Small Satellites:

Past, Present, and Future

Henry Helvajian and Siegfried W. Janson

Editors

vii

Contents

Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvii

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi

1 The First Small Satellites: Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2025

33

2 The History of Small Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3 Clementine: The Rebirth of Smaller, High-Value Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

viii

Contents

4 The Role of AMSAT in the Evolution of Small Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

5 Origin of CubeSat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

6 Coalition Operationally Responsive Space: A “100 Satellite” Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

ix

Contents

7 The United States Air Force Academy FalconSAT Small Satellite Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

222222225

s

8 The United States Naval Academy Small Low-Cost APRS Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

9 The Naval Postgraduate School Small Satellites Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

x

Contents

10 The UK’s First Nanosatellite—SNAP-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

300303

322

11 Microvariability and Oscillations of STars (MOST) Mission: Canada’s First Microsatellite and Space Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

332

12 TUBSAT: The Technical University of Berlin Satellite Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

352

xi

Contents

13 Proba: ESA’s Series of Small Satellite Testbeds . . . . . . . 385

14 A Revolutionary Approach to Spacecraft Design, Production, and Operations: Orbital’s MicroStar Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

15 Japan’s Small Scientific Satellite, “INDEX” (Reimei) . 449

16 Mini AERCam: The Miniature Autonomous Extravehicular Robotic Camera . . . . . . . . 487

xii

Contents

522

17 Developing and Maturing Microsatellite Formation Flight Technology . . . . . . . . . 525

525525

555555

18 A Mass-Producible Glass/Ceramic Micropropulsion Unit for a Co-Orbiting Satellite Assistant (COSA) Mission . 559

19 Toward Space-Based Wireless Sensor Networks . . . . . . 595

xiii

Contents

20 Picosatellites at The Aerospace Corporation . . . . . . . . . 635

21 Small Satellite Mission Design and Operations . . . . . . . 675

22 Small Satellites: Space Debris and Reentry Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

xiv

23 The Future of Small Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

24 The Generation After Next: Satellites as an Assembly of Mass-Producible Functionalized Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .859

Contents

xvii

Contributors

William Ailor

David J. Barnhart

Dirk Bernaerts

Bob Bruninga

Matthias Buhl

Vladimir Chobotov

Srimal W. Choi

Thomas Doyne

Steven Fredrickson

William W. Hansen

David Hardy

xviii

Contributors

Steven L. Hast

Dean Hawes

Henry Helvajian

Microengineering Aerospace Systems

David Hinkley

Masafumi Hirahara

Jim Horning

Adam Huang

Siegfried W. Janson

Frederick T. Kiley

Timothy J. Lawrence

xix

Contributors

Jaymie M. Matthews

David W. Miller

R. Gilbert Moore

Simon Nolet

Daniel L. Oltrogge

Rudy Panholzer

Russell Patera

Glenn Peterson

Dynamics of Meteor Outbursts and Satellite Mitigation Strategies

Pete Rustan

Hirobumi Saito

xx

Contributors

Alvar Saenz-Otero

Dan Sakoda

Luke M. Sauter

Raymond Sedwick

Kenneth E. Siegenthaler

G. Gould Smith

Lee F. Steffeney

Frederic Teston

Bob Twiggs

Craig I. Underwood

Tanya Vladimirova

Robert E. Zee

1

Chapter 1

The First Small Satellites: Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Historical Background

1.2.1 Sounding Rockets

2 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.1. Two views of Sputnik I (top). Explorer I (middle). Robert Bauman with Van-guard 1 (bottom).

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of N

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3The Historical Background

New York Times

Fig. 1.2. Comparative sizes of the Sputnik I, Explorer I, and Vanguard 1 satellites (left, top to bottom) and their respective launch vehicles, R-7, Juno I, and Vanguard (right, left to right).

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B. F

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4 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.3. Robert H. Goddard with his first successful liquid-fueled rocket.

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rtes

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NA

SA

5The Historical Background

Fig. 1.4. Tactical V-2 rocket in Germany with mobile ground support vehicles (left). V-2 launch at White Sands Proving Ground on 22 August 1951 (right).

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Whi

te S

ands

Miss

ile R

ange

Mus

eum

6 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.5. Frank Malina of JPL with Wac Corporal sounding rocket.

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rtes

y of

U.S

. Arm

y

7The Historical Background

Fig. 1.6. Applied Physics Laboratory cosmic ray telescope in V-2 instrument section.

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rtes

y of

APL

8 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.7. Richard Tousey with NRL V-2 sun-follower payload.

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rtes

y of

NR

L

9The Historical Background

Fig. 1.8. Viking 2 (left) and Viking 9 (right) launches at White Sands Proving Ground.

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rtes

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U.S

. Arm

y

10 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.9. Dual Aerobee launches at White Sands Missile Range (a), Richard Custer with Nike-Cajun rocket and HUGO payload at Wallops Island (b), Van Allen's Rock-oon being launched from the icebreaker USS Eastwind (c), and Commander Gus Ebel, Carl McIwain, and Frank McDonald with a Loki rocket at sea (d).

a)

b)

c)

d)

11The Historical Background

1.2.2 IGY and the Birth of the Space Race

Fig. 1.10. Russian sounding rocket.

12 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

13The Historical Background

14 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.11. Vanguard TV-0 (Viking 13).

15The Historical Background

Fig. 1.12. George H. Ludwig with the Deal I (Explorer I) instrument section at the University of Iowa.

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G. H

. Lud

wig

16 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

1.3 Sputnik I

17Sputnik I

Fig. 1.13. Internal view of Sputnik I components.

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NA

SA

18 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.14. R-7 launch vehicle for Sputnik satellite.

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rtes

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NA

SA

19Sputnik I

20 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

1.4 Explorer I

Fig. 1.15. Explorer I instrument section being installed on Scale Sergeant fourth-stage motor.

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NA

SA

21Explorer I

The

Fig. 1.16. Explorer I components and external shell. The cosmic ray experiment is mounted on the upper portion of the compartment, and the telemetry section, flexible antennas, and micrometeor detectors are mounted at the bottom. The white stripes are designed for thermal control of the spinning satellite.

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rtes

y of

NA

SA

22 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.17. Night launch of Explorer I aboard the Juno I launch vehicle.

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rtes

y of

U.S

. Arm

y/ R

edst

one A

rsen

al

23Explorer I

Fig. 1.18. Upper-stage spin bucket on top of a modified Redstone first stage.

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U.S

. Arm

y

24 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

2

Fig. 1.19. Iowa graduate student Carl E. McIlwain with the cosmic ray experiment that he flew on a Nike-Cajun rocket from Ft. Churchill, Canada, into an auroral sub-storm at about the same time that Explorer I flew. His analysis of the flux of energetic particles detected on his Nike-Cajun flight allowed him to explain to Van Allen why the Explorer I Geiger counter saturated.

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rtes

y of

C. M

cIlw

ain

25Vanguard 1

1.5 Vanguard 1

Fig. 1.20. Vanguard 1 during final installation and checkout on its TV-4 launch vehicle.

26 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.21. Successful launch of Vanguard 1 on 17 March 1958.

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NA

SA

27Vanguard 1

Fig. 1.22. Dave Corbin assembling Vanguard 1 satellite.

28 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.23. Vanguard 1 battery-operated transmitter.

29Vanguard 1

Fig. 1.24. Minitrack antenna dipole feed (top). Typical segment of a Minitrack inter-ferometer antenna array (middle). Minitrack locations in the Western hemisphere (bottom).

Navy Electronics LaboratorySan Diego,California

Mt. Cotopaxi,Quito, Equador

Ancon, Lima, Peru

Antafagasto, Chile

Peldehue Military Reservation,Santiago, Chile

Blossom Point, MarylandFt. Stewart, Georgia

Batista Field, Havana, Cuba

Coolidge Field,Antigua Island

30 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.25. Aerobee Hi in hangar with payload exposed.

31Additional Sputnik Launches

1.6 Additional Sputnik Launches

Fig. 1.26. Sputnik II three-part payload, with science instrument package on top, spherical Sputnik I type shell below that, and Laika the dog's capsule on the bottom.

32 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

33Additional Explorer Launches

1.7 Additional Explorer Launches

Fig. 1.27. Henry Richter of JPL (left) and Iowa graduate student George H. Ludwig with prototype equipment for the Explorer II cosmic ray experiment, which added a tape recorder to the basic Explorer I package. The satellite failed to reach orbit, but an identical payload was flown successfully on the Explorer III mission on 26 March 1958.

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y of

Geo

rge

H. L

udw

ig

34 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.28. A Juno II rocket.

35Additional Explorer Launches

Fig. 1.29. The Explorer VI satellite.

36 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

or

Fig. 1.30. The Thor Able III launch vehicle.

37Additional Explorer Launches

Fig. 1.31. The Explorer VII satellite.

38 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

1.8 Additional Vanguard Launches

or

39Additional Vanguard Launches

as a

Fig. 1.32. Transparent view of 51 cm Vanguard satellite interior.

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y of

NA

SA

40 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Fig. 1.33. Vanguard 2 satellite on launch vehicle.

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y of

NA

SA

41Additional Vanguard Launches

Fig. 1.34. Vanguard 3 satellite with magnetometer boom protruding from top.

42 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

1.9 ConclusionsThe

The

The

Table 1.1 Summary of Launches from July 1957 to December 1959

Sputnik Explorer Vanguard

3 5 30 3

43

1.10 Reflections

Fig. 1.35. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center team toasting Sputnik I.

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NA

SA

44 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

1.11 Acknowledgments

Opening Space Research—Dreams, Technology, and Scientific Discovery

1.12 BibliographyA Method of Reaching Extreme AltitudesLiquid Propellant Rocket Development,

45Bibliography

Jet Propulsion,

The Viking Rocket StoryThe Review of

Scientific Instruments, 30

IGY, The Year of the New Moons

Robert H. Goddard, Pioneer of Space Research

Vanguard—A History

Robert H. Goddard, Accomplishments of the Roswell Years, 1930–1941

Wernher von BraunBeyond the Atmosphere, Early Years of Space Science—The NASA His-

tory Series

Origins of Magnetospheric Physics

Science With a Vengeance, How the Military Created the U.S. Space Sciences After World War II

Roads to Space, An Oral History of the Soviet Space Program

Korolev—How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon

Music and the MagnetosphereHistory of Geophysics

Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge

Sputnik: The Shock of the Century

46 Sputnik, Explorer, and Vanguard

Rocket Man, Robert H. Goddard and the Birth of the Space Age

The First Space Race, Launching the World’s First Satellites

The First Explorer Satellites

Vanguard I, Proposal, Installation, Launch and Selected Re-sults

Quest, the History of Space-flight Quarterly 14

James Van Allen, the First Eight Billion Miles

Von Braun, Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War

Keep Watching the Skies! The Story of Operation Moonwatch and the Dawn of the Space Age