quickly,

when there's no need for team input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a

successful outcome. However, this style can be demoralizing, and it can lead to high levels of

absenteeism and staff turnover.

b) Democratic leaders make the final decisions, but they include team members in the

decision-making process. They encourage creativity, and people are often highly engaged in

projects and decisions. As a result, team members tend to have high job satisfaction and high

productivity. This is not always an effective style to use, though, when you need to make a

quick decision.

c) Laissez-faire    leaders give their team members a lot of freedom in how they do their work,

and how they set their deadlines. They provide support  with resources and advice if needed,

but otherwise they don't get involved. This autonomy can lead to high job satisfaction, but it

can be damaging if team members don't manage their time well, or if they don't have the

knowledge, skills, or self-motivation to do their work effectively. (Laissez-faire leadership

can also occur when managers don't have control over their work and their people.)

Lewin's framework is popular and useful, because it encourages managers to be less autocratic

than they might instinctively be.

7

3.5.2 The Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid

The Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid   was published in 1964, and it highlights the best

leadership style to use, based on your concern for your people and your concern for

production/tasks.

With a people-oriented leadership style, you focus on organizing, supporting, and developing

your team members. This participatory style encourages good teamwork and creative

collaboration.

With task-oriented leadership, you focus on getting the job done. You define the work and the

roles required, put structures in place, and plan, organize, and monitor work.

According to this model, the best leadership style to use is one that has both a high concern for

people and a high concern for the task – it argues that you should aim for both, rather than trying

to offset one against the other. Clearly, this is an important idea!

3.5.3 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory

First published in 1969, the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory   argues that

you need to use different leadership styles depending on the maturity of your team members. The

model argues that with relatively immature individuals, you need a more directing approach,

while with higher maturity people, you need a more participative or delegating leadership style.

You can use this model in most business situations, regardless of whether you want to build a

new team or develop an existing one.

3.5.4 Path-Goal Theory

You may also have to think about what your team members want and need. This is where Path-

Goal Theory   – published in 1971 – is useful.

For example, highly-capable people, who are assigned to a complex task, will need a different

leadership approach from people with low ability, who are assigned to an ambiguous task. (The

former will want a participative approach, while the latter need to be told what to do.)

8

With Path-Goal Theory, you can identify the best leadership approach to use, based on your

people's needs, the task that they're doing, and the environment that they're working in.

3.5.5 Six Emotional Leadership Styles

Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee detailed their Six Emotional Leadership

Styles   theory in their 2002 book, "Primal Leadership."

The theory highlights the strengths and weaknesses of six leadership styles that you can use –

Visionary, Coaching, Affiliative, Democratic, Pacesetting, and Commanding. It also shows how

each style can affect the emotions of your team members.

3.5.6 Flamholtz and Randle's Leadership Style Matrix

First published in 2007, Flamholtz and Randle's Leadership Style Matrix   shows you the best

leadership style to use, based on how capable people are of working autonomously, and how

creative or "programmable" the task is.

The matrix is divided into four quadrants – each quadrant identifies two possible leadership

styles that will be effective for a given situation, ranging from "autocratic/benevolent autocratic"

to "consensus/laissez-faire."

3.5.7 Transformational Leadership

These leadership style frameworks are all useful in different situations, however, in business,

"transformational leadership  " is often the most effective leadership style to use. (This was

first published in 1978, and was then further developed in 1985)

Transformational leaders have integrity   and high emotional intelligence  . They motivate

people with a shared vision of the future, and they communicate well. They're also typically self-

aware  , authentic  , empathetic  , and humble  .

Transformational leaders inspire their team members because they expect the best from

everyone, and they hold themselves accountable   for their actions. They set clear goals, and

they have good conflict-resolution skills. This leads to high productivity and engagement.

9

However, leadership is not a "one size fits all" thing; often, you must adapt your approach to fit

the situation. This is why it's useful to develop a thorough understanding of other leadership

frameworks and styles; after all, the more approaches you're familiar with, the more flexible you

can be.

3.5.8 Specific Leadership Styles

As well as understanding the frameworks that you can use to be a more effective leader, and

knowing what it takes to be a transformational leader, it's also useful to learn about more general

leadership styles, and the advantages and disadvantages of each one.

Let's take a look at some other leadership styles that are interesting, but don't fit with any of the

frameworks above.

Note:

Remember, not all of these styles will have a positive effect on your team members, either in the

short or long term

3.5.9 Bureaucratic Leadership

Bureaucratic leaders follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their people follow procedures

precisely.

This leadership style is appropriate for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with

machinery, with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights), or with large sums of money.

Bureaucratic leadership is also useful for managing employees who perform routine tasks.

This style is much less effective in teams and organizations that rely on flexibility, creativity, or

innovation.

3.5.10 Charismatic Leadership

A charismatic leadership style resembles transformational leadership: both types of leaders

inspire and motivate their team members.

10

The difference lies in their intent. Transformational leaders want to transform their teams and

organizations, while leaders who rely on charisma often focus on themselves and their own

ambitions, and they may not want to change anything.

Charismatic leaders might believe that they can do no wrong, even when others warn them about

the path that they're on. This feeling of invincibility can severely damage a team or an

organization, as was shown in the 2008 financial crisis.

3.5.11 Servant Leadership

A "servant leader" is someone, regardless of level, who leads simply by meeting the needs of the

team. The term sometimes describes a person without formal recognition as a leader.

These people often lead by example. They have high integrity   and lead with generosity  .

Their approach can create a positive corporate culture, and it can lead to high morale among

team members.

Supporters of the servant leadership model suggest that it's a good way to move ahead in a world

where values are increasingly important, and where servant leaders can achieve power because

of their values, ideals, and ethics  .

However, others believe that people who practice servant leadership can find themselves "left

behind" by other leaders, particularly in competitive situations.

This leadership style also takes time to apply correctly: it's ill-suited to situations where you have

to make quick decisions or meet tight deadlines.

3.5.12 Transactional Leadership

This leadership style starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader when they

accept a job. The "transaction" usually involves the organization paying team members in return

for their effort and compliance on a short-term task. The leader has a right to "punish" team

members if their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard.

Transactional leadership is present in many business leadership situations, and it does offer some

benefits. For example, it clarifies everyone's roles and responsibilities. And, because

11

transactional leadership judges team members on performance, people who are ambitious or who

are motivated by external rewards – including compensation – often thrive.

The downside of this style is that, on its own, it can be chilling and amoral, and it can lead to

high staff turnover. It also has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work.

As a result, team members can often do little to improve their job satisfaction.

Key Points

In management, transformational leadership is often the best leadership style to use.

However, no one style of leadership fits all situations, so it's useful to understand different

leadership frameworks and leadership styles. You can then adapt your approach to fit your

situation.

3.6 CONTEMPORARY LEADERSHIP MODELS

There are two contemporary leadership models that are used by managers in every organization

to steer their goals and objectives successful. They are the Transactional and Transformational

models:

a) Transactional Leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on the role of

supervision, organization, and group performance; transactional leadership is a style of

leadership in which the leader promotes compliance of his followers through both

rewards and punishments. Unlike Transformational leadership, leaders using the

transactional approach are not looking to change the future; they are looking to merely

keep things the same. Leaders using transactional leadership as a model pay attention to

followers' work in order to find faults and deviations. This type of leadership is effective

in crisis and emergency situations, as well as when projects need to be carried out in a

specific fashion.

b) Transformational Leadership. It has been 30 years of research and a number of

meta-analyses have shown that transformational and transactional leadership positively

predicts a wide variety of performance outcomes including individual, group and

organizational level variables.

12

The full range of leadership introduces four elements of transformational leadership:

i) Individualized Consideration – the degree to which the leader attends to

each follower's needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to

the follower's concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and support,

keeps communication open and places challenges before the followers. This

also encompasses the need for respect and celebrates the individual

contribution that each follower can make to the team. The followers have a

will and aspirations for self-development and have intrinsic motivation for

their tasks.

ii) Intellectual Stimulation – Such leaders encourage their followers to be

innovative and creative. They encourage new ideas from their followers and

never criticize them publicly for the mistakes committed by them. The leaders

focus on the “what” in problems and do not focus on the blaming part of it.

They have no hesitation in discarding an old practice set by them if it is found

ineffective.

iii) Inspirational Motivation – the degree to which the leader articulates a vision

that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with

inspirational motivation challenge followers to leave their comfort zones,

communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task

at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be

motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group

forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication

skills that make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging.

The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks, they are

encouraged and optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities.

iv) Idealized Influence – the degree to which the leader acts as a role model for

their followers. Transformational leaders must embody the values that the

followers should be learning and mimicking back to others. If the leader gives

respect and encourages others to be better, those influenced will then go to 13

others and repeat the positive behaviour, passing on the leadership qualities

for other followers to learn. This will earn the leader more respect and

admiration from the followers, putting them at a higher level of influence and

importance. The foundation of transformational leadership is the promotion of

consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the members. Their vision is

so compelling that they know what they want from every interaction.

Transformational leaders guide followers by providing them with a sense of

meaning and challenge. They work enthusiastically and optimistically to

foster the spirit of teamwork and commitment.

The current environment characterized by uncertainty, global turbulences, and organizational

instabilities calls for transformational leadership to prevail at all levels of the organizations. The

followers of such leaders demonstrate high level of job satisfaction and organizational

commitment and engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. With such a devote workforce,

it will definitely be useful to consider making efforts towards developing ways to transforming

organization through leadership.

4.0 ORGANIZATION CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT

Kidombo, H., J., et al. (2013) defines Organization development (OD) as a process that focus on

human and social aspects of the organization and works to change attitudes and relationships

among employees, helping to strengthen the organization’s capacity for adaptation and renewal.

Using a card – sorting process based on the entire OD definitions, Kidombo, H., J., goes ahead to

identify 10 clusters of dependent variables (or desired outcomes) bases on Egan (2002):

Advance organizational renewal

Engage organization cultural change

Enhance profitability and competitiveness

Ensure health and well- being of organizations and employees

14

Facilitating learning and development

Improving problem solving

Increase effectiveness

Initiate and / or damage change

Strengthen systems and process improvement

Support adaptation to change

Organization development is an ongoing, systematic process of implementing effective

organizational change. Effective organizational development can assist organizations to cope

with turbulent environment both internally and externally.

The long term success of an organization depends on its ability to adapt to change. Such changes

may be prompted by the workforce, the economy or new technology. Instead of injecting training

or education into one aspect of the company, organization development takes a holistic approach

to managing change.Organizational culture is one of the most important factors to consider while

introducing change in the organization

4.1 THEORIES OF CHANGE:

There are three theories of change as discussed below:

4.1.1 Lewin’s change Model: this follows three stages

a) Unfreezing – This step usually involves reducing those forces maintaining the organization’s

behavior at its present level. Unfreezing is sometimes accomplished through a process of

‘‘psychological disconfirmation.’’ By introducing information that shows discrepancies

between behaviors desired by organization members and those currently exhibited, members

can be motivated to engage in change activities.

b) Transition/moving – This step shifts the behavior of the organization, department, or

individual to a new level. It involves intervening in the system to develop new behaviors,

values, and attitudes through changes in organizational structure and processes.15

c) Refreezing – This step stabilizes at a new state of equilibrium. It is frequently accomplished

through the use of supporting mechanisms that reinforce the new organizational state, such as

organizational cultures, norms, policies and structures.

4.1.2 Action Research model: It has eight steps

a) Problem Identification – This stage usually begins when a key executive in the

organization or someone with power and influence senses that the organization has a

problem that might be solves with the help of a OD practitioner

b) Consultation with a behavioral science expert – The OD practitioner and the client

assess each other and doing this from the beginning established an open and

collaborative atmosphere

c) Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis – This involves the OD practitioner and

the organization and involves gathering appropriate information and analyzing it to

determine the underlying causes of organizational problems. This done through

interviews, process observation, questionnaires and organizational performance data.

d) Feedback to a key client or group – Because action research is a collaborative

activity, the diagnostic data are fed back to the client, usually in a group or work-team

meeting. The feedback step, in which members are given the information gathered by

the OD practitioner, helps them determine the strength and weakness of the

organization or unit under study

e) Joint diagnosis of the problem – Members discuss the feedback and explore with

the OD practitioner whether they want work on the identified problems

f) Joint Action planning – The OD practitioner and the client members jointly agree on

further actions to be taken. This is the beginning of the moving process as the

organization decided how best to reach a different quasi –stationary equilibrium.

Specific action will depend on the culture, technology and environment of the

organization16

g) Action – This stage involves the actual change from one organizational state to

another. There is a transition period as the organization moves from the present to a

desired future state

h) Data gathering after action – Since action research is a cyclical process, data must

also be gathered after the action has been taken to measure and determine the effects

of the action and to give feedback. This may lead to re-diagnosis and new action

4.1.3 The Positive Model: This has five stages

a) Initiate the inquiry – This is the first phase which determines the subject of change.

It emphasizes members’ involvement to identify the organizational issue they have

the most energy to address such as looking at customer satisfaction instead of

customer dissatisfaction. If the focus of inquiry is real and vital to organization

members, the change process itself will take on those positive attributes

b) Inquire into best practices – This phase involves gathering information about the

‘the best of what is’’ in the organization

c) Discover the themes – Members examine all the information gathered in the second

step to identify a set of themes representing the common dimensions of people’s

experiences at the organization

d) Envision a preferred future – members then examine the identified themes,

challenge the status quo and describe a compelling future. Based on the

organization’s successful past, members collectively visualize the organization’s

future and develop ‘’possibility propositions’’ – statements that bridge the

organization’s current best practices with ideal possibilities for future organizing

e) Design and delivery – This involves the design and delivery of ways to create the

future. It describes the activities and creates the plans necessary to bring about the

vision. Members make changes, assess the results,, make necessary adjustments so as

to move the organization towards the vision and ‘’sustain’’ what it will be.

17

4.2. CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

John P Kotter's 'eight steps to successful change'

American John P Kotter (b 1947) is a Harvard Business School professor and leading thinker and

author on organizational change management. Kotter's highly regarded books 'Leading Change'

(1995) and the follow-up 'The Heart Of Change' (2002) describe a helpful model for

understanding and managing change. Each stage acknowledges a key principle identified by

Kotter relating to people's response and approach to change, in which people see, feel and

then change.

Kotter's eight step change model can be summarised as:

i) Increase urgency - inspire people to move, make objectives real and relevant.

ii) Build the guiding team - get the right people in place with the right emotional

commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.

iii) Get the vision right - get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy, focus on

emotional and creative aspects necessary to drive service and efficiency.

iv) Communicate for buy-in - Involve as many people as possible, communicate the

essentials, simply, and to appeal and respond to people's needs. De-clutter

communications - make technology work for you rather than against.

v) Empower action - Remove obstacles, enable constructive feedback and lots of support

from leaders - reward and recognise progress and achievements.

vi) Create short-term wins - Set aims that are easy to achieve - in bite-size chunks.

Manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new ones.

vii)Don't let up - Foster and encourage determination and persistence - ongoing change -

encourage on-going progress reporting - highlight achieved and future milestones.

viii) Make change stick - Reinforce the value of successful change via recruitment,

promotion, and new change leaders. Weave change into culture.

18

4.3 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

 In practice, there are 8 common reasons why people resist change:

(a) Loss of status or job security in the organization

It is not our nature to make changes that we view as harmful to our current situation. In

an organizational setting, this means employees, peers, and managers will resist

administrative and technological changes that result in their role being eliminated or

reduced. From their perspective, your change is harmful to their place in the

organization! Forcing the change has its place. This approach alone is ineffective

however. Managers who overuse this approach will harm their effectiveness over the

long term. Without a thoughtful change strategy to address this area, leaders will trigger

strong resistance and organizational turnover.

(b) Non-reinforcing reward systems

There is a common business saying that managers get what they reward. Organizational

stakeholders will resist change when they do not see any rewards. When working with

managers, I will ask them, where is the reward to employees for implementing your

change? Without a reward, there is no motivation to support the change over the long

term. This often means that organizational reward systems must be altered to support the

change that management wants to implement. The change does not have to always be

major or costly.

(c) Surprise and fear of the unknown

The less the organization knows about the change and its impact on them, the more

fearful they become. Leading change also requires not springing surprises on the

organization! The organization needs to be prepared for the change. In the absence of

continuing two-way communication with leadership, grapevine rumors fill the void and

sabotage the change effort.

(d) Peer pressure

19

Whether we are introverted or extroverted, we are still social creatures. Organizational

stakeholders will resist change to protect the interests of a group. This could be

employees resisting change to protect their co-workers. Managers will resist change to

protect their work group

(e) Climate of mistrust

Meaningful organizational change does not occur in a climate of mistrust. Trust, involves

faith in the intentions and behaviour of others. Mutual mistrust will doom an otherwise

well-conceived change initiative to failure.

(f) Organizational politics

Some resist change as a political strategy to “prove” that the decision is wrong. They may

also resist showing that the person leading the change is not up to the task. They are

committed to seeing the change effort fail.

(g) Fear of failure

Sweeping changes on the job can cause employees to doubt their capabilities to perform

their duties. What is known is comfortable! Employees resist these changes because they

are worried that they cannot adapt to new work requirements.

(h) Lack of tact or poor timing

Sometimes it is not what a leader does, but it is how s/he does it that creates resistance to

change! Undue resistance can occur because changes are introduced in an insensitive

manner or at an awkward time. For any significant organizational change effort to be

effective, organizational leadership must prepare a comprehensive change strategy to

address these barriers.

4.4 CHANGE MANAGEMENT

This is the process of overcoming Resistance at Organizational and Individual Level.

4.4.1 Organizational Level

20

a) Overcoming Undefined Goals and Objectives: Goals and Objectives should be frequently

redefined and relayed to all employees. This shall aid towards clearing up any misunderstanding

and possible conflicts.

b) Overcoming Financial and Environmental Issues

Organizations should have a contingency fund to cater for changes in demand or develop a very

good relationship with their bank manager in case you need to borrow money at hard times. At

the other end of the scale if demand sores suppliers must be able to satisfy demand.

Benchmarking suppliers shall help determine your best suppliers. A good supplier may be one

that allows you to have a 30 day or more credit account, which leave you with more working

capital. Essentially corporate business strategies should have a degree of flexibility to act as a

defense to sudden changes.

c) Overcoming Structural Problems and Insufficient Communication

In a large organization employees may wish to elect a spokesperson who can act as a collective

voice to air potential barriers directly to management. Surveys can be conducted and results

analyzed. In a small organization employees should be encouraged to speak up if they feel that

change is causing a conflict.

d) Overcoming Lack of Bad Leadership

It is a natural human instinct to follow leadership as children we look up to our parents and as

adults we look up towards our superiors. Leaders must lead the way and be an example for others

to follow. In leading and setting an example to others leaders must take an active role a “hands

on approach” side by side with the employees in order to motivate and encourage. As in the

words of the great, Mahatma Gandhi; “We must become the change we want to see”(Mahatma

Gandhi, http://www.performance-first.co.uk/organisation/orgmain.htm). “Visionary leaders, no

21

matter how articulate, are not enough. A shared commitment still requires personal contact to

make it real” (Handy, 95)

e) Overcoming Lack of Preparation for New Roles

The importance of planning must be emphasized and reflected. The new roles should be

concisely explained to the respective employees prior to implementing change, to stifle out any

doubts, fears or resistance.

f) Overcoming Cultural Issues

The cultural characteristics once identified need to be overcome and evolved into a non-blame

culture. By doing so the employees shall have the freedom to evolve and try innovative ways of

doing their jobs without the fear of being penalized for mistakes.

g) Individual Level

Employees should be directly involved in the change process, which shall motivate and reduce

resistance. Extra incentives should be made available to further encourage and reward

compliance. Support networks should be established as a means to reinforce the change theory.

Appendix 1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs depicts the theory of psychological needs, values of

authority, hierarchy and rationality, security needs.

The model consists of many levels. Maslow argues that once the basic level of Air food water

and sex are met the next “hierarchical” or “rational” need is for safety. An organization must

concentrate on invoking a sense of “Belonging” to the organization by keeping them informed,

involved and sharing the success.

22

“Esteem by others” should be achieved by promoting team work and the occasional appraisals by

management

4.5 ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Organization development is an on-going, systematic process of implementing effective

organizational change. OD is known as both a field of science focused on understanding and

managing organizational change and as a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is

interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, and theories of motivation,

learning, and personality. Although behavioural science has provided the basic foundation for the

study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt.

Experts in systems thinking and organizational learning, structure of intuition in decision

making, and coaching (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioural

sciences, but a much more multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach, have emerged as

OD catalysts or tools.

Organization development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approaches.

4.5.1 Core Values

Underlying Organization Development are humanistic values. Margulies and Raia (1972)

articulated the humanistic values of OD as follows:

1. Providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as resources

in the productive process.

2. Providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the organization

itself, to develop to his full potential.

3. Seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of its goals.

4. Attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find exciting and

challenging work.

23

5. Providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way in which they

relate to work, the organization, and the environment.

6. Treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of which are

important in his work and in his life.

4.5.2 Objective of OD

The objective of OD is:

1. To increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees.

2. To increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment.

3. To confront problems instead of neglecting them.

4. To effectively manage conflict.

5. To increase cooperation and collaboration among the employees.

6. To increase the organization's problem solving.

7. To put in place processes that will help improve the on-going operation of the

organization on a continuous basis.

As objectives of organizational development are framed keeping in view specific situations, they

vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programs are tailored to meet the

requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all organizational development

programs try to achieve the following objectives:

1. Making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the organization.

Organizational development helps in making employees align with the vision of the

organization.

2. Encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them.

3. Strengthening inter-personnel trust, cooperation, and communication for the successful

achievement of organizational goals.

24

4. Encouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus making them

feel responsible for the implementation of the plan.

5. Creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to work and participate

enthusiastically.

6. Replacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill.

7. Creating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change.

According to organizational development thinking, organization development provides managers

with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a broad selection of

management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal, group, and organizational

effectiveness.

4.6 CULTURE OF THE ORGANIZATION

This is defined as the  values and behaviours that contribute to the unique social

and psychological environment of an organization.

Organizational culture includes an organization's expectations, experiences, philosophy, and

values that hold it together, and is expressed in its self-image, inner workings, interactions with

the outside world, and future expectations. It is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and

written and unwritten rules that have been developed over time and are considered valid.

Also called corporate culture, it’s shown in:

(a) the ways the organization conducts its business, treats its employees, customers, and the

wider community, 

(b) the extent to which freedom is allowed in decision making, developing new ideas, and

personal expression,

(c)how power and information flow through its hierarchy, and 

(d) how committed employees are towards collective objectives.25

It affects the organization's productivity and performance, and provides guidelines on

customer care and service, product quality and safety, attendance and punctuality,

and concern for the environment. It also extends to production-

methods, marketing and advertising practices, and to new product creation. Organizational

culture is unique for every organization and one of the hardest things to change.

5.0 CONCLUSION

Directing is the heart of any organization since it is the one who is in the directing position who

makes it possible for the members to work efficiently and effectively to achieve goals.

Organization change is inevitable like any other change in life if organization are to continue

being effective and efficient in the ever dynamic world. The papers has discussed the

characteristics of the two and finally showing that Leadership is vital in any organization. The

managers of organizations are the ones who spearhead any new changes and make them

acceptable by the members for the good of the organization. There are many theories on the two

topics but the paper has narrowed the discussed to the idea that leadership is part of a manger and

organization change can happen smoothly if planned well using any of the three models and

having a good manager to lead the process.

26

6.0 REFERENCE

Kidombo, H., J. et al.2013. Fundamental of Management. Theories, Concepts & Practice. Aura

Publishers. Kenya.

Conner, D. (1990). The changing nation: Strategies for citizen action (Handout materials).

Atlanta: ODR, Inc.

Cumming, T. G., & Huse, E. F. (1989). Organizational development and change (4th ed.) St.

Paul, MN: West Publishing.

Egan, G. (1988). Change-agent skills b: Managing innovation and change. San Diego:

University Associates.

Foster, B. (1991). “Creating a vision that employees can see.” Presentation made at The

University of Georgia Center for Continuing Education, Athens, GA.

Kanter, R. M. (1983). The change masters. New York: Simon & Schuster.

27

Lee, C. (1991, January). Followership: The essence of leadership. Training, pp. 27-35.

Murrell, K. L., & Vogt, J. F. (1991). The manager as leader in an empowering organization:

Opportunities and challenges. In J.

W. Pfeiffer (Ed.), The 1991 annual: Developing human resources (pp. 297-305). San Diego:

University Associates.

Parker, G.M. (1990). Team players and teamwork: The new competitive business strategy. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Senge, P.M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New

York: Doubleday Currency.

Walters, P. G. (1990). Characteristics of successful organization development: A review of the

literature. In J.W. Pfeiffer (Ed.),

The 1990 annual: Developing human resources (pp. 209-223). San Diego: University

Associates.

28