Post on 12-Apr-2018
w w w . a c b i o . o r g . z a
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in MalawiSUMMARY REPORTOctober 2014
Contents
Acknowledgements iiiAcronyms ivExecutivesummary viIntroduction 1Methodology 4 Backgroundtotheresearch 4 Processandmethodologydesign 5 Selectioncriteria 6 Siteselection 6 Researchtools 7Context 9 TheGreenRevolutionpushinAfrica 9 OverviewofagricultureinMalawi 11 Overviewofthreeproductionsystems 15 AGRA,seedandsoilfertilityinMalawi 18Farmerperceptionsofagriculturalchallenges 21Nutritionandfoodsecurity 25 Dietarydiversity 26 Sourcesoffoodconsumed 26Landaccessandcultivation 29Productionandyields 33Theroleoftobacco 36Seedaccessandpractices 40 Hybridorlocalmaize 45 Seedselectionandrecycling 47 Seeduseandhouseholdfoodsecurity 48Agriculturalpracticesandsoilfertility 50 Agriculturalpractices 50 Agriculturalpracticesandhouseholdfoodsecurity 51 Syntheticfertiliseruse 53 Organicsoilfertilitymethods 56 Soiltestresultsandanalysis 58 Soilfertilityandhouseholdfoodsecurity 60TheFarmInputSubsidyProgramme(Fisp) 62 FISPandseed 62 FISPandfertiliser 64Marketaccess 66Conclusionandfurtherresearch 70Appendix1:AGRApassandSHPgrantsinMalawi,2007-2015 73References 76
The African Centre for Biosafety (ACB) is a non-profit organisation, based in Johannesburg, South Africa. It was established to protect Africa’s biodiversity, traditional knowledge, food production systems, culture and diversity, from the threats posed by genetic engineering in food and agriculture. It, has in addition to its work in the field of genetic engineering, also opposed biopiracy, agrofuels and the Green Revolution push in Africa, as it strongly supports social justice, equity and ecological sustainability.
The ACB has a respected record of evidence-based work and can play a vital role in the agro-ecological movement by striving towards seed sovereignty, built upon the values of equal access to and use of resources.
©The African Centre for Biosafetywww.acbio.org.zaPO Box 29170, Melville 2109 South AfricaTel: +27 (0)11 486 1156
Design and layout: Adam Rumball, Sharkbouys Designs, Johannesburg
Cover image: Stephen Greenberg
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi iii
Acknowledgements
Researchteam:AlinafeBanda(Kusamala)MollyCheatum(Kusamala)KondwaniChikadza(UniversityofMalawi)KenChilungulo(NASFAM)DrBlessingsChinsinga(UniversityofMalawi)DrStephenGreenberg(ACB)GarethJones(ACB)FrazerMataya(NASFAM)
WeappreciatethevaluableassistanceofCharlesZawandaandJosephMsaya(NASFAMKasungufieldofficers),GreyBanda(ChamamaNASFAMAssociationChair),LesterBotomanandDonwellKamalongo(ChitedzeResearchStation)andFrankMasankha(NASFAMHeadOffice),SwissDevelopmentCooperation(SDC)forfundingandinput,MariamMayetandHaideeSwanbyatACBforinput,GeorgePhiriandStaciaNordinatFAOMalawiforinput,andinterviewrespondentsandfarmersfortheirtimeandinsights.
iv A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
Acronyms
ACB AfricanCentreforBiosafetyACE AgriculturalCommoditiesExchangeADMARC AgriculturalDevelopmentandMarketingCorporationADP Agro-dealerDevelopmentProgramme(AGRA)AFSA AllianceforFoodSovereigntyinAfricaAGRA AllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfricaANOVA AnalysisofvarianceASSMAG AssociationofSmallholderSeedMultiplicationActionGroupsAU AfricanUnionCa CalciumCA ConservationAgricultureCAADP ComprehensiveAfricanAgriculturalDevelopmentProgrammeCAN CalciumammoniumnitrateCEC CationexchangecapacityCGIAR ConsultativeGroupforInternationalAgriculturalResearchCIAT InternationalCentreforTropicalAgricultureCISANET CivilSocietyAgricultureNetworkCNFA Anon-profitinternationaldevelopmentorganisationbasedinWashingtonDCCO2 CarbondioxideCSO CivilSocietyOrganisationDARS DepartmentofAgriculturalResearchServicesDUS Distinct,uniformandstableEACI EducationforAfricanCropImprovementETG ExportTradingGroupFAO UnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganisationFGD FocusgroupdiscussionFIAAC FundfortheImprovementandAdoptionofAfricanCrops(AGRA)FISP FarmInputSubsidyProgrammeFO FarmerOrganisationFOSCA FarmerOrganisationSupportCentreinAfricaFSO FarmerSupportOrganisationFtF FeedtheFuture(USgovernment)GDP GrossDomesticProductGM GeneticallyModifiedGR GreenRevolutionH+ HydrogenionsICRAF WorldAgroforestryCentreICRISAT InternationalCropResearchInstitutefortheSemi-AridTropicsIITA InternationalInstituteforTropicalAgricultureIMF InternationalMonetaryFundISFM IntegratedSoilFertilityManagementISSD IntegratedSeedSectorDevelopmentK Potassium
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi v
LRC LandResourcesCentreMARDEF MalawiRevolvingDevelopmentFundMASP MalawiAgro-dealerStrengtheningProgrammeMg MagnesiumMK MalawianKwachaMNCs MultinationalCorporationsMoAFS MinistryofAgricultureandFoodSecurityMSHC MalawiSoilHealthConsortiumN NitrogenNAFSN NewAllianceforFoodSecurityandNutrition(G8)NASFAM NationalSmallholderFarmers’AssociationofMalawiNEPAD NewEconomicPartnershipforAfrica’sDevelopmentNGO Non-governmentalOrganisationNPK Nitrogen,phosphorous,potassiumOAU OrganisationforAfricanUnityOPV Open-pollinatedVarietyP PhosphorusPASS ProgrammeforAfrica’sSeedSystems(AGRA)PPP Public-privatePartnershipR&D ResearchandDevelopmentRumark RuralMarketDevelopmentTrustS SulphurSAGCOT SouthernAgriculturalGrowthCorridorofTanzaniaSDC SwissDevelopmentCooperationSEPA SeedProductionforAfrica(AGRA)SFFRFM SmallholderFarmerFertiliserRevolvingFundofMalawiSHP SoilHealthProgramme(AGRA)SPSS StatisticalPackageforSocialSciencesSSTP ScalingSeedsandTechnologiesPartnershipSTAM SeedTradeAssociationofMalawiTIP TargetedInputProgrammeUPOV UnionfortheProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlantsVDC VillageDevelopmentCommitteeWEF WorldEconomicForum
vi A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction, context and methodology
MalawihasbeenhailedasaGreenRevolutionsuccessstory.Butacloserlookrevealsfarmerstrappedinacycleofdebtanddependencyoncostlyexternalinputs,andanerodingnaturalresourcebase.Small-scalefarmersareusingshockinglyhighlevelsofsyntheticfertiliseratgreatfinancialcosttothemselvesandthegovernment,withtheadditionalconsequenceofrisingsoilinfertility.Encouragedbygovernmentsubsidiesandthepromiseofmassiveyieldincreasesfarmersareincreasinglyadoptinghybridmaizeseed.However,adoptionofthesehybridseedscomesatthecostofabandoningthediversityandresilienceoflocalvarietiesandtheever-escalatingrequirementforsyntheticfertiliserapplications.Givenstructurallylowproductprices,theslightyieldincreasesbeingrealisedbyfarmersseldomjustifytheaddedfinancialandecologicalexpenseoftheinputs.Indeed,findingsshownettransfersawayfromfarminghouseholdstoagribusinessesthroughtheadoptionofGreenRevolution(GR)technologies.Thisreporthighlightstheplightofsmall-scalefarmersatthereceivingendoftheGreenRevolutionpushinMalawi.
Inearly2014theAfricanCentreforBiosafety(ACB)launchedamulti-yearresearchprogrammeinsouthernandeastAfricatoinvestigateseedandsoilfertilitypracticesandthechallengesfacingsmall-scalefarmersintheregion.Malawiwasthefirstcountrytobestudied,andACBworkedwiththeNationalSmallholderFarmers’AssociationofMalawi(NASFAM),theKusamalaInstituteofAgricultureandEcologyandDrBlessingsChinsingaattheUniversityofMalawitoconducttheresearch,andwithChitedzeResearchStationforthesoiltesting.Theresearchprogrammehastwobroadaims:tocontributetotheestablishmentofaregionalresearchnetworkonseedandsoilfertilityissues,andtoofferanevidence-basedcritiqueoftheGRagenda.ThesecondaimincludesaparticularfocusontheactivitiesoftheAllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfrica(AGRA),aninstitutionthatplaysacriticalcoordinatingroleinexpandingtheGRontheAfricancontinent.
AGRA’sworkintheGRpushiswide-rangingandincludessupporttopublicandprivateplantbreeders,soilscientists,privateinputsuppliers,agriculturalcreditextensionandpolicyandadvocacy.InMalawi,AGRA’slargestinvestmenttodatehasbeentheMalawiAgro-dealerSupportProgramme(MASP),runbyUS-basedCNFA(anon-profitinternationaldevelopmentorganisation)until2012.ThereweretwoAGRA-sponsoredprojectswithinthestudysites,theCNFA-managedMASP,fallingunderAGRA’sProgrammeforAfrica’sSeedSystems(PASS),andsupporttoNASFAMforpigeonpeaintegrationaspartoftheSoilHealthProgramme(SHP).Theimpactoftheseprojectstodateisdiffuseinthestudysites.Theseprojectshavehadarelativelysmallimpactonfarmerswithinthestudysitessofar,buttheyareonlybuildingblocksinawiderGRthrustinwhichAGRA’sinfluencehasbeensignificant.AGRAistheco-ordinatoroftherecentlyestablishedScalingSeedsandTechnologiesPartnership(SSTP)undertheauspicesoftheG8’sNewAllianceforFoodSecurityandNutrition(NAFSN).Atthetimethisresearchwasbeingconductednopracticalactivitieswereyettakingplaceunderthispartnership.Follow-upresearchtobeconductedbyACBin2015willincludeinvestigationoftheseAGRAinterventionsinmoredetail,togetherwithcountrypartnerswherepossible.
Theresearchmethodologyincludedashortsurveywith90farmersintwoNASFAMsitesinKasungu(ChamamaandChipala)andoneKusamalasiteinDowa(Nambuma).Thesurveycovereddemographics,land,productionandyields,agriculturalpracticesandsoilfertilityandseedaccessandpractices.Stratificationwasbasedongender,ageandproductionpractices.Across-sectionofconventionalagriculture,conservationagriculture(CA)andagro-ecologicalpracticeswereidentifiedasthebasisforacomparisonofimpactsonhouseholdnutrition,productionandsoilfertility.Analysisofthecomparativeaspectsisplannedasalongitudinalstudy,withthisfirstsurveydesignedasabaselinestudy.Inadditiontothebaselinesurvey,interviewsandfocusgroupswereconductedwithparticipatingfarmers,anddiscussionswereheldwitharangeofrelevantnationalandlocalinformants.Theinitialresultsrevealhighlevelsof
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi vii
hybridisationofconventional,CAandagro-ecologicalpractices;withfarmerssimultaneouslyusingpurchasedcertifiedandhybridseedandsyntheticfertiliserandapplyingfarmingmethodssuchasleavingcropresiduesonthefield,intercroppingandrecyclingseed.TheuptakeofGRtechnologiesisunevenandthereasonsforthisarenotassimpleaslackofknowledgeoraccess.Farmersalsomakechoicesandhedgeriskbyemployingarangeofdifferentiatedpractices.Whatfollowsisacondensedsummaryofthemainresultsofthisresearch,togetherwithconclusionsandrecommendationsforpolicydevelopmentandfurtherwork.Afullreportwillbemadeavailableshortly,followingthissummary.
Farmer perceptions of agricultural challenges
Farmersidentifiedhighfertiliserprices(99%),lackofmarkets(82%),changeinrainfallpatterns(81%),andhighseedprices(77%)asthemostseriouschallengescurrentlyfacingthem.Theseprioritieswereconsistentlyhighacrossthethreesites.HighinputpricesareakeylimitingfactorintheadoptionofGRtechnologies,whilelowoutputpricesaretheproductofstructuraldisadvantagesandadverseincorporationofsmall-scalefarmersintoliberalisedglobalcommoditymarkets.Nosignificantgenderdifferentialswereidentifiedwithinmostoftheseriouschallengesidentified.Weakinstitutionalsupport,withparticularemphasisonextensionandresearch,wasidentifiedasanissueinfocusgroups.
Althoughtherewasgeneralconsensusthatfarminghadbecomemorechallengingoverthepastfiveyears,somefarmersfeltthatprogresswasbeingachieved.Manyofthesefarmerstendedtoberetiredworkerswithgenerallyhigherlevelsofeducation.Theresearchrevealssomedifferentiationamongfarmers,atrendthatisinevitablyacceleratedbytheintroductionofGRtechnologies.
Nutrition and food security
Participantswereaskedquestionsaboutdietarydiversityandwhethertheirhouseholdswereabletoeatfoodstheyareusedto,as
proxiesforhouseholdfoodsecurity.Dietarydiversityisameasureofthevarietyoffoodsconsumedinarecentperiod,withthreeorfewerfoodsindicatinglackofdiversity.Around8%ofrespondenthouseholdshadconsumedthreeorfewercategoriesoffoodinthepastthreedays.Thisfigurewouldhavebeenhigherifmeasuredovertheprevious24hours.Morethan80%ofhouseholdshadconsumedmaize,greenleafyvegetables,‘other’vegetables(includingtomatoes,onions,okraandothers)andlegumesinthepastthreedays.Butfewerthan60%ofhouseholdshadconsumedrice,wheatproducts,anykindofmeat,potatoes,fruitorvegetableshighinVitaminA.Sixty-ninepercentofrespondentsindicatedtheysometimes,oftenoralwayscouldnoteatfoodstheyareusedto,whileonly15%werealwaysabletoeatfoodstheyareusedto.
Resultsshowedsomedifferentiationbetweenstudysitesregardingincomebeingenoughtocoverbasicneeds.ThemajorityofrespondentsinChipala(77%)indicatedcurrentincomewasoftenenoughtocoverbasicneeds.Bycontrast,inNambuma(89%)andChamama(82%),themajorityofrespondentsindicatedtheirincomewasrarelyorneverenoughtocoverbasicneeds.Thiswasoneofmanyresultsshowingsomedifferentiationbetweenfarmersindifferentsites.
Anearlyindicationofaprobleminthefoodsystemisflaggedwhenhouseholdsconfirmtheyarenotabletoeatfoodstheyareusedtoandyettheyarearesellingfood.Althougharelativelysmallnumber,50–60%ofthe
viii A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
householdsthatwereoftenoralwaysunabletoeatthefoodstheywantedtoalsosoldmaize,beansandgroundnuts.
Mostfoodconsumedinhouseholdsinthepastthreedayswasproducedeitherbythehouseholditselforpurchased,withverylittlefoodbeingsourcedfromtradeorbarter,orbeingreceivedasagiftorshared.Themajorfoodtypesproducedbythehouseholdweremaize(87%),pumpkin/orangesweetpotato(87%),legumes(83%),eggs(69%)andpotatoes(59%).Foodsthatwerepredominantlypurchasedincludeoilsandfats(100%),sugar(96%),dairy(96%),fish(90%),riceandwheat(81%)and‘other’vegetables(75%).Morethanhalftherespondentshadconsumedfruit,whichwassplitbetweenownproductionandpurchase.Banana(23%),papaya(22%)andmango(20%)werethemostcommonfoodtreesgrownbyparticipatinghouseholds.
InruralMalawimanyfamiliesrunoutoffoodwellbeforethenextharvest,meaningtheyareforcedtoabandontheirowngardensinsearchofcashorin-kindemploymentinordertoaccessfood.Thistrendwasreflectedinthesurvey,with56%ofhouseholdsrunningoutoffoodbetweenthecriticalfarmingmonthsofOctoberandFebruary.Onlysixhouseholds,allinChipala,saidtheydidnotrunoutoffood,anothersignofdifferentiation.
Land access and cultivation
Althoughlandwasnotafocusareaofthisresearch,landownershipandaccessisanessentialvariableinagriculturalproduction.Thesurveyincludedquestionsonthesizeofarespondent’slandholdings,cultivatedareasandthedistancesrespondentshadtotraveltotendtheirfields.
Thesurveyshowedaveragelandholdingsofaround7acres(2.8ha1)perhouseholdwithavariationof4.5acresinNambuma,6.4acresinChamamaand9.9acresinChipala;thelastfigureisskewedbyonelargelandholdingof99acres.Acrossallsites57%ofhouseholdsreportedtheyownedbetween1and3ha,thoughinNambumaalmostthree-quartersownedlessthan2ha.Thisisanotherindicatorofdifferentiationbetweenthesites,withrespondentsinNambumatendingtobelesswell-offandrespondentsinChipalatendingtobeslightlybetteroff.
Cultivatedlandincludesownland,dimbaland(dimbolandtranslatesaswetland/sinEngish;thisislandborderingariverwherecultivationduringthedryseasondependsonresidualmoisture),rentedlandandborrowedland.Theportionofownlandcultivatedaveragedaround70%oftotallandownedbyhouseholds.Justunderathirdofhouseholds(30%)rentedsomelandforcultivation,withtheaveragesizeofrentedlandbeing2.26acresorjustunder1ha.Thosewhowerecultivatingdimbalandreportedlandsizeofcloseto1hainallthreesites.Ofthethreesites,Nambumaismorereliantonrentalsandborrowingwhichsignifiespotentiallanddemand(i.e.peopleneedingmorelandthantheyown).
Therearesomesignificantrelationshipsbetweenthesizeoflandholdingandkeychallengesfacingfarminghouseholds.Changesinrainfallpatternsandlackofmarketsareseriousissuesacrossalllandownershipsizes.Highseedpricesaregenerallymoreofanissuewithincreasingfarmsize,fromtwo-thirdsinthelandlesscategoryto90%inthe3–4hacategoryand82%inthe>4hacategory.Poorqualityseedtendstobemoreofanissue
1. Acceptingthatonehectareismoreorless2.5acres,basedonaNASFAMsurvey
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi ix
forsmallerfarmers,fromone-fifthinthe<1hacategorytolessthanone-tenthinthe>4hacategory,butthisisnotaneventrend.Generallyseedqualityisnotamajorissue.
TheMalawiG8CooperationFrameworkcommitstheMalawiangovernmenttorelease200,000haoflandinbothcustomaryandleaseholdareasforlarge-scalecommercialagricultureby2015.Wemustaskwherethislandwillcomefromandwhowillbedispossessedasaresult.
Production and yields
Notsurprisingly,maize(hybridandlocal,combined),groundnuts,tobaccoandbeanswerethemostwidelyproducedcropsinthethreesites,followedbyhybridmaize(asadistinctcategoryfromlocalmaize)andsoya.Hybridmaizeyieldswereonaverage519kgmorethanlocalmaizeyields.AttheprevailingmarketpriceofMK60/kg(US$0.142)thistranslatesintoapotentialadditionalincomeofMK31,140/household(US$74.14).However,thisdoesnotjustifytheadditionalaverageinputcostsofMK5,798(US$13.80)forhybridmaizeseedplusMK81,296(US$193.54)forNPK(three-componentsyntheticfertilisers)andureawhichareusedprimarilyonmaize.Whenincreasedinputcostsaretakenintoaccount,farmersadoptingGRtechnologiesrealiseapotentialincomedeficitofMK55,954(US$133.22).Evenifthesyntheticfertiliserisalsosharedamongstothercrops,overallproductionofthesecropsremainslowanditishighlyunlikelythatfarmerswillrealiseanetprofitbyadoptingthesetechnologies.Theshort-termbenefitofhigheryieldsmasksthisnettransferfromsmall-scalefarminghouseholdstoseedandfertiliseragribusinesses.
AGRA’sseedworkinMalawiemphasisesmaize,beans,soya,peas,groundnuts,cassavaandsweetpotato,soamixtureofcommonlycultivatedcropsandlesscultivatedcrops.Therewassomedifferentiationinthetypeofmaizeproducedbyarea.InNambumaahighpercentageofrespondents(80%)producedlocalmaize,whileinChamamahybridmaizewaspredominant,at90%ofrespondents.
Althoughothercropswerenotaswidelyproducedtherewerealargenumberofsmallercropsthatgenerallyareneglectedbyformalresearchanddevelopment(R&D)effortsbecausetheyareseenasnon-commercialcrops.Yetthesecropsplayacriticalroleinensuringlocalnutritionaldiversity.Inacountrywherethemajorityofhouseholdsareresource-poorfarminghouseholds,thesecropsareextremelyimportant.
Fifty-threepercentoftheparticipatinghouseholdsplantedondimbaland.Ofthese,60%plantedmustard,48%plantedpumpkinand46%plantedtomatoes.Fifty-onepercentoftheparticipatinghouseholdsplantedaroundtheirhomesteads.Aquarteroftheseplantedpapayaandafifthplantedpumpkin.Thereisacleargenderdifferenceregardingthecultivationofdimbaland—64%ofwomen-headedhouseholdshadnotplantedondimbalandinthepastseason,while44%ofmale-headedhouseholdshadnotcultivateddimbalandinthesameperiod.Thisindicateslowerlandaccessforwomen.
Onaverage,slightlylessthan1.5tonsofmaizewasretainedforhomeuse.Becauseofgreateryields,morehybridmaizeonaveragewaskeptforhomeuse(1,493kg)comparedwithlocalmaize(1,173kg).Justoverhalftherespondentsretainedmorethan1tonofhybridmaize,andjustoverathirdoftheproducersretainedmorethan1tonoflocalmaize,forhomeuse.Thevastmajorityofproducersofbeans,groundnuts,pigeonpea,cowpea,soyaandsweetpotatokeptlessthan500kgoftheproductforhomeuse.
The role of tobacco
Malawiistheworld’smosttobacco-relianteconomy,withthecropaccountingforover60%ofexportearnings.Sincethesectorwasliberalisedin1992,small-scalefarmershavebecomethemajorityproducers.NASFAMitselfwasestablishedwithfundingfromUSAIDin1994withaprimaryfocusonintegratingsmallholdersintocommercialtobaccoproduction.KasunguandDowaarebothkeytobaccoproducingareasinMalawi,withover
2.AtarateofUS$1=MK420,theprevailingrateatthetimeoftheresearch.
x A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
81%ofparticipatingfarmersgrowingtobaccointhe2013/14season.TableAshowsthetobaccocostbreakdownofaclubinChamamaandindicatesthatthefarmers’shareoftotalvaluewaslessthan11%ofdriedleaf.InordertogeneratetheMK48,115(US$114.56)incomefromaseason’slabour,farmersbearinputcostsofMK181,480(US$432.10).Althoughthesecostsareusuallycoveredbytobaccocompaniesthroughvaluechainfinancingoncontract(credittopurchaseinputswithdeductionsbeforepayment),farmersbeartheriskofproductionfailure.
Thiscaserevealsaclassiccontractfarmingmodel,wherefarmerswithnobargainingpowertakeonloanstogrowcashcropsyetreceiveasmallfractionofitsfinalvalue.AstheWorldBank(2003:5)states,“farmersarecarriedawaybythehighgrossreturnfromtobaccoinsteadofcomparingthenetreturns”.Thereareothernegativeimpactsassociatedwithtobaccocultivation.Itisnotacropthatcanbekeptbackforconsumptionintimesofacutehunger,noristhereanyprospectoffinding
alternativebuyersorvalueaddition.Further,tobaccoextractslargeamountsofnutrientsfromthesoilandrequirestheapplicationoflargequantitiesofpesticides.Thevaluechainneedstobeinvestigatedfurther,togetherwithfarmers,toexaminetherealbenefitsforthem,inthelongrun,ofplantingtobacco.
Seed access and practices
SeedisakeyfocusintheGRthrust.Asoutlinedabove,AGRAhasamajorfocusonseedinMalawiandisinvolvedinsupportingR&Dandtheproductionanddistributionofimprovedseedforallthemajorcropsgrownbysurveyrespondents,asidefromtobacco.Althoughgermplasminthepublicsphere—nationalagriculturalresearchsystemsandtheConsultativeGroupforInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)institutes—isthebasisofmuchofthisdevelopment,thelong-termaimistoinvolvetheprivatesectorinproductionanddistribution.Theimplicationsforfarmer-managedseedsystemsandagro-biodiversityaredownplayed,withfarmer-
Table A: Tobacco cost breakdown for one club, Chamama
Total (48bales)(US$)
Per bale(US$) Per bale (MK)
a.Proceedsfromsales 8,445 175.9 73,878
b.Chargesatauctionfloor(sellingconcession,TCCcessandclass,ARET,NASFAMlevies)
359.2 7.5 3,150
c.Deductions(NASFAMtransport,hessian,tax) 909.56 18.95 7,959
d.Loanrepayment 6,042.65 125.89 52,873
e.Balingjack 102.86(MK43,200)
2.14 900
f.Transporttoactioncommittee 114.29(MK48,000)
2.38 1,000
g.Profitafterdeductions,loanrepaymentetc.(butexcludinglabour)
916.44 19.09 8,019
h.Averageperfarmer3 114.56(MK48,115)
2.39 1,002
i.Farmers’shareoftotalsale(g/ax100) 10.85%
Source:focusgroupdiscussionsandreceiptsMK/US$420:1exchange
3. Totalfiguresontheauctionhousereceiptforthetobaccoclubofeightfarmersinthiscase.
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xi
managedsystemsconsideredinferiortoprofit-generatingprivateactivityinseedproductionanddistribution.
Oneoftheobjectivesofthestudywastoinvestigateseedaccess,farmer-basedseedpractices,andtheimplicationsofthesepracticesonagriculturalproductivity.Investigationsfoundthatcertifiedorhybridseedusewaslimitedtomaize(73%ofrespondents)andtobacco(42%).ThroughtheFISPthegovernmentofMalawiplaysamajorroleincreatingamarketforhybridmaizeseedand,toalesserextent,improvedlegumes,whilethetobaccocompanieshavetheirownclosedvaluechainsforimprovedtobaccoseed.Despitethis,respondentsrecycledevenhybridseedforvariousreasons,themostcommonofwhichweretoensureseedavailabilitywhenthefirstrainsarriveandthehighpricesofcertifiedseedwhichlimitaccess.
AGRA-supportedseeddevelopment,productionanddistributionprogrammescoverafairlywiderangeofcroptypesinMalawi,butfarmersinthesurveyarestillusingnon-certifiedseed.Almosthalftherespondentsplantednon-certifiedorlocalmaizevarieties,andthemajorityoffarmersplantednon-certifiedcowpeas(87%,butonalowbase),beans(75%)andsoya(60%).Manyfarmersplantedbothhybridandlocal/uncertifiedmaize.Theavailabilityofcertifiedseedmaybeanissue,butofmoreimportanceisthelimitedaccesstocertifiedseed.Thisisduetohighpricesandvariousqualityfactors(includingstorage,processing,conversionratesofkernelstoflour,taste,insectresistancebothinthefieldandinstorage,anddroughttolerance).Respondentstendedtoreservelocalmaizeforconsumption,andsellahigherproportionoftheirhybridmaize.Theavailabilityoflocalanduncertifiedvarietiesoffersfarmersarangeofoptions.
Seedrecyclingisacommonpractice,with80%oflocalmaize,73%ofcowpea,64%ofbeans,55%ofgroundnutsand54%ofsoybeanseedsbeingrecycled.Hybridmaizeistheonlyseedthatwasmostlypurchasedfromseeddealers(59%).Beanseedwasthenextmostpurchasedseed,butonly18%ofrespondentswhousedbeanseedinthepastseasonhadpurchasedit.NASFAMandtobaccocompanyloansarean
importantsourceofpigeonpeaseed(60%)andtobaccoseed(12%)respectively.NASFAM’sintroductionofpigeonpeawassponsoredbyAGRA.Theprogrammehasnothadamajorimpactintheresearchsitestodate,withsmallquantitiesofseedbeingdistributed(lessthan5kgperparticipatingfarminghousehold)andlimitedreturnsforfarmers.Anaspectofplannedfollow-upresearchwillinvestigateinmoredetailthefunctioningandimpactsofNASFAM’spigeonpeaprogramme,includingtheextenttowhichithastakenoffinotherareasofMalawi.FurtherinvestigationwillalsoexploreotherimprovedandhybridseedvarietiessponsoredbyAGRAinMalawi.
Theresearchdidnotuncoveranysystematicmarketinuncertifiedseedinthesitesandconfirmedthatrespondentstendedtosaveseedprimarilyfortheirownuse.Thereisnopracticalsupportfromgovernmentforthesavingorexchangeofuncertifiedseed,whileeffortsbyAGRAandgovernmentaliketendtowardsreplacinguncertifiedseedswithcertifiedvarieties.Thiscouldbringimprovedgermplasmintoseedsystemsbutmayhavenegativeimpactsonseeddiversity.Surveyresponsesindicatedabiggervariationinthecostbetweencertifiedanduncertifiedseedthaninperceivedquality.ThisposesaquestionaboutthevalueformoneyofGRtechnologies.Themainseedcostsincurredbyrespondents
xii A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
wereforhybridmaizeandcertifiedtobaccoseed.However,thesecostsarerelativelysmallwhencomparedwiththecostoffertiliserinputs(seebelow).Ahighpercentageofrespondentsincurrednoexpenseinprocuringseedforlocalmaize(85%),groundnuts(64%)andbeans(59%),aswellaspigeonpeas(100%)andcowpeas(78%).ThisemphasisesthatthepracticesofseedsavingandexchangeareverywellestablishedandvitalinMalawi.
Seedqualitywasnotamajorissueformostcrops.Localmaizeseedwasassessedbyrespondentsasbeingoflowerqualitythanhybridmaizeseed.Thequalityoftheirhybridmaizeseedwasassessedasgoodby85%oftherespondents,andthequalityoflocalmaizeseedwasassessedasgoodby62%ofusers.Whilethissignifiessomequalityissuesforlocaloruncertifiedmaize,farmersarenotarguingtoreplacelocalseedwithhybridorcertifiedseed.Giventhehighnumbersoffarmersstillusingthisseed,wecandeducethatitmakesanimportantcontributiontoon-farmproductionsystems.Thequalityofuncertifiedseedswereallassessedasgoodbythemajorityofasmallsampleofusers—pigeonpea(100%),beans(81%),groundnuts(81%),cowpea(77%)andsoya(72%).However,withopenpollinatedvarieties(OPVs),evenofficialadviceisthatseedcanberecycledforthreeyearsbeforenewseedshouldbepurchased.Soitisaquestionofhowlongthefarmershavebeenrecycling,andhowrecyclingfitsintothedisseminationofimprovedOPVs.Effortscanbegearedtowardsinvestigatingthequalityoflocaloruncertifiedseed,identifyingthepositivecharacteristicsoflocal/uncertifiedseedanddevelopingresponsesbasedonparticipatorymethodswithfarmerstoimprovetheseed.
Agricultural practices and soil fertility
Ahighproportionofrespondentsengagedinvarioustypesofagro-ecologicalpractices,includingthosethatfallwithinthedefinitionofconservationagriculture(CA).InMalawiCAisdefinedasminimumsoildisturbance,permanentgroundcoverandcroprotationorintercropping(includingtheuseoflegumesfornitrogenfixing).Thesepracticescanalsobeconsideredagro-ecologicalmethods,althoughGRadvocates,includingAGRA,addtothedefinitiontheuseofsyntheticfertilisers,hybrid
andcertifiedseedsandherbicides.TheresearchclearlyshowsamixofpracticesencompassingbothGRinputsandagro-ecologicalpractices,althoughthisisunevenacrossfarminghouseholds.
Morethan8outof10householdspractisedintercroppingwithhybridmaize/beans,andtobacco/pumpkinbeingthemaintwointercrops.Tobaccocompaniesdiscouragethetobacco/pumpkinintercropbecausetheplantscomefromthesamefamilyandtheintercropincreasesthethreatofdiseasesspreading.Overallnearlythree-quarters(73%)ofrespondentspractisedatleasttwoofthethreeCAbasepractices.Almost9outof10farminghouseholdsappliedsomekindoforganiccontenttothesoil,intheformofcropresidues,animalmanure,compostorgreenmanure.Thisindicatesthatagro-ecologyisnotsomethingnewthatmustbeintroducedbutispartofexistingpractice.GRinputsrelyonthisfundamentalpracticalbasefortheirsuccess.IfGRinputsunderminethisbaseovertime,itcouldleadtothecollapseoftheagriculturalsystemasawhole,includingtheGR.Theexistingbaseofpracticesoffersaverystrongfoundationtoadoptandadvanceagro-ecologicalmethods,sincethesepracticesdonotneedtobeintroducedbyexternalagents.
Giventhecombinationofproductionpracticesitisnotpossibleatthisearlystagetomakeanydefinitivecommentsontherelationshipbetweentheadoptionofproductionpracticesandhouseholdfoodsecurity.Theresearchresultsareabaselinethatcanbemeasuredandcomparedovertime.Generally,thesurveyindicatedapositivecorrelationbetweenhouseholdspracticingagro-ecologicalpractices(definedforthesepurposesasthethreeCAbasepracticesplustheadditionoforganiccontenttothesoil)andhouseholdfoodsecurity.However,manyofthesehouseholdsalsousedvariousGRtechnologies.Inanycase,correlationdoesnotimplycausationandfurtherworkmustbedonetounderstandtherelationshipbetweentheadoptionofproductionpracticesandhouseholdnutrition.Syntheticfertilisersarewidelyandintensivelyusedinthestudysitesandareprocuredfromavarietyofsources(TableB).UreaandNPKwerethemostwidelyusedsyntheticfertilisers,with81%ofrespondenthouseholdsusing
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xiii
ureatopdressingand68%usingNPK(mostly23:21:0)basal.Therewassomeunevennessinuseacrossthesites—over90%ofrespondentsinChamamausedbothNPKandureawhileonly47%ofrespondentsinNambumausedNPK.Thetobaccofertilisers,CANandSuperDorDcompound,wereusedbyone-fifthtoaquarterofhouseholds.Meanapplicationratesacrossallhouseholdsthatconfirmedusinganykindofsyntheticfertiliserwasanextremelyhigh341.5kgoncultivatedlandthat,onaverage,wasaround2ha(seeabove).Fertiliseruseondifferentpiecesoflandwas
notfullyinvestigated,buttheresearchshowsthatsyntheticfertiliseruseisconcentratedonmaizeandtobaccoplots.Thismeanssyntheticfertiliseruseisevenmoreintensivethanthismeasure,whichdividesfertiliserusebytheentirelandowned.Thehighcostoffertiliserwasidentifiedasa‘serious’problembyeveryrespondentexceptone.
TheaverageamountspentonfertilisersacrossallhouseholdswasMK95,000(US$226.19),morethanthemarketvalueof1.5tonsofmaizeatMK60/kg(US$210.00)inlocalmarkets.At
Table B: Mean amount of fertiliser applied, costs and sources in the past year
Type of fertiliser Mean payment (MK) by
respondents using fertiliser
Mean payment
in US$
Mean kg applied by respondents using fertiliser
Major sources of fertiliser
Ureabase 19,204.55 45.73 75 Agro-dealer(44%),FISP(37%),tobacco
company(15%)
Ureatop 27,544.52 65.58 131.7
NPKbase 31,780.09 75.67 150.2 Agro-dealer(44%),FISP(25%),tobacco
company(16%)
NPKtop 2,766.67 6.59 31.7
CANbase 32,800.00 78.10 116.7 Agro-dealer(39%),tobaccocompany
(31%),ADMARC(8%)
CANtop 36,077.78 85.90 154.8
SuperD/Dcompound 65,516.67 155.99 230.6 Agro-dealer(28%),tobaccocompany
(50%),andfarmer/villager(17%)
Total(synthetic) 215,726.28 513.63 341.5
Animalmanure 1,134.62 2.70 2,569.5 Ownproduction(97%)
Greenmanure 777.78 1.85 1,456.4 Ownproduction(100%)
Howmuchontotalfertiliserapplicationswherebreakdownbetweentypesinunknown
307,641.25 732.48
Averageexpenditureonallfertiliser
95,415.70 227.18
xiv A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
thesametime,thecombinationofhybridseedandsyntheticfertiliserapplicationincreasesyieldsbyaround500kg,sothisisaverybigexpenseforarelativelylimitedreward.Fortypercentofrespondentsidentifiedlatefertiliserdeliveryasaseriousproblem,withanotherquarterofhouseholdscallingita‘moderate’problem.Purchasesfromagro-dealersandvouchersfromFISPaccountedfor70–80%ofureaandNPKacquisitions,whiletobaccocompaniesandagro-dealerswerethemainsourcesofCANandSuperDorDcompound.
Animalmanurepresentsapotentiallycheaperandmorereadilyavailablesourceofsoilnutrients,and58%offarmersreportedusingitinthepreviousseason.Averageapplicationratesforthoseusinganimalmanurewasaround2.5tonsinthepastseason.Ninety-sevenpercentofthoseapplyinganimalmanuresaidtheydidsofromtheirownsources.Wedidnotgathersurveyinformationonlivestockownershipbutthiswillbeinvestigatedinthefollowupstudies.Nevertheless,infocusgroupswomenindicatedtheyhadafewsmallstock(goats,pigsandchickens),butnotenoughtoequaltheamountsofmanurerespondentssaidtheyapplied.Accordingtothechairofoneofthelocalfarmercommittees,therehasbeenageneraldeclineinanimalownershipasgovernmentextensionserviceshavedwindledandfarmers,moreinneedofreadyaccesstocashsinceliberalisation,areoftencompelledtoselltheirlivestock.Wewillneedtoinvestigatefurtherthesourceofanimalmanure,giventheapparentlylimitedownershipoflargelivestock.
Therewasnostatisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenrespondentsindicatingsoilinfertilityasaseriousissueandtheamountoffertiliserused.Thereappearstohavebeenlittleornosoiltestingconductedhistoricallyintheareassurveyed,withsomefarmersnotevenawarethatsoilcouldbetested.IndependentsoiltestingconductedbyChitedzeResearchStationaspartoftheresearchindicateddegradedsoilsacrossthesiteswithlimitednutrientcontentandrelativelyhighacidity;thelatterfavourstobaccooverfoodcrops.RecommendedremediesarelimingtoincreasepHandtheadditionoforganiccontenttothesoiltoimprovenutrientcontent.
Forsoilfertility,weestablishedthebaselinerelationshipbetweenuseoffertiliser(synthetic,animalorgreenmanure)andthefoodsecurityproxiesindicatedabove.Therewasapositivecorrelationbetweenincreasedlevelsofbothsyntheticandorganicfertiliseruseandthefoodsecurityproxymeasures.However,considerationmustbegiventotherelativewealth(orpurchasingpower)ofhouseholdsinthefirstplace;householdsthatcanpurchaselargeramountsoffertiliserarealsomorelikelytoaffordalargerandmorevariedfoodbasket.WemustalsoconsiderthebroadereffectsofanettransferofincomeawayfromfarminghouseholdsemployingGRtechnologies,andtheimpactofthisonhouseholdfoodsecurity.EvidencedirectlycontradictstheGRargumentthattheadoptionofthesetechnologieswillgenerategreaterincomesandhencefoodsecurityforfarminghouseholds.
Therewasanalmostuniversalconsensusamongrespondentsthatfarmingisimpossiblewithoutfertiliser.Farminghouseholdsappeartobecaughtinacycleofincreasingrelianceonsyntheticfertilisertosqueezeproductionfromthegroundonaseasonbyseasonbasis.Syntheticfertilisersgeneratemajorecologicalproblemsincludingsoilinfertilityanddamagetowatersources.Infertilesoilbecomesaninertcarrierfortemporarynutrientsthatmustbepumpedintopropupproduction.ThesoiltestsconductedbyChitedzeResearchStationrevealsoilsthataretechnicallyinfertile,withverylowlevelsofkeynutrientsandnutrientholdingcapacity,despiteyearsofsyntheticfertiliserapplications.Thisgivesthelietotheargument
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xv
thattheadditionofsyntheticfertiliserisnecessaryforlong-termimprovementsinsoilfertility.Indeed,theoppositeisthecase.Soilrenewal,basedonincreasingorganiccontenttofeedsoillifeasthebasisforlong-termimprovementsinplantqualityandnutrientuptake,takesabackseattotheshort-termsolutionofsyntheticfertiliserapplicationforimmediategain.Intheiranalysisoftheresearchsites,Chitedzesoilscientistsrecommendanincreaseinorganicmatterasakeyinterventiontoimprovethequalityofthesesoilsovertime.
The Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP)
Threemajorgovernmentinputsubsidyprogrammesfrom1998werecombinedin2005toformtheFISP,withafocusonprovidingsubsidisedmaizeandlegumeseedandfertilisertofarmers.Thesubsidywaswithdrawnfromcottonandtobaccofarmersin2009.HouseholdsbenefitingfromfertilisersubsidiesneedpayonlyMK500/50kgbag(US$1.19)whichhasamarketvalueofMK17,000(US$40.48),althoughtheyoftendonotreceiveenoughandpurchaseadditionalbagsatthefullcost.InputdistributionunderFISPoperatesonatendersystem.In2014twoparastatals,theAgriculturalDevelopmentandMarketingCorporation(ADMARC)andtheSmallholderFarmerFertiliserRevolvingFundofMalawi(SFFRFM)wonthetenderstodistributetheinputs.Theprivatesectorbenefitsfromincreasedmarketdemandandguaranteedmarkets.Keybeneficiariesarethemajorseedcompanies:SeedCo,Pannar,MonsantoandDemeterSeed,especiallywithincreaseddemandfortheirmaizehybrids.ThemajorcompaniesprovidingfertiliserinMalawiareFarmersWorld(whichalsoownsDemeterSeed),Yara,TransGlobe,OmniaandRabProcessors(whichownstheKulimaGoldagro-dealerdistributionnetwork).Forty-fourpercentofrespondentsindicatedtheyhadaccesstoFISPinputsinthepastseason.ThiswasslightlylowerinChamamathaninChipalaandNabuma.InthelattertwositesmorethanhalftherespondentshadreceivedFISPinputsinthepastseason.However,respondentswereconcernedthattherewaslittleconsistencyandparticipationmayonlybeforasingleseason.Farminghouseholdstendtosharetheinputs
withothers.Theresultissmallerquantitiesofinputsfromtheprogrammeperhousehold,butawiderdiffusionofthetechnology.ThesurveyresultsindicatethatFISPinthesesitesprovidesaccesstofertilisermorethantoseed.Inthepastseasononly11%offarmersaccessedhybridmaizethroughFISP.Itispossiblethatrespondentswhoindicatedtheyreceivedseedfromagro-dealersusedFISPvouchersasacontribution.FISPcertainlyhascontributedtothehigheruseofhybridmaizeseed.PriortotheintroductionofFISPapproximately43%offarmersinMalawiusedhybridmaize.Bythe2009–2010seasonthishadrisento65%.Oursurveyindicatesthat73%ofhouseholdsusedhybridseedinthelastseason.
ThereiswidespreadrecognitionthatFISPisnotanoptimalsolution.Commentsfromfarmers,farmersupportorganisations,extensionworkersandotherkeyinformantsincludedthefollowingstatements:FISPispoliticallymotivated;itisnotgoodforagriculturedespiteincreasedyields;costsandoutputsofFISPdonotmatch;thereareserioustargetingissues;andheavydependenceoftheagriculturalsystemonrainmeansthatinputsubsidiesareawastedinvestmentiftherainsdonotcome.Inaddition,FISPhasbeencriticisedforitsexpenditureremainingbiasedinfavourofprivategoodsbenefitingindividualfarmers,suchasfertiliserandseed,ratherthaninvestmentsinpublicgoods,suchasresearch,ruralinfrastructureandextensionthatcanbeneftfarminghouseholdscollectively.Despitehigheryields,mostMalawiansremainmiredinpovertywhichsuggeststhattheGRpackageisnotdeliveringmeaningfulimprovementsforfarmers.
Market access
Morethan80%ofrespondentscitedalackofmarketsasaseriouschallenge.Thissuggeststhatfarmersarekeentoincreasesales.Yet,inpractice,yieldsarerelativelylowandmosthouseholdsdonotproduceenoughtomeeteventheirownyearlyconsumptionneeds.Marketaccessmaymeanphysicalaccesstodistributionandsalespoints;itcanalsomeanproductpricesthatenablefarmerstoprofitfromsellingtheiroutputs.Theresearchindicatesthatthelatterisofgreater
xvi A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
importancethantheformer.Whiletransportinfrastructurewasnotgoodinthesiteswevisited,farmershadanumberofpossibleoutletsforthesaleofproduce.Theseincludedlocalmarkets,vendorswhocametothefarmgatetobuy,aswellasNASFAMandothercommercialenterpriseswhowerewillingandabletopurchaseproductsfromfarmers.
Essentially,tofarmersmarketaccessmeansprice.Vendorsarewidelyseenasexploitative,offeringlowpricesandcheatingfarmers,butbecausefarmersareforcedintodistresssalestoacquiresomecashtheyaccepttheseprices.NASFAM,ADMARCandothersofferedslightlybetterpricesforsomeproducts,someofthetime,butthemainconcernamongfarmerswasthatthesemarketoutletswereinconsistent;also,whenthebuyersranoutofmoneytheyclosedthechannel,leavingfarmerswithnooptionbuttosellforcheaperelsewhere.Respondentsobservedthatmarketoutletsbasedonvaluechainfinancingaredisbandedassoonasorganisershaveboughtenoughproducetorecovertheloansgiventofarmers.Onefarmerobservedthat“thesemarketsoperateaslongasthefarmershavenotfinishedrepayingtheirloans,anddisappearalmostimmediatelyafterwards”.
Lackofappropriatestoragefacilitiesmeansthatfarmershavetosellassoonastheproductisreadyforharvest.Generallythisisatthesametimethateveryoneelseisselling,sothereisatemporaryglutinthemarketjustwhenfarmersaretryingtosell.Opportunitiesforimprovedproducerpricesthroughqualitypremiumsorvalueadditionarelimitedatpresent.ADMARCistheonlyorganisationthatoffersqualitypremiumsbutitsmarketingarmisconsiderednotasefficientasitoncewas;anditcurrentlypurchasesmoreproducefromvendorsthandirectlyfromfarmers.
TheGRdependsonprofitableoutputmarketsthatenablefarmerstopurchaseinputsthatbenefittheinputsuppliers,butmostparticipatingfarmerswerenotsellingsignificantamountsofproduceatall.Tobaccoistheonlymajorcashcropinthethreestudysitesandthetermsoftradeareagainstfarmers,asindicatedabove.Apartfromtobacco,soyawastheonlycropwheremore
thanhalfoftheproductionquantitywassold,buttheseweresmallamountsandthisappliedtorelativelyfewfarminghouseholds.
Averagemaizesalescametojust222kg,withthevastmajoritysellingunder1tonofmaize.Between62%(hybrid)and70%(local)ofrespondentssold50kgofmaizeorless.50kgofmaizecanbesoldforMK3,000(US$7.14)atlocalmarketprices.Thisindicatesthatmaizeisacropprimarilyforownuse,withdistresssalesofsmallquantitiestoacquiresomecash.Wealreadymentionedearlierthattheaverageexpenditureonfertiliserinputsalone,amongsttherespondenthouseholds,wasequivalenttothelocalmarketvalueof1.5tonsofmaize.Recoupingthesecostsrequiressalesofanequivalentamount,asidefromproductionretainedforownconsumption.TheGRproposestoturnfarmersintocommodityproducerswhoearncashfromthesaleoftheirproductsandthenbuytheirfoodneedsonthemarket—butthisisnothowitisworkinginpractice.
Conclusion and recommendations
GreenRevolutioninterventions,ofwhichAGRAisaleadingexample,arefundamentallypremisedontheideathatincreasedcostsofcertifiedseedandsyntheticfertilisercanbemetbyincreasingyields.Thiswillallowforincreasedsalesthatcangenerateincomeforinputpurchaseinthenextyear,aswellastheexpansionoffarmingasabusiness—tothebenefitofproducers.Howeverthis‘endlessvirtuouscycle’doesnotappeartohavetakenrootinMalawi.FarminghouseholdsarepurchasingsomeGRinputs,butrealisingpotentialyieldsrequiresidealconditionsandthesearepresentnowhereinMalawi.Whetherthelimitingfactorsarelackofrainfall,weaksoils,lackofappropriateproductionsupport,chronicill-health,lackofaccesstocleanwaterorotherfactors,GRtechnologieswillalwaysperformsub-optimally.Thismeansthatyieldswillbelowerthanpotentialyieldsinidealcircumstances.Inturn,thismeansthathouseholdsmustuseagreatershareoftheirproducefortheirownconsumption.Finally,thismeanslessavailableproduceforsaleandthuslowerincomesthanareanticipatedintheGRtheory.
Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi xvii
Thisisborneoutintheresearch:thevastmajorityofhouseholdsappeartobecaughtinarelationshipofdependencyonGRinputs,inparticularsyntheticfertiliser.Itisapparentthatfertiliserandseedpricesareveryhighandareamajorconcernforfarminghouseholds.Atthesametime,householdsfeeltheneedtousetheseinputsjusttostayinthesameplace.Theremaybesomeyieldincreases,especiallywithmaize,butthemaintenanceoftheseyieldsrequiresacontinualrelianceonandexpansionofexternalinputs,atalong-termecologicalcost.Insteadofavirtuouscycleofincreasingprosperityforfarmers,weseeanegativecyclebasedonshort-termyieldimprovements,creatingadependencyontheseinputswhilegeneratinglong-termyieldstagnationanddecliningsoilfertility.ThesenegativeoutcomesallreinforcedependencyontheGRtechnologiesthatcontributedtotheprobleminthefirstplace.
EvenifmaizeyieldsarehigherusingGRtechnologies,thediversityofnutritionandtheall-yearproductionofagro-ecologicalsystemsgivethelattermuchgreaterdepth.Malawistillhasaregularhungryseasondespiteproductivityincreasesinmaize.Thisisrelatedtotheproductionandharvestofasinglecropeveryyear.4Supportforcropdiversificationanddifferentiatedyearroundproductioncanextendtherangeofnutrientsavailabletofarminghouseholds.
TobaccocompanyvaluechainfinancingandFISParekeymechanismsforproppingupthissystemofproduction.Inthetobaccovaluechainprimaryproducersarereliantontobaccoproductionasacashcrop.Butproducersareclearlyinaweakposition,relyingonbuyerstoprovideinputswhilecarryingtheproductionriskandreceivingonlyasmallportionofvalueadded.Tobaccomultinationalsaretheprimarybeneficiariesofthissystem.Themultinationalcorporations(MNCs)arepoliticallyverypowerfulandtheMalawiangovernmentisreliantontheindustryforalargeportionofitsforeignexchangeearnings.However,tobaccoasacropispoisonous—itdamagesthesoil,contributestodeforestationwhichinturn
leadstosoildegradationandincreasingCO2emissions,andlocksfarmersintoproductionsystemsthatarenotintheirlongterminterests.Inessence,tobaccoisananti-socialcropandMalawiandotherproducingcountriesintheregionshouldconsidersociallyandecologicallyjustalternativecropsandproductionsystemstoreplacetobacco.
FISPisanessentialelementintheexpansionofGRtechnologiesinMalawi.TheprogrammehasincreasedeffectivedemandforhybridmaizeseedandsyntheticfertiliserandcreatedaguaranteedmarketforMNCsinwhichtoprofit.FISPhasincreasedtheamountofmoneycirculatinginandoutofthefarmingsystem,butfarmersareinmuchthesamepositionastheywerebeforetheadventofFISP.Mostlytheirgainsarelimitedtorelativelyminoryieldincreases,withconcurrentlong-termnegativeconsequencesontheecology.Tomakemattersworse,themoneycomesinfrompublicexpenditurethroughthesubsidies(developmentaidaswellasAfricangovernments)andoutthroughprivatechannels(seedandfertilisercompanies).Effectivelythisispublicinvestmentforcorporategain,withseedandfertilisermultinationalsastheprimarybeneficiariesofthesystem.
GreenRevolutiontechnologiesaremakinginroadsintosmall-scalefarmingsystemsin
4.Interview,KristofNordin,NeverEndingFarms,Lilongwe,5Feb2014.
xviii A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O S A F E T Y
MalawisupportfromthepublicandfromphilanthropicinstitutionsincludingAGRA.Butfarminghouseholdsareengagedinarangeofagro-ecologicalpracticesthatformthematerialbasiswithinwhichtheGRembedsitself.ConservationAgricultureandIntegratedSoilFertilityManagement(ISFM)aregoodexamplesofabaseofagro-ecologicalpracticebeingusedtoadvanceGRtechnologies.Theresearchindicatesthatagro-ecologicalpracticesarewidespreadandthisoffersanopportunityforsystematicsupporttorealiseamoresustainableandequitablepathofagriculturaldevelopment.
Currentlyfertiliserisallocatedwithoutanyknowledgeofsoilnutrientneeds.Highlevelsofsyntheticfertiliserarebeingusedandfarmersaretrappedonthetreadmillofdependency.Thebestsolutionforthisisagradualweaningprocess,basedontheevidencethatothermethodsofmaintainingandimprovingsoilfertilitycanbeeffective.EventheproponentsofGRrecognisethecriticalimportanceofaddingorganiccontenttothesoil,asafundamentalbasisforimprovingfertility,yettheyareunwillingtoinvestinenhancingandexpandingthesepractices.
InagreementwithOlivierdeSchutter,weproposethatinputsubsidiestargetedatindividualsshouldbephasedoutandreplaced
withpublicinvestmentinextension,farmer-basedR&Dandbulkinfrastructuresuchaswaterandroadswithcollectivebenefit.AkeypartofpublicinvestmentsinR&Dandextensioncaninclude:identifying,prioritisingandsupportingworkaroundparticipatoryplantbreeding;participatoryvarietyselection;farmer-managedseedcertificationandqualityassurancesystems;identifyingandsupportingthedevelopmentoflocallyimportantcropsonthebasisofdecentralisedparticipatoryR&D;farmertofarmerexchanges;identifyingandexpandingthemeansofincreasingorganiccontentinthesoil;anorientationtonurturingsoillifeasthebasisofsoilfertility,orsoilhealthprogrammes:andsupportforagro-ecologicalmethodsofsoilimprovementandwaterretention.Inaddition,workonnitrogenfixingtreesandfoodtreescouldadvancesoilfertilityandfoodsecurityagendas.
ThusfarresearchhasshownthatwhileAGRAprogrammesarehavingarelativelysmallimpactonthethreestudysitessofar,AGRAcontributessignificantlytothebroaderGRthrust.FollowupresearchwillfocusinmoredetailonNASFAM’spigeonpeaprogrammeandotherseedrelatedissues,ontheCNFA-supportedagro-dealernetworksandonmonitoringandanalysingtheinterventionsoftheSSTP.