• Rural/UrbanRural/Urban • Gender: patriarchies and double Gender: patriarchies and double

standards--Native, Iberian, African standards--Native, Iberian, African • Condition: slave/not Condition: slave/not

encomendado/not encomendado/not • Race/Race/calidadcalidad//castacasta: espa: español, indio, ñol, indio,

casta--casta--phenotype (color), not enoughphenotype (color), not enough• Culture: language, dress, food, social Culture: language, dress, food, social

interaction interaction • Class, wealth: poor, notClass, wealth: poor, not

Society of castas: Spanish AmericaSociety of castas: Spanish America

1580: colonial 1580: colonial hegemonyhegemony

Spanish cities and Spanish cities and towns: 225 (tot. towns: 225 (tot. pop ~500,000)pop ~500,000)

Native towns and Native towns and villages: villages: thousands (~5 thousands (~5 million)million)

Spanish mines and Spanish mines and plantationsplantations

Post-conquest societyPost-conquest society (Spanish America)(Spanish America)

ruralrural

urbanurban

• Native: gendered division of laborNative: gendered division of laboruniversal, early marriage (15-16 yrs)universal, early marriage (15-16 yrs)access to village lands via household access to village lands via household

• IberianIberiansex-ratio imbalance--5-10 males/femalesex-ratio imbalance--5-10 males/femalenearly universal, later marriage (17-18)nearly universal, later marriage (17-18)equi-partible inheritance equi-partible inheritance

• AfricanAfricansex ratio imbalance--3 males/femalesex ratio imbalance--3 males/femaleslavery threatened family, communityslavery threatened family, communityadvantage of informal unionsadvantage of informal unions

Gender: patriarchies and Gender: patriarchies and double standardsdouble standards

Ethno-racial composition, New SpainEthno-racial composition, New SpainIndians predominant through end of colonial regimeMestizaje proliferated from late 16th-century

est

ima

ted

po

pu

latio

n (

tho

usa

nd

s) -

-lo

g s

cale

Ethno-racial scenarios for New Spain, 1520-1810Cook & Borah (maximalists), Rosenblat (minimalist), & Aguirre-Beltran

1519 1570 1646 1742 1810

1

2

47

10

20

4070

100

200

400700

1000

2000

40007000

10000

2000025.6 mil

Maximal4.5 millMinimal

Indian

3.7 mill

Afromest

20,000African

Indomest

700,000

Euromest

7,000

European 12,000

Race/Race/calidadcalidad//castacasta

Racial lines more Racial lines more apparent than apparent than real real

Phenotype (color) Phenotype (color) not enoughnot enough

Flexibility: Flexibility: calidad calidad (character, (character, reputation)reputation)

Crossings Crossings

Three divisions Three divisions

EspaEspañolñolpeninsular, peninsular, creolecreole

IndioIndioencomendado,encomendado,migrant migrant (naboria)(naboria)

CastaCastanegro (bozal)negro (bozal)mulato, etc.mulato, etc.

MarriagewaysMarriageways

Spain: “Spain: “Better to Better to marry than to burn”--marry than to burn”--low illegitimacy in low illegitimacy in Spain.Spain.

New SpainNew Spain: “Better : “Better to be well fixed with a to be well fixed with a concubine than badly concubine than badly married.”--high married.”--high illegitimacy in Spanish illegitimacy in Spanish America. America.

• Indian: rampant in the Caribbean Indian: rampant in the Caribbean (until the virtual extinction of the (until the virtual extinction of the population) and on the frontiers (until population) and on the frontiers (until the end of colonial rule) the end of colonial rule)

• African: African: first the earliest conquestsfirst the earliest conquestssmall in number until 18th centurysmall in number until 18th centurybut important in society, economy and but important in society, economy and even politics (militias) even politics (militias)

SlaverySlavery

Slave Traffic from Africa: 1451-Slave Traffic from Africa: 1451-18701870

(data repeated on next 4 maps) (data repeated on next 4 maps)• 1451-1600: beginning (1/4 million)1451-1600: beginning (1/4 million)• 1601-1700: growing (1.3 million)1601-1700: growing (1.3 million)• 1701-1811: peaking (6 million)1701-1811: peaking (6 million)• 1811-1870: declining (2 million)1811-1870: declining (2 million)

Slave Traffic (figures in thousands): Slave Traffic (figures in thousands): 1451-1600, beginning 1451-1600, beginning (1/4 million)(1/4 million)

(P.D. Curtin, (P.D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave TradeThe Atlantic Slave Trade))

5050

7575

5050

100100

Slave Traffic: 1601-1700, Slave Traffic: 1601-1700, growing growing (1.3 million)(1.3 million)

2525300300

600600

250250150150 5050

Slave Traffic: 1701-1810, Slave Traffic: 1701-1810, peaking peaking (6 million)(6 million)

350350

600600 1,4001,400

1,4001,400

1,9001,900450450

Slave Traffic: 1811-1870, Slave Traffic: 1811-1870, declining declining (2 million)(2 million)

5050

600600 100100

1,1001,100

Cacao Boom: Venezuela, 4 regions Cacao Boom: Venezuela, 4 regions occurred after 1680soccurred after 1680s

(data for 1684, 1720, 1744)(data for 1684, 1720, 1744)

Caracas

• EncomenderosEncomenderos: conquerors and royal : conquerors and royal favoritesfavorites

• EncomiendaEncomienda: Grants of tribute and : Grants of tribute and labor of native villagers, primarily to labor of native villagers, primarily to conquistadoresconquistadores

• Crown attempts to convert from Crown attempts to convert from private to royal control (New Laws of private to royal control (New Laws of 1542)1542)

• Attempts to restrict use of labor by Attempts to restrict use of labor by encomenderos (personal service encomenderos (personal service banned 1549) banned 1549)

• Labor drafts: mita and repartimiento Labor drafts: mita and repartimiento (1550-)(1550-)

Encomienda and encomenderosEncomienda and encomenderos

PotosPotosíí (Upper Peru), 1545 (Upper Peru), 1545: richest : richest silver mine in the early modern silver mine in the early modern

worldworld

Inside PotosInside Potosíí: native miners: native miners

Migrant Migrant labor draft: labor draft: mita every mita every 7 years7 years

16 provinces: 16 provinces: lost 50% of lost 50% of pop in a pop in a century century

EndEnd