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THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF KENDO
IN THE UNITED STATES
b
Richard J. Schmidt
School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska 68588
U. S. A.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the historical . development of Kendo
in the. United States. The historical and empirical . , methods of research. were utilized. Data for this investigation were researched from primary and . secondary sources such as historical and current texts, documented kendo histories, as well as
personal interviews with selected members of the Board of Directors of the Kendo Federation of the United . States of America. The results indicated that the history
of kendo. in the United States could be generally. divided into three periods from
its initial introduction in 1860 to 1930, the pre-World War II years from 1930 to
1941, and the post-World War II years from 1945 to the present.
Kendo was initially introduced into the United States when the first Japanese
delegation arrived in 1860., Arami Bungonokami was sent : as the goodwill ambassador of the. Tokugawa Shogunate. The attendants who accompanied him demonstrated
kendo at the welcoming . celebrations held in New York , . Washington, D. C., and San Francisco. This was the first documented exhibition of kendo .outside of Japan.
The years from 1870. to 1930 saw a large number of Japanese emigrating to the
United States , with the largest percentage settling . on the West Coast. The estab-lishment of various religious and social organizations naturally flourished with the
influx of the Japanese. "In those days,, immigrant Japanese parents felt that the American-born Japanese youth were shiftless and were not disciplined. They needed a; way to instill upon the nisei a proper building of character . and felt that kendo would be the. best way." (Shibata Yoshimi,, personal communication).
Kendo dojo in the United States began to flourish on a very small scale. Around 1916, a dojo was established on the Shibata farm in California with about 25 students . Other dojo :locatios .were meeting halls, Japanese language houses, and vacant buil-dings-any place where canvas could be laid down (Shibata Yoshimi,.personal commu-nication) . The largest .dojo . were in the . country as the Japanese worked on the
farms or were sharecroppers. Very few owned farms as the California Alien Land
*Presented at the 14th Annual . Meeting of the Nippon Budo Gakkai, November 22-23, 1981, Tsukuba University, Ibaraki, Japan.
一1一
Law prevented the Japanese, from owning or renting any land. The spirit of early
United States kendo mimicked kendo as practiced in Japan during this same time.
Japanese parents felt that kendo instilled the kind of spirit, discipline, and attitude that all Japanese should have. It was different than the kind of kendo that exists
today. Everything went in the early days when taking punishment and to endure
hardships were very much a part of training. To lay the opponent down on the floor was permissible as well as unmasking your opponent under certain conditions.
In 1921, the San Pedro California Japanese Communities (approximately 3000
people) Seinen-Kai Group began kendo training with Toyama Noriyoshi Sensei from Iwate-Ken. The sudden death of Toyama Sensei ended the kendo activities for
several years. Kijima Sensei from Los Angeles came to San Pedro (Terminal
Island) to again start kendo training, but in a few months it terminated without
success. Then in about 1926-7, Dr. Fujii Toroku, with the cooperation of the local
Seinen-Kai, again started teaching kendo. 'This time kendo was gaining a more
established foothold. In 1929, Nakamura Tokichi Sensei (Godan) and Nakahara
Sensei (Yodan), with the assistance of Shibata Sensei, arrived in San Pedro. With
the cooperation of Fujii Sensei, Nakamura and Nakahara Sensei worked hard at
establishing kendo in the United States. At the start there were about 25 students
but within the year the membership increased to over 100, then new dojo were open
at Long Beach and Dominguez Hill, thus increasing membership to nearly ̀ 200.
Nakamura Sensei then went to central and northern California and to the states of
Oregon and Washington to establish more kendo dojo.
In April of 1931 the southern California kendo club was formed under the leader-
ship of Kubota Yutaka Sensei. The club organized dojo in the area with close
communication and monthly joint practices held among dojo for the purpose of
fostering nisei kendoists. As a result, the 'popularity of kendo rose among Japa-
nese families and the skill and the spirit of the kendoists advanced.
In an effort to officially transplant kendo in the United States, it was agreed at
the general meeting held at the Huntington Beach Dojo in January 1934, that a
close connection with the Kyoto Butokukai Headquarters should be made and it was
decided to make a branch of it in the United States. In March of .1934, Represen-
tative Hoki visited Japan and won the consent of Hanshi Kono Yasaburo and Mr.
Mizuhara, Ex-President of the Doshi-Kai, on this matter. The subsequent estab-
lishment of the Southern California Branch of the Dai Nippon Butokukai Hokubei
Nanka Shibu was applied for to the Kyoto Butokukai. The headquarters welcomed
the formation of the U. S. branch of the Butokukai and expected the branch would
act as a core to popularize Japanese culture in the United States. On February
21, 1935, the U. S. Branch of the Butokukai was approved. In August of 1935,
Kubota Yutaka Sensei arrived at the Butokukai headquarters in Kyoto as a U. S.
representative and obtained the written approval of Nishimoto : Director and the branch flag. For six years, until_ the outbreak of World • War II, this group tried
hard to operate the U. S. Branch to spread kendo in the United States. The
ultimate goals of the U. S. Branch of the Butokukai were. as follows : ( 1) Through
kendo, to produce model Japanese citizens with , healthy minds and bodies, . ( 2 ) Through kendo, the organization's purpose . was to spread and to better _develop
Japanese--U. S. relations, and ( 3 ) to obtain high morality through kendo practice
and to inspire the morale of the kendoists at the. Annual Butoku-Sai and demonstra-
tions.
The Kyoto Dai Nippon Butokukai . was established in 1895 by a group of dis-tinguished citizens, politicians, and police and military officers along with imperial
support. Its goals at that time were ( 1 ) . to preserve martial arts as represented by the traditional martial disciplines, (.2 ) to honor the older Budo practitioners who
had kept the tradition alive in the face of westernization and who - were the last
generation to have experienced true warrior society, (, 3 ) to promote and propagate the classical martial ways as an educational system to help instill Bushido in the
minds and bodies of the nation's youth (Watanabe, 1970). There is a slight
inference (SCAP Miscellaneous Papers) that some kendoists have had associations
with ultra-nationalist groups during this time in terms of furthering their Jingoistic
cause. The Kokuryukai and other ultra-nationalist organizations led by Toyama
Mitsuru and Uchida Ryohei did strongly support modern Budo organizations. Toyama
Mitsuru was quite active in encouraging kendo and sending loyal Japanese instructors
to the American communities of the west coast from 1935 on.
The original San Pedro, Long Beach and Dominguez Hill Dojo merged to from
the Hokubei Butokukai Nanka Renmei. The Hokubei . Butokukai became the largest
kendo organization in the U. S. by 1940. The membership was over 10,000, six
regional renmei, and over 60 dojo.
The dojo which belonged to the southern California . branch of the Butokukai
before World War II were : Albain, . Baldwin Park, Chochela, Chula Vista, Chuo
Gakuen, El Monte, El Centro, Gardena Gakuen, Gardena Gymnasium, Hosan, Hun-
tington Beach, Keaston, Los Angeles, Long Beach, Laguna Beach, Lomita, Melinore,
Oceanside, Pasadena, Pomeli, Riverside, Redondo Beach, Thortel, Seinan Dojo, Uwa-
machi, Watts, and Zenshu Dojo.
In 1937, Mori Torao (Noma Torao) Sensei came to Terminal Island and immedia-
tely began teaching kendo. His teaching made rapid progress in membership,
style, and skills. Mori and Fujii Sensei took about 16 Kenshi every summer to
visit all the dojo in central and northern California and into Oregon and Washington.
While kendo. was very popular among the Japanese people during this time, there
were very, very few blue-eyed kenshi (Eto Taro, personal communication). During
this time also, trips to Japan were organized for kendo matches. One of the most
extensive kendo team programs was that of the American team that travelled thoughout
Japan in 1940.
A. few years immediately preceding the outbreak of World War II was a subtle
deterioration of American-Japanese relations. Before World War II Kubota Yutaka
Sensei explained the purposes of kendo to the Southern California Federal Bureau
of Investigation Branch Office repeatedly and also invited Special Agent Grand (FBI)
to the kendo tournament at Koyosan Kaido. Kubota Sensei believed 'that these
connections' with the authorities put kendo in a more favorable perspective in view
of the tense international scene at that time. When the war began many of the
records were destroyed and Japanese who had martial arts training, such as kendo,
were detained by the FBI and put into close security. Everybody burned all their
equipment and records were destroyed.
During the war years all kendo, as well as other Japanese activies, in the U . S.
was forbidden. While some Japanese served in the U. S. army during World War
II, most of the Japanese-Americans were restricted to concentration camps in the
U. S. and underwent a most bitter experience.
At the close of World War II, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers
(SCAP), General Douglas 'MacArthur issued a directive banning the practice of most
Japanese martial arts and began a purge of many Butokukai officers. Prior to the
official surrender the officers of the Dai Nippon Butokukai attempted to restructure
their organization to give it a more democratic and less military flavor, but the S.
C. A. P. forces refused to recognize the changes and disbanded the organization,
claiming the official purpose of the organization had not changed, so far as its
charter revealed and these were to' promote "military arts and to contribute to the
training of the people" (The Supreme Allied Command Miscellaneous Papers, 1945,
Vol. 1). In a few years the ban was lifted' but Japan was forced by' S. C. A. P. to
adopt many aspects of western-style democracy. A lot of it was not in the best
interests of national stability. Niyahara Maki, member of the Board of Directors
of the Kendo Federation of the United States of America, stated that "something
happened that made Japanese parents concerned. Kids became disrespectful.
The fabric of society was unravelling" Miyahara feels that kendo seemed to provide
a symbolic vehicle to stop this plunge "and reinstill a sense of respect in the children"
(Shibata Yoshimi, personal communication) In 1951, Mori Torao Sensei came back to the United States. He immediately
entered the University of Wouthern California where he took up European fencing
and also helped to establish the Southern California Yudansha Club. Eventually,
in a few years he became the California State Champion. Later he joined the
Los Angeles Athletic Club as a master instructor and was also coach to the Japan
Olympic Fencing Team. During this time he began to urge former California
kendoists to practice kendo.
The first organized kendo practice in the United States after World War II began
in the fall 'of 1952 at the Buddhist church at Pine and Octavia Streets in San
Francisco, but the first group did not continue to practice for long. There is no
record of its members. Gordon Warner and Benjamin Hazard began the instruction
of kendo at the University of California-Berkely Campus in the spring of 1953.
Kendo was taught there as a regular class in the Physical Education Department for
some three years by one or the other of these instructors.
In the fall of 1953 the Oakland Kendo Dojo was established at Carollo's Judo
Dojo. The founding Yudansha were Umemoto Hiroshi, Miyata Yoshinari, Fujishima
Soichi, and Umemoto Seiichi, in addition to Gordon Warner and Benjamin Hazard.
This • dojo was moved to the West Tenth Street Jappanese Methodist Church at
Ninth and Jackson Streets in Oakland where its current senior instructors are Fujii
Shokichi, Miyata, and Iwamoto Hiroshi.
On October 5; 1955, the Hokka Kendo Yudansha-Kai was formed. This was the
predecessor of the current Northern California Kendo Federation. The founding
member were Matsumura Seiji, Nagaoku Minoru, Nakahara Wataru, Sugaya Masami,
Hatada Yoshiro, Kawamoto Kaoru, Hoshino Hisao, Umemoto Hiroshi, Motonari
Tadamichi, Miyata, Fujii, Hazard, Fujishima, and Umemoto Seiichi.
On October 31, 1955, the association was honored by a goodwill tournament with
the Tokyo Meiji University Kendo All-Stars at Kinmon Hall in San Francisco.
The Meiji University group was led by Toshioka Narito.
A series of North-South California Tournaments have been held annually since
the spring of 1956. The first was held in Los Angeles when Umemoto Hiroshi
was the only Northerner member to place. Tournaments thereafter alternated
between Los Angeles and San Francisco.
In November of 1956 an American kendo team under the leadership of Mori Torao
(Hachida.n) and Kubota Yutaka (Godan) left the United States with a sixteen-
member team on a goodwill tour of Japan. This was done in cooperation with
the All-Japan Kendo Federation. The team met Japanese teams in Tokyo, Yoko-
hama, Kyoto,: and Osaka. During this time, Mori Sensei completed the formation
of the Kendo Federation of the United States, with Mori Sensei as first President.
The San Francisco Dojo was established in the fall of 1957. One of its original
members was the late Julius Vosburg who was unique in being a yudansha in four
Japanese martial arts (kendo-sandan, judo, naginata, and iaido). Earlier in August
of 1957 a thirteen-man All-Japan University student kendo team was selected from
universities throughout Japan to tour the United States in a series of kendo matches
and to participate in a U. S.-Japan match at Long Beach State College on August
24th. The team was led by Maruyama. Giichi of the personnel division of Hosei
University, Inoue Masataka of the Osaka Municipal Government, and Sasamori Junzo,
Judan, Hanshi.
In 1960, four Shichidan kendoists from the All-Japan Kendo Federation-Ichibara,
Ogata, Oura, and Matsubara-visited various American kendo dojo and at Lond Beach
State College thrilled capacity audiences with their skill.
On' September. 8, 1963, kendo in Northern California was honored by the visit to
San Francisco 'of Oasa Yuji (judan, Hanshi), and Ozawa Takashi (Kyudan, Kyoshi).
A goodwill match was held with kendoka from the Maritime Self-Defense Force of
Japan on August 15, 1964, at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco.
After several years of informal practice the San Jose, State University Kendo Club
was organnized by the University in the fall of 1967. The founders , were Hazard,
Charles Chess, and Chaote Lin.
Mori Sensei had plans to extend kendo throughout the United States until his
untimely death in 1969. The New York and Chicago Kendo Dojo were just being
organized. In the following year, 1970, kendoists from sixteen countries gathered
in Tokyo to form the International Kendo Federation and the First I. K. F. Tourna-
ment was held. The I. K. F. tournaments have been held every three years ( i2E 2
in New York and Washington, D. C., in 1973 ; 3 in England in 1976 ; and 4 in
Sapporo in 1980) since then.
The Chicago Kendo Dojo was founded in 1964 with Nakamura Yoshimitsu as
chief instructor. As kendo grew in Chicago, stronger tournaments were held
between teams from Toronto, Michigan State University and Chicago. In 1974,
the Midwest Kendo Federation was formed. Nakabara Torataro became the second
president of the Kendo Federation of the United States. Nakabara Sensei led the
U. S. team to the first world championship in 1970 in Tokyo, Japan. In 1973 the
United States sponsored the 2nd World Championships in Los Angeles and San
Francisco.
Kendo in Texas began in Houston in 1970 when Yajima. Jutaro began teaching
kendo in a dojo operated by Darrell Craig, a martial arts teacher. Yajima Sensei
taught there for five years after which time Mr. Craig helped establish the Southern
United States Kendo and Iaido Federation, which subsequently j'oined the kendo
federation of the United States. In 1977, the dojo became affiliated with Chiba
Harutane, Kancho of the Hokushin Itto-Ryu. Mr. Bill Trevino, a resident of
Denton, Texas and a student of Mr. Craig's, travelled to Dallas to regularly teach
kendo. Yamaguchi Sensei (Yondan) was sent by the All-Japan Kendo Federation
to help teach kendo in Dallas. At the present time, Kijima Sensei, a recent All-
Japan Kendo Federation champion, is assisting Mr. Craig in teaching kendo in
Houston. Future plans include teaching kendo at the University . of Houston and
also in Austin, Texas.
In May , of 1975, Eto Taro, Secretary-Treasurer of the Kendo Federation of the United States, and Nakabara Sensei travelled to New York and met with Kan
Shunshin Sensei and asked if he would join the Kendo Federation of the United
States ; he agreed. Then, stopping in Chicago, they met with Matsumoto Sensei
and his kendo members regarding the same matter. They also agreed to join the
Federation.
Kendo in Nebraska began in September of 1975 when Ogata Yoshikazu (Nidan
from Miyazaki, Japan, Shintomi-Cho) and. Fujita. Yoshitsugu (Nidan from Saga,
Japan, and student of ,Yoshida Tornio and Shimizu Atsushi, Kyoshinkan Dojo) began
teaching kendo at the University of Nebraska in Lincoln. Within the following
year the University of Nebraska became affiliated with Umemoto Hiroshi (Nanadan, Kyoshi) and 'Iwakabe Hideki (Sandan) of ̀ the Rocky Mountain Kendo Federation
which has its headquarters in Denver, Colorado, at the Mountain States Budokan.
Following a one-year probationary period this University of Nebraska Kendo Club
became a recognized dojo of the Kendo Federation of the United States. Kendo
is currently taught under the sponsorship of the School of Health, Physical Education
and Recreation, for academic credit. The dojo also served an annual group of
Japanese Agricultural Trainees who attend the University on a three-month basis as
part of their agricultural training in the United States. In a few years the states
of Wyoming, Ohio, Maryland, Georgia, Connecticut, New Jersey and New Mexico
joined the Federation. The first U. S. Kendo Championship was held in Los 'Angeles in September of
1978. The Second U. S. Championship was held in Chicago in September of 1981.
Kendo today in the United States continues to steadily grow. The Kendo Fede-
ration of the United States today consists of over 2, 000 members in 7 regional
federations composed of 60 dojo in 16 states with a number of organizations making
inquiries regarding application. Despite an unfortunate interruption, kendo in the
United States remains strong and vigorous, with kendoists striving to reach the same
goals as their :predecessors. To quote one elderly nisei kenshi, "During my life I have overcome and ' endured... I spend half of my time helping others and to
encourage them when I see them falter. The personal confidence that kendo
builds in a person's character can never be taken away. I am forever grateful to
my parents for this." (Shibata Yoshimi, personal communication).
On the basis of these finding it was concluded that the establishment of the Meiji
Restoration and the subsequent emigration of a large number of Japanese, many of
whom practiced kendo, to the United States, serves as primary factors which gave
momentum to the flourishment of kendo in the United States.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Craig, Darrell, "Personal Communication," September 1981.
. .
. •
. .
Dann, Jeffrey Lewis, ."Kendo, in Japanese Martial Culture : Swordsmanship as Self-
.Cultivation," Ph. D. Dissertation, University. of Washington,
Draeger, Donn F. "Modern Bujutsu and Budo," John Weatherhill, Inc., New, York,
1974.
Taro, "Kendo History in the .United States," July 7, 1980. .
Kubota, . Yutaka, "The History of Kendo in the. U. S," Presented at the 15th Anni- versary of the Japanese Southern California Association.
Kubota, Yutaka, "Personal Communication," August 31, 1981. .
Manual of First United States Kendo Championships, "Revival of Kendo , in Northern California."
Manual of Second -United States Kendo Championships "Origins of Kendo."
"Miyahara, Maki : American Engineer and Japanese Swordsman," by Paul W. Kroll, Black Belt Magazine, July. 1976.. .
Sasamori, J.unzo and Warner, Gordon, "This is. ,Kendo-----. The Art, of Japanese
Fencing." Charles E. Tuttle Co : Rutland, Vermont, 1964.
Shibata, Yoshimi, "Personal Communication," August 31, 1981.
The Supreme Allied Command (SCAP) Miscellaneous Papers, 1945, Vol. 1, "History
of the Purge----The Dai Nihon Butokukai Phase."
Umemoto, Hiroshi, "Personal Communications." July 1981.
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