Theories of Development. All scientific knowledge comes from scientific investigation – a...
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Theoriesof
Development
• All scientific knowledge comes from scientific investigation – a four-step process
– Identify a problem to be studied
– Collect data or research information
– Analyze the data
– Draw conclusions
• Diverse but complimentary theories are used for explaining life-span development:
– Psychoanalytic theories
– Cognitive theories
– Ethological theories
– Ecological theories
• Key points of psychoanalytic theories:– Early experiences and family
relationships are very important to development
– Unconscious aspects of the mind are considered
– Personality is best seen as a developmental process
Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
•Personality has 3 parts
•There are 5 stages of psychosexual development
•Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same-sex parent
•Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a stage of development
•Today’s focus is more on the effects of the unconscious on behavior and less on sexual instincts
• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:– There are 8 stages of
psychosocial development
– Each has a unique developmental task
– Developmental change occurs throughout life span
– Process of resolving conflicts/crises
Erikson’s Stages Developmental PeriodTrust vs Mistrust Infancy (first year)
Autonomy vs shame & doubt
Infancy (1 to 3 years)
Initiative vs guilt Early childhood (3 to 5 years)
Industry vs inferiority Middle and late childhood
Identity vs identity confusion
Adolescence (10 to 20 years)
Intimacy vs isolation Early adulthood (20s, 30s)
Generativity vs stagnation
Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)
Integrity vs despair Late adulthood (60s onward)
Figure 2.2
Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages
Pavlov’s classical conditioning includes conditioned and unconditioned responses
• Watson applies association and generalization
• Operant conditioning focuses on positive and negative reinforcement
• Social cognitive theory focuses on observation and imitation
• Ethological theory includes imprinting and attachment
Behavioral and social cognitive theories
Classical Conditioning
Generalization
Operant Conditioning
What are the reinforcements to achieve?
What happens when there are no controls or reinforcement?Task: Learn
to read
EnvironmentPerson
(cognitive)
Behavior
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model
Figure 2.4
Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation
Childobserves someone admired
Child imitates behavior
that seems rewarded
• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory:– Environmental factors influence
development– 5 environmental systems affect life-span
development
• Eclectic theoretical orientation:– Selects features from other theories– No one theory has all the answers– Each theory can make a contribution to
understanding life-span development
Ecological Models
Cultural Values, Laws
Microsystem connections
Family, teachers
Child
External ResourcesChronosys tem
Research in
Life-Span Development
• Types of research:– Descriptive: observes and
records behavior
• Laboratory research
• Naturalistic observation
• Surveys and interviews
• Standardized tests
• Case studies
• Life-history records
• Physiological measures
Figure 2.8
0
25
5
30
15
10
20
GirlsBoys
Percentage parent–child interactions in which the parent explained science concepts
Parents’ Explanations of Science to Sons and Daughters at a Science Museum
Families of children with autism initiated significantly more interactions with the child
– Correlational research• Measures relationships; not the same
as causation
– Experimental research• Independent variable gets manipulated
• Dependent variable is the resulting change
• Typically have random assignment into groups
• Experimental group is manipulated
• Control group serves as the “norm” for comparison
Group 2
Married Mothers
Moreaggressive
and antisocial children
Moreplayful
and sociablechildren
Single Mothers
Group 1
Personal ratings on depression scale after 6 months
Control group
(Therapy Only)
Participants randomly assigned to experimental and control groups
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Experimental group
(Zoloft + Therapy)
Principles of Experimental Research
• Developmental research-Time– Focuses on the relation of age to some
other variable across the life span (e.g., memory)
– Cross-sectional approach compares different age groups at one time
– Longitudinal approach studies a group over a period of time
– Sequential approach combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches
– Cohort effects: due to time or era of birth but not due to one’s actual age
Age and Antisocial Behavior
Cross-Sectional
Gender and Physical Aggression
Disruptive Behavior
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