Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Functions of the Chief The Functions of the Chief Executive OfficerExecutive Officer

MPA 8002

The Structure and Theory of Human Organization

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

At a crisis in my youth,my father taught me the wisdom of choice:…to try and to fail is at least to learn

…to fail to try is to suffer the inestimable loss of what might have been.

Chester I. Barnard (1938)

For the greater part of the 20th century, the alleged objectivity associated with the assumptions and concepts of scientific management have guided most inquiry into human organizations.

Structural theories of practice, for example, rationalize human organizations and their functioning, emphasizing the proper alignment of people, process, and technology...…suggesting that there exists “one best

way” to manage and lead all human organizations.

concepts including...

division of labor

functionalization

specialization

the general social setting within which work is completed

the particular work to be completed as part of an organic system of work

the emphasis upon individuals and groups to contribute to the organic system of work

For Chester Barnard, while structural theories of practice offer the promise of improving organizational functioning, other factors are absolutely essential to organizational survival...

…factors including: the willingness to cooperate the ability to communicate the existence of and acceptance of

organizational purpose

For Barnard, organizational survival is not dependent solely upon structure but more so upon maintaining a dynamic equilibrium in a continuously fluctuating environment of physical, biological, and social materials, elements, and forces.

All of which calls for an individual who possesses an abiding awareness of the need to adjust the processes internal to the organization continuously.

The structural concepts of The structural concepts of executive theory...executive theory...

individualindividualcooperative systemcooperative system

complex formal organizationcomplex formal organizationformal organizationformal organization informal organizationinformal organization

organizationorganization

individualindividual:…a single, unique, independent, isolate,

whole entity …embodying innumerable forces and

materials past and present which are the physical, biological, and social factors

…to which are superadded the limited power of choice which results in purpose and for which one bears personal responsibility

a “limitation”…the function of the total situation or the

combination of physical, biological, or social factors when viewed by individuals from the standpoint of a purpose

An organization’s design as a whole can only be changed by operating on one set of factors at a time (the “strategic factor”) and dealing with the impact this change will have on the other sets of factors.

…overcoming a limitation is a means to an end, inducing within an individual the necessity for cooperation with others

Cooperation inculcates a shared “purpose” for engaging in organized activity towards an end.

…or, making the decision that one’s limitation cannot be overcome, the individual decides to drop that end

cooperative systemcooperative system:…an amalgam composed of the impersonal,

coordinated activities of human beings…the concrete social process by which

social action is accomplished…a change in the relationship of one part to

any or all of the others changes the cooperative system

the social contribution of one person is the primary factor in maintaining the system of cooperation...…this social contribution elicits physical

energy from other participants in the cooperative system

…the physical energy, in turn, is then converted into material at desired places.

For Barnard, then, it is not correct to impute to any individual a definite product.

Rather, the increase (or decrease) of material product (the “value added”) results from the combination or coordination of efforts.

It is also not correct, in Barnard’s thought, to impute to any individual a particular contribution.

The only statement that one can make about the significance of an individual’s particular contribution is in terms of its differential effect upon the entire cooperative system.

the survival of an organization is dependent upon its ability to create a surplus of cooperation…this reality illuminates the creative side of

managing and leading human organizations…successful managers and leaders secure

the appropriate combination of the elements of organization to produce utilities that allow the organization to endure

organizationorganization:

…the function of which is:

…a system of consciously coordinated individual human activities or forces

to create to transform to exchange

…various personal and impersonal utilities

For Barnard, human beings not structures are the constitutive element of organization:1) individuals capable of communicating with

one another2) each possessing a willingness to serve

3) each sharing a common purpose

However, it is not the individuals but rather the services, acts, actions, or influences of individuals that constitute organization...…that is, the willingness of individuals to

contribute their efforts to the cooperative system

…this is indispensable to an organization’s effective and efficient functioning and survival.

complex formal organizationcomplex formal organization:…a cooperative system composed of

physical, biological, and personal systems…which prescribes, guarantees, and limits

the purpose and rights of subordinate organizations, upon whom the subordinate organizations are dependent

formal organizationformal organization:

…the system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons

…the concrete social process by which social action is accomplished

informal organizationinformal organization:…the aggregate of personal contacts and

interactions and the associated groupings of people

…provide a means of communication, of cohesion, and of protecting the integrity of the individual that is necessary to the operation of a formal organization

The emergence of organization...The emergence of organization...

individual personalpersonal : needs

impersonalimpersonal :

limitsfree will

organization

interests

purpose

goals

objectivesprojectsstrategies

The dynamic concepts of The dynamic concepts of executive theory...executive theory...

free willfree willcooperationcooperationcommunicationcommunicationauthorityauthoritythe decision-making processthe decision-making processmaintaining a dynamic equilibriummaintaining a dynamic equilibrium

free willfree will:…a limited power of choice…presupposing the capacity for self-

determination…preserving personal integrity…upholding personal, ethical, and

legal responsibility for one’s choices

because of various limitations which constrict the choices available...…the exercise of free will requires

individuals to develop a “purpose” …which, in turn, provides a “motive” or

“rationale” to engage in cooperative ventures that make other choices possible

cooperationcooperation:

…an expression of human will and purpose in a physical environment

communicationcommunication:…the necessary ability to translate

purpose into terms of the concrete actions required to effect it

…reduces confusion and indecision as these relate to the timing of actions

…creates the necessity for a leader

authorityauthority:…the character of a communication in a

formal organization by virtue of which the communication is accepted by a contributor to or “member” of the organization as governing the action that individual contributes

authority may be a consequence of:…positionposition… the advantage of

placement in the organizational hierarchy

the advantage of possessing the respect of individuals in the organization

…leadershipleadership…

however, the determination of authority always remains with the individual...

…objective authority cannot be imputed to persons in organizational positions unless subjectively they are first dominated by the organization as respects their decisions

authority, then, depends upon: a cooperative personal attitude of

individuals a system of organizational

communication…which fosters organizational

effectiveness and efficiency as well as survival

the decision-making processthe decision-making process:…the matter of discriminating important

strategic factors...and redefining or changing the organization’s

purpose...on the basis of an estimate of future results

of action in the existing situation...in light of history, experience, or

knowledge of the past

the decision-making process first involves…personal decisions: decisions by the individuals affected whether or not to contribute to a cooperative effort as a matter of a personal choice

D1

external to the organizational system not delegated to others

the decision-making process then involves…impersonal decision: a response made by individuals whose role and intent is to effect the organizational system as a whole

D2

internal to the organizational system delegated to others

the responsibility for an organization decision is assigned positively and definitely to those located at the organization’s communication centers...…that is, the aptness of a decision depends

upon those who possess the knowledge of facts and of organizational purpose

maintaining a dynamic equilibriummaintaining a dynamic equilibrium:

…the ability to juggle subjective (personal) motives and objective (impersonal) purpose so as to develop a surplus of cooperation among the people whose social contributions constitute the organization

…this dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by false ideologies, particularly those held by managers/leaders, which... vitiate experience from consciousness when dealing

with organizational problems reinforce personal predilections, prejudices,

and interests in guiding organizational action

False ideologies can become destructive factors, inhibiting further cooperation.

The fundamental concepts of The fundamental concepts of executive theory...executive theory...

efficiencyefficiencyeffectivenesseffectivenessorganization purposeorganization purposezone of indifferencezone of indifferencestrategic factorstrategic factororganization economyorganization economyspan of controlspan of control leadership densityleadership densityresponsibilityresponsibility

efficiencyefficiency : individual : motives

the maintenance of an equilibrium of organizational activities through the satisfaction of the motives of individuals sufficient to induce cooperative action

efficiency of effort depends upon the ability of the executive to secure and maintain the personal contributions of energy that is prerequisite to effect organizational purposes…that is, the executive capacity to offer

effective inducements and in sufficient quantity to maintain organizational equilibrium

effectivenesseffectiveness : organization : purpose

the appropriateness of the means selected under the conditions of the organization as a whole for the accomplishment of a specific desired end

effectiveness of cooperation is evident in the accomplishment of the recognized objectives of cooperative action…these objectives are impersonal, that is,

these objectives aim at the system of cooperation as a whole

organization purpose:organization purpose:…the impersonal reason for which the

formal organization existsPurpose is experienced as a belief that—as a consequence of one’s limitations and reduced choices and, then, through the exercise of will—it is better to cooperate in “trying” or “attempting” something impersonal to fulfill one’s personal motive than it is to drop that end.

…but the bridge between the past and the future which functions only as it rests upon the present

…as all who contribute to the system of efforts accept and act upon a shared purpose

purpose is not empty words or catchy phrases...

the challenge to managers/leaders is to foster those conditions wherein:…the aggregate of organizational actions

are a consequence of decisions…decisions made by those “closest to the

action” relative to the organization’s purpose and environment

...and resulting in closer and closer approximations in concrete acts

zone of indifferencezone of indifference:…the willingness to accept orders

specifying action because the individual feels indifferent about the order in so far as authority is concerned

The zone of indifference will be wider or narrower depending upon the degree to which the inducements exceed the burdens and sacrifices determining the individual’s adhesion to the organization.

strategic factorstrategic factor:

…a limitation that, when controlled in the right form, at the right place, and at the right time, will establish a new system or set of conditions which meets the organizational purpose

To determine what element should be changed or is missing is the first step in defining what action is required.

Decision, then, is related to action which sets into motion the dynamic and developmental aspects of organizational change.

The structural frame’s assumption of cause and effect in an absolute sense is not pertinent to organizational analysis...…the only measurable variations in the effect of

single factors is in terms of strategic factors…that is, those controllable alternatives which

effect changes in the system as a whole not the contributions of any single factor

The strategic factor, then, is the center of the environment of decision. It is the point at which choice applies. To do or not to do this, that is the question.

The determination of the strategic factor is itself the decision which reduces purpose to a new level, compelling the search for a new strategic factor in the new situation.

It is the series of strategic factors and the actions that directly relate to the strategic factors that determine the course of organizational events, not the general decisions.

As organizational members in subordinate positions refine the organizational purpose in practicable terms and conditions.

For Barnard, the determination of the strategic factors that will stimulate cooperation is a matter of sense not of science, of feeling the proportions of the relationship of heterogeneous details to the organic whole...…the essential process is “sensemaking”

(Weick, 1995), that is, envisioning the organization as a whole and the total situation relevant to it.

When the process of managing and leading organizations is viewed as integrating the elements of organization into a whole, of balancing local and broad considerations with general and specific requirements...

…the symbolic frame provides a helpful theoretical perspective for learning about the actual factors influencing organizational culture

…transforming managing and leading organizations... from an intellectual exercise to an aesthetic

and ethical exercise from science and facts to art and sensing fitness

and appropriateness from coercing compliance to inducing normative

cooperation from responding to orders to bearing

responsibility for purpose

organization economyorganization economy:…the pool of values as assessed by

the organization as a social system

…as these values impact coordinated action

physicalmaterials

socialrelations

personalactivities

span of controlspan of control:…the ability for an executive to

communicate essential information regarding or governing specific action

…normally less than 15 individuals and preferably 5 or 6 individuals

leadership densityleadership density

…at the lowest levels of a formal organization, where ultimate authority resides, individuals make personal decisions reflecting their willingness to contribute to a cooperative effort

responsibilityresponsibility

… the power of a particular private code of ethics to control the conduct of individuals in the presence of strong contrary desires or impulses

The primary executive function...The primary executive function...

LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP…the personal capacity for exercising authority

that affirms decisions and lends quality and ethics to the coordination of organized activity through the formulation and inculcation of organizational purpose

…the technical attainments and ethical complexities associated with executive responsibility

…a necessary and constitutive element of organization made necessary by:

the need for communication that translates the organization’s purpose into concrete actions

to make decisions about what to do and when and where to do it in the midst of differing ideas

in common understanding

in the superiority of common purpose as a personal aim of those who partake in it

in the probability of success in the ultimate satisfaction of

personal motives

Leadership inspires cooperative Leadership inspires cooperative decisions by creating faith...decisions by creating faith...

in the integrity of objective authority

foundational elements...

…the objective field within which action must take place

The ethical element of leadership...The ethical element of leadership...

…the decision-making process as it relates to the objective field where the action will take place

…the aesthetic and intuitive, not conscious, analysis of factors

The ethical sector of The ethical sector of organizational action...organizational action...

attitudes

values

ideals

hopes

that are

distilled intospecific purposes

(“attitudes”)inducing cooperation

first: identifying the individual’s...

personal choices

motives

values

ideals

second: getting individuals to focus on the elements of the ethical sector...

attitudes norms of conduct

aspirations

appraisals of utility

third: inducing cooperation among all who contribute to the organization as a whole…requires managers/leaders who create faith…which is the catalyst by which the living

system of human efforts continues its incessant interchanges of energies and satisfactions

involves resolving conflict between individual ethical codes by substituting a new action for that originally conceived so that the new way is “worked out” to meet all of the individual requirements

Exercising “ethical creativeness”...Exercising “ethical creativeness”...

Ethical creativeness is the highest expression of personal responsibility for it moves individuals beyond a concern for doing things right and towards the consideration of doing right things.

requires inventing an ethical basis for the solution of dilemmas (Cuban, 1992)...by substituting a new action which avoids the

conflict...or providing an ethical justification for an

exception or compromiseCreative ethics emphasizes personal responsibility in the form of a sincere and honest conviction that what one does for the good of the organization one personally believes is right.

1) to secure, create, and inspire “morale”2) to inculcate points of view, fundamental

attitudes, and loyalty to to the cooperative system as a system of objective authority

Ethical creativeness results in subordinating individual interest and the minor dictates of personal ethical codes to the good of the cooperative whole.

formulate, redefine, break in to details, and decide upon the innumerable simultaneous and progressive actions that are the stream of syntheses constituting purposive actions

Using executive theory...Using executive theory...

as managers and leaders… pyramid the formulation of purpose: pushing

responsibility for defining and acting upon purpose at the base where the authority for effort resides

teach: indoctrinating those at the lower levels with the general and major decisions so that they remain cohesive and make the ultimate detailed decisions coherent

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

The executiveexecutive theorytheory that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes...

...as this theory of practice provides managers and leaders a frame of reference to inform thinking about the nature of human organization making...

…and the importance of inculcating a shared purpose that develops an ethical code guiding cooperative efforts toward organizational ends.

AN EXECUTIVE THEORY SCENARIO

Executives endeavor to foster cooperative efforts toward shared purposes within the organizations. Executives are incessant as they struggle to integrate purpose and action so that the cooperative efforts of the organization will exceed the ability of any individual and overcome individual limitations.

Executives believe that the most important part of their job is to inculcate a shared purpose so that a group of diverse individuals will effectively and efficiently contribute their efforts to the cooperative endeavor called “organization.” This purpose inspires faith in the organization and develops loyalty as individuals engage in ethical actions that enable every member of the organization to overcome individual limitations. Effective executives create a synergy uniting the many “parts” so that the organization, as a “whole,” fulfills its purpose and is capable of adapting as necessary.

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN AN EXECUTIVE THEORY SCENARIO

ReferencesReferences

Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Cuban, L. (1992). Managing dilemmas while building professional communities. Educational Researcher, 21(1), 4-11.

Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.