Theoriesof

Development

• All scientific knowledge comes from scientific investigation – a four-step process

– Identify a problem to be studied

– Collect data or research information

– Analyze the data

– Draw conclusions

• Diverse but complimentary theories are used for explaining life-span development:

– Psychoanalytic theories

– Cognitive theories

– Ethological theories

– Ecological theories

• Key points of psychoanalytic theories:– Early experiences and family

relationships are very important to development

– Unconscious aspects of the mind are considered

– Personality is best seen as a developmental process

Psychoanalytic Theories

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

•Personality has 3 parts

•There are 5 stages of psychosexual development

•Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same-sex parent

•Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a stage of development

•Today’s focus is more on the effects of the unconscious on behavior and less on sexual instincts

• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:– There are 8 stages of

psychosocial development

– Each has a unique developmental task

– Developmental change occurs throughout life span

– Process of resolving conflicts/crises

Erikson’s Stages Developmental PeriodTrust vs Mistrust Infancy (first year)

Autonomy vs shame & doubt

Infancy (1 to 3 years)

Initiative vs guilt Early childhood (3 to 5 years)

Industry vs inferiority Middle and late childhood

Identity vs identity confusion

Adolescence (10 to 20 years)

Intimacy vs isolation Early adulthood (20s, 30s)

Generativity vs stagnation

Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)

Integrity vs despair Late adulthood (60s onward)

Figure 2.2

Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages

Pavlov’s classical conditioning includes conditioned and unconditioned responses

• Watson applies association and generalization

• Operant conditioning focuses on positive and negative reinforcement

• Social cognitive theory focuses on observation and imitation

• Ethological theory includes imprinting and attachment

Behavioral and social cognitive theories

Classical Conditioning

Generalization

Operant Conditioning

What are the reinforcements to achieve?

What happens when there are no controls or reinforcement?Task: Learn

to read

EnvironmentPerson

(cognitive)

Behavior

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model

Figure 2.4

Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation

Childobserves someone admired

Child imitates behavior

that seems rewarded

• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory:– Environmental factors influence

development– 5 environmental systems affect life-span

development

• Eclectic theoretical orientation:– Selects features from other theories– No one theory has all the answers– Each theory can make a contribution to

understanding life-span development

Ecological Models

Cultural Values, Laws

Microsystem connections

Family, teachers

Child

External ResourcesChronosys tem

Research in

Life-Span Development

• Types of research:– Descriptive: observes and

records behavior

• Laboratory research

• Naturalistic observation

• Surveys and interviews

• Standardized tests

• Case studies

• Life-history records

• Physiological measures

Figure 2.8

0

25

5

30

15

10

20

GirlsBoys

Percentage parent–child interactions in which the parent explained science concepts

Parents’ Explanations of Science to Sons and Daughters at a Science Museum

Families of children with autism initiated significantly more interactions with the child

– Correlational research• Measures relationships; not the same

as causation

– Experimental research• Independent variable gets manipulated

• Dependent variable is the resulting change

• Typically have random assignment into groups

• Experimental group is manipulated

• Control group serves as the “norm” for comparison

Group 2

Married Mothers

Moreaggressive

and antisocial children

Moreplayful

and sociablechildren

Single Mothers

Group 1

Personal ratings on depression scale after 6 months

Control group

(Therapy Only)

Participants randomly assigned to experimental and control groups

Dependent variable

Independent variable

Experimental group

(Zoloft + Therapy)

Principles of Experimental Research

• Developmental research-Time– Focuses on the relation of age to some

other variable across the life span (e.g., memory)

– Cross-sectional approach compares different age groups at one time

– Longitudinal approach studies a group over a period of time

– Sequential approach combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches

– Cohort effects: due to time or era of birth but not due to one’s actual age

Age and Antisocial Behavior

Cross-Sectional

Gender and Physical Aggression

Disruptive Behavior

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