Post on 14-Dec-2015
RESEARCH IN EDUCATION &
Social Sciences
Dr. S. Abdul Ghaffar
Dr. Arbab Khan Afridi
In Collaboration With
MASTER COACHING ACADEMY (MCA)
(IER) UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
All rights reserved with the Author
Authors: Dr. S. A. Ghaffar
Dr. Arbab Khan Afridi
Book: Research in Education andSocial Sciences
1st Edition: May, 2005
2nd Edition: October, 2013
Composer: M. Nawaz Khan Abbasi
0333-9352585
Printers: Ijaz Printers, Peshawar
Quantity: 1000
Price: 150/-
Available at MCA Academy and leading book shops
Master_ca2013@yahoo.com
Contact: 091-5843361
Cell: 0300-5930899
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................ I
UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION...................................................................1
1.1 The Nature of Research 1
1.2 Need for Research in Education 7
1.3 Procedure/ Format of Eductional Research 8
1.4 The Scientific Method; Positivism and Naturalism 10
1.5 Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed-Method Research Designs 17
UNIT-2: SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM...................................20
2.1 Sources of Research Problem 20
2.2 Evaluating the Research Problem 21
2.3 Refining the Research Problem 22
2.4 Research Objectives 22
2.5 Research Questions 23
2.6 Research Hypotheses/ Hypotheses 24
2.7 Literature Review 26
UNIT-3: PREPARING RESEARCH PROPOSAL......................................28
3.1 The Research Purposes of Synopsis 28
3.2 Formats of the Research Report 28
3.3 What is a Research Plan or Proposal? 35
3.4 Elaboration of the Elements of the Research Plan / Proposal 36
UNIT-4: SAMPLING.........................................................................44
4.1 Rationale of Sampling 46
4.2 Steps in Sampling 46
4.3 Probability Sampling 48
4.4 Non – Probability Samples (Non-Representative Samples) 49
4.5 The Size of the Sample (Fundamentals) 50
i
4.6 The Concept of Sampling Error 50
UNIT-5: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH..............................................52
5.1 Research Ethics 52
5.2 Technical Issues in Assessment 54
UNIT-6: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH....................................................63
6.1 Introduction to Qualitative Research 63
6.1.1 Ethnography 63
6.1.2 Phenomenology 65
6.2.3 Case Study 68
6.1.4 Grounded Theory 71
6.1.5 Critical Research 73
6.1.6 Action Research 75
6.2 Non – Interactive Research 80
6.2.1 Content Analysis 80
6.2.2 Historical Research 81
6.3 The Historical Hypotheses 81
6.4 The Historical Report 82
UNIT-7: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH..................................................84
7.1 Experimental Research Design 84
7.1.1 True Experimental 84
7.1.2 Quasi Experimental Designs 89
7.1.3 Single Subject 92
7.2 Non – Experimental Research Designs 94
7.2.1 Descriptive 94
7.2.2 Comparative 95
7.2.3 Correlation 97
7.2.4 Survey 99
7.2.5 Secondary Data Analysis 102
ii
UNIT-8: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS.................................................107
8.1 Questionnaire 107
8.2 Interviews 116
8.3 Accounts 121
8.4 Observation 121
8.5 Tests and Appraisal Instrument 124
8.6 Personal Construct Theory 127
8.7 Scales 128
8.8 Anecdotal Records 131
UNIT-9: ANALYSIS OF DATA...........................................................134
9.1 Qualitative Data Analysis 134
9.2 Quantitative Data Analysis 139
UNIT-10: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING............................................145
10.1 Format of the Research Report 145
10.2 Voice and Point of View 151
10.3 Preparation of the Report 153
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................155
APPENDIX.......................................................................................159
II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen) 159
iii
Introduction
UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
Research in education and in social sciences has become basic
requirement of any academic programme at any level. The days
are gone when it was offered optional against any subject or
subjects. The recent trend in research development is towards
skill-orientation than knowledge orientation, towards more on
application of the skill than mere interpretation of theory. This
book is hoped to provide both knowledge and skill to our students
and research workers and also develop their critical attitude
towards understanding and seeking solution of educational and
social problems. The purpose of writing of this book is to enable
our students to become "good researchers" and for becoming
"good researchers" they need to acquire both knowledge and skill
in the fields they are expected to work and produce significant
results.
Good books in educational and social research have been produced
and are available only in libraries of elite institutions to which
access of every student and a faculty member is difficult if not
possible. Moreover, such books have been written in the specific
ideological, social, economic and educational situations of their
own countries. Dealing with our own specific situation in research
matters, will need extra efforts. Such consideration has been taken
in view while making this humble attempt.
Two broad fields as observed from the title of this book education
and social sciences have been integrated in this document with
specific objective of meeting the knowledge and skill needs of
educational as well as of social sciences research. It will not be an
1
Introduction
unnatural discussion, because the basic concepts in education and
in social sciences are common and are interlinked so far as the
goals and ideals of a particular society or a community is
concerned.
Educational research aims at to develop new scientific tools,
techniques, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable
and valid study of human behaviour in teaching-learning situation
in the school or in the classroom, while the social research aims at
to develop new scientific, tools, techniques and theories which
would facilitate reliable, and valid study of human behaviour in
the street i.e. society or social life. Social research like educational
research adopts a systematic method of explaining, analyzing and
conceptualizing social life in order to extend, correct or verify
knowledge. Basically there is no difference in the concept,
approach and in the spirit of these two approaches. The difference
is if any, may be relating to the situation i.e. inside the classroom
and outside the classroom. If an educational researcher seeks to
find explanation to an unsolved educational problem, the social
worker strives to find out explanation to an unexplained social
problem in the society. The educational ideals are inspired by the
ideals of the society for the achievement of which institutions are
established and these institutions are influenced by social, cultural
values and differences of the society. So, there is no 'dichotomy' in
education and social sciences. They are infact. two sides of the
same coin. Mahatma Gandhi once rightly said, "School is the
replica of society" Schools are established for preservation and
promotion of ideological, social, cultural, and also economic and
political ideals of the society. Therefore, the mutual discussion on
educational and social problems and seeking their solution through
2
Introduction
scientific methods will not be out of place for which the writing of
this book has been attempted.
The content of the book spreads over thirteen units, which are
briefly stated:
Unit-1: This unit describes the concept of educational and
social research. Important issues like the need and
importance of research, areas of educational and
social research, interrelationship of educational
and social research, educational and social
research defined by educationists and social
scientists.
Unit-2: This unit focuses on the concept of "social
reality", the characteristics of physical and social
phenomena, the problems and complexities in
social reality, which may have serious
implications for research. What challenges are
faced by social and educational researchers, have
also been pointed in this unit.
Unit-3: This unit is mostly concerned with scientific
method, characteristics of scientific research and
research process, comparison of qualitative and
quantitative approaches in research. Various
stages of research process have been stated in
detail in this unit.
Unit-4: This unit describes the classification of research
by purpose. Four kinds of research, basic, applied,
action and evaluation research have been
discussed in this unit.
3
Introduction
Unit-5: This unit is devoted to a wide and exclusive
discussion on hypotheses, definitions, importance,
characteristics, types and examples of formulating,
testing hypotheses.
Unit-6: This unit relates to critical discussion on
"historical research". Scope and method of
historical research, sources, their selection,
formulation of historical problems, historical
criticism, weaknesses identified and difficulties
encountered by researchers, the nature of
historical hypotheses and the manner a historical
research report is presented, have been described
in this unit.
Unit-7: This unit explains the nature and scope of
"descriptive research". The concept of descriptive
research, types of descriptive research,
comparison between social surveys and social
research, kinds of survey studies with reference to
educational problems, ex-post facto or causal
comparative studies, correlation studies,
developmental studies, growth studies, trend
studies, case studies and statistical method of
educational and social research etc have been
described in this unit.
Unit-8: This unit concentrates on another important type
of research that is "experimental research". The
concept of experiment and of experimental
research, experimental process, components of
experiment, variables, techniques of controlling
4
Introduction
extraneous variables, and types of experimental
validity etc have been discussed in this unit.
Unit-9: This unit highlights various "experimental
designs. Ten experimental designs from simple to
complex have been described which are mostly
relevant to be applied in experimental studies.
Unit-10: This unit focuses on the nature and use of various
tools of research. The popular types of tools used
in educational and social research like sampling,
questionnaire, interview schedule, observation and
tests etc have been described in this unit.
Unit-11: This unit is devoted to discussion on preparation
of "research plan or proposal". Its need and
importance major components of the proposal,
various steps taken in formulation of the plan,
have been discussed.
Unit-12: This unit reflects the general nature of the research
report, chapter wise content of the research report,
other characteristics relating to the presentation of
the research report in appropriate manner, have
been described in this unit.
Unit-13: This unit is exclusively devoted to highlight the
important but the critical issues relating to the
organization of the content of the thesis and
dissertation. The discussion is divided into four
sections. All these sections explain the pros and
cons' of writing a thesis in a more applied and
skillful manner. The main purpose of writing of
this unit is to develop knowledge, and skill in our
5
Introduction
students of writing a research report which
observing all the required standard formalities.
Important examples have been given in the form
of Appendices at the end of this book. These
include specimens of preliminary pages and
research proposals or synopsis for our perspective
researchers.
As the writer is associated with Allama Iqbal Open University for
supervising its M.Phil and Ph.D students for a long time, the
material support extended to the writer for this purpose, has
greatly facilitated to enrich the content of this book, for which the
writer is highly indebted.
The important feature of this book is that it is written according to
the courses in research techniques, offered almost in all
departments of Arts and Social Sciences. More particularly the
contents are related to the courses in research in vogue in the
Institute of Education and Research, Sociology and Anthropology
Department, University of Peshawar who have kindly collaborated
in the provision of material for the preparation of this book.
Time and resources were constraints facing the writer. Selection of
content appropriate to the subject was an other problem.
Consequently, large margins have been left for improvement of
this document in future. Therefore, readers are requested to kindly
examine the book critically, identify weaknesses and forward
valuable suggestions for improvement and revision of the book so
that it could be reproduced in a more meaningful and acceptable
manner in future.
The writing of this book is mainly attributed to the encouragement
and assistance of the writers colleagues and friends Prof. Arbab
6
Introduction
Khan Afridi, M. Arshad Ali, Mohammad Rauf IER and Dr. Rashid
Khan, Sociology and Social Anthropology Department, University
of Peshawar.
1.2 NEED FOR RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Research is a purposeful activity. It creates new knowledge and
expands the frontier of the existing knowledge. If research adds to
the existing knowledge, it is done in an orderly and systematic
manner. It is tested, validated and generalized and utilized when
need arises.
Research and progress are correlated, interrelated and
interdependent. Research is an essential tool in leading man
towards progress and prosperity. Research infact, has stimulated
socio-economic, scientific and technological development in the
world over. Information Technology (IT) once benefited by
research, is now revolutionizing and innovating research activities.
Research and development (R&D) are now synonymously used by
the policy makers and planners particularly in developing
countries like Pakistan. Even the secret of our cultural
development lies in the promotion of research, which breaks away
the boundaries of ignorance and superstition and open avenues of
enlightment, truth and better ways of life. The "blessings" of
research are evident in the form of countless discoveries and
inventions, which have dramatically changed our individual and
social life. If the goal of research is progress and prosperity,
happier and fuller life, then it must be accorded top priority in the
national plans of development and must be adequately supported
by `political will' and liberal financial resources. The
discriminatory policy as has been pursued between basic sciences
research and social sciences research, should be given up. 'Human
7
Introduction
development' as a human being is more important than the
development of physical infrastructure.
1.3 PROCEDURE/ FORMAT OF EDUCTIONAL RESEARCH
Various design/format or components of the research plan
or proposal have been suggested by research experts. A few of
them are outlined below:
(i) According to L.R Gay (1992) the following components
comprise a research plan have been suggested
a. Introduction
Statement of problem
Review of the literature
Statement of Hypotheses
b. Method
Subjects
Instrument
Design
Procedure
c. Data Analysis
d. Time schedule
e. Budget (if appropriate)
(ii) Format/Design Suggested by Allama Iqbal Open
University Islamabad, Important Components are:
a. Statement of the problem
8
Introduction
b. Purpose/objectives of the study
c. Definitions, assumptions and limitations
d. Review of the related literature
e. Theoretical framework
f. Hypotheses and questions
g. Proposed research procedure
h. Time frame
i. Proposed budget (if required)
(iii) An outline of Research Proposed by John. W. Best
a. Statement of the problem
b. The hypotheses
c. The significance of the problem
d. Definitions, assumptions and limitations
e. A resume for related literature
f. A careful and detailed analysis of proposed research
g. A time schedule
(iv) Looking into various FORI’VIATS of the research
proposed, the following pattern of research plan is
suggested by the author. It contains the following
elements
a. Statement of the problem
b. Objectives of the study
c. Method
d. Significance of the study
9
Introduction
e. Definitions, Abbreviations, assumptions limitations
f. Review of the related literature
g. Theoretical framework
h. Hypotheses/key questions
i. Research method and procedure
j. Time schedule
k. Proposed budget (if desired)
These elements of as research proposal are elaborated in the next
section so that students could be able to understand how to explain
each and every element of the plan according to nature of the
problem.
1.4 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD; POSITIVISM AND NATURALISM
1.4.1 Assumptions and Postulates
The scientific method has been evolved out of strenuous efforts by
scientists for the solution of problems. There are assumption on
which the conceptual framework of scientific method is based.
These assumptions directly, influence researcher's activity. They
form the basis for his procedures, influence the methods of
executing them and affect the interpretation of his findings. For
example, there is uniformity in the nature, the nature is not a
chaotic mass of isolated factors. In nature, there are objects,
events, processes and having stricking likeness or similarities.
There is relative permanency and orderliness in nature and that all
natural phenomena are detennined. All these assumptions have
10
Introduction
facilitated the work of a scientist and are playing indispensable
role in research.
1.4.2 Scientific Method
Gone are the days when people acquired knowledge by 'trial and
error' method and when authority, traditions, opinions of scholars
and of experts, deductive and inductive reasoning were the main
source of acquiring knowledge. Now the modem method of
acquiring knowledge is based on observed facts and on the
combination of inductive and deductive thought process.
In scientific method, purposeful facts are collected, premises are
tested and reflective thinking are engaged. According to John
Dewey five stages are involved in the act of problem solving.
a. A felt difficulty
b. Location and definition of the felt difficulty
c. Suggested solution of the problem/hypothesis
d. Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the
suggested solutions
e. Testing the hypotheses by action
The scientific method of reflective thinking is a tool that
investigators use to solve diverse types of problems. For example,
a pure research worker will try to find out new knowledge about
the mysteries of the universe. An applied researcher will seek to
develop a new product that can immediately improve some
existing condition. A classroom teacher will intend to solve certain
practical problem through undertaking action research.
Man had made tremendous progress in developing better methods
of seeking knowledge down through the ages and thus
revolutionary advances have been made by scientists in the past
11
Introduction
century. The tentative solutions to problems forwarded by
scientific method are accepted with greater confidence. Scientific
method is a purposeful and practical "torchlight for men to use in
lighting the way to the discovery of new truth".
1.4.3 Application of Scientific Method in Education and Other Social Sciences
As already stated research is a formal, systematic application of
the scientific method to the study of the problems. Educational and
social research is thus a formal, systematic application of the
scientific method to the study of educational and social problems.
However, there are differences between educational and social
research and other scientific research. The difference is of the
phenomena studied. It is considerably more difficult to explain,
predict and control situations involving human beings as the most
complex of all organisms. There are so many variables known and
unknown operating in any educational or social environment that
is extremely difficult to generalize or to replicate findings. The
kinds of controls that can be established and maintained for
example in a biochemistry laboratory are virtually impossible in an
educational or social setting. Observation is also more difficult in
educational and social research. Perhaps it is precisely the
difficulty and complexity of educational and social research that
make them such a challenging and exciting fields.
The main steps involved in conducting research look familiar since
they are directly parallel those of the scientific method such as
there are:
a. Selection and definition of a problem
b. Execution of a research procedure
c. Analysis of data and
12
Introduction
d. Drawing and stating conclusion
1.4.4 Limitations of Scientific Method
There are certain limitations in scientific method, which are briefly
stated.
a. Despite the improvements man has made in searching for
knowledge, he has not yet arrived at a perfect method for
seeking answers to his questions. Authority, experience,
inductive and deductive reasoning have certain limitations
as research tools. The scientific method has proved to be
specially useful means of seeking knowledge in the
method of sciences and it has also been helpful to
educators and social workers to probe into problems but a
scientific method is not suitable instrument for seeking
answers to certain type of questions. James B. Conant
once declared, "Only an occasional brave man will be
found now a days to claim that the so called scientific
method is applicable to the solution of almost all the
problems of daily life in the modern world".
b. Authorities have not reached a common agreement
concerning the breadth of the applicability of the scientific
method.
c. Some critics contend that scientific method cannot be used
except in the natural sciences. Other question whether the
scientific method follows a simple method of
investigation. They believe that no right set of logical rules
can be established for physical scientist, psychologists and
educationists and historians to follow in their respective
investigations. Some critics argue that since science differs
13
Introduction
from one another, each science requires a different
method.
Controversy exists concerning the nature and use of the scientific
method, but most scholars regard this intellectual tools as one of
the most promising instruments that man possesses for pushing
forward the frontier of human understanding and increasing the
accumulation of tested and verified knowledge.
Research is a scientific process. It enjoys all the characteristics of
science and scientific method. These characteristics can be derived
from various definitions described in the preceding section,
however, these are stated separately in the following lines.
a. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
The ultimate goal is to discover 'cause' and 'effect'
relationship between variables.
b. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting
future occurrences.
c. Research is based upon observations, experiences or on
empirical evidence.
d. Research demands an accurate observation and
description.
e. Research involves gathering new data from primary or
first hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
f. Research is often characterized by carefully designed
procedures that apply rigorous logical analysis.
g. Research requires expertise.
h. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved
problems and pushing back the frontiers of ignorance.
i. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried
activity. It is rarely spectacular and researchers sometimes
14
Introduction
will face disappointment and discouragement when they
pursue the answers to difficult questions or dealing with
complicated situation.
j. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Each
important point is defined, limiting factors are recognized,
procedures are described in detail, references are carefully
documented, results are objectively recorded and
conclusions are drawn with scholarly caution and restraint.
k. Research requires courage and steadfastness.
l. Research involves the elements of observation and
description and analysis of what happens under certain
circumstances.
m. Research places emphasis upon development of sound
theories and more upon the discovery of general principles
that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
n. Research is more than compiling, collecting and tabulating
data. It involves deducing the consequences of hypotheses
through careful observation and application of rigorous
logic.
o. Research is about establishing facts. It is objective. It is
scientific and it is always policy oriented.
p. Research involves an analysis of the relationship between
causes and effects, which imply the possibilities of an
empirical testing.
q. The research is highly purposive because it is directed
towards the solution of a problem; it originates from the
researcher's need to find an answer to a question.
r. The research is systematic in the sense that a researcher
identifies and defines the problem, formulates hypotheses,
collects, analyzes and interprets data and draws conclusion
or makes generalizations.
15
Introduction
s. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible
test to validate the procedures employed, data collected
and the conclusion reached. The researcher strives to
eliminate personal feelings and bias. The emphasis is on
testing matter rather than providing the hypotheses.
t. Research is a systematic and objective analysis and
recording of controlled observation that may lead to the
development of a generalization, principles or theories
resulting in prediction.
u. The basic characteristics shared by all types of research
are that they are to be planned, cautions, systematic and
reliable ways of finding out the solution of problems or
deepening understanding of the phenomena under
investigation.
Summary or Key-Points
The characteristics of scientific research described, are
summarized below.
A Scientific research is:
Highly purposive
Systematic
Critical, logical and objective
Accurate
Involving formulation and testing of hypotheses
Recording and reporting data in quantitative terms
Discovering general principles or arriving at
generalization
Requiring expertise
Future and policy-oriented
A strenuous and pains taking job
16
Introduction
Follows through carefully designed procedure
Discovering 'cause' and effect relationship
Directed towards the solution of a problem
It expands the frontiers of knowledge
1.5 QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND MIXED-METHOD RESEARCH DESIGNS
As indicated at several instances that educational and social
problems need solution. For solution of such problems different
methods or approaches are adopted. A researcher must be aware of
such methods or approaches. There are different approaches such
as qualitative, quantitative, field study, library, experimental etc.
In this section, only qualitative and quantitative methods or
approaches will be discussed. It is better to be comparatively
described so that their need, importance, nature and the manner
researchers are conducted through these modalities could be
comprehended by research students.
Qualitative Vs Quantitative Research Approaches
Qualitative Research Quantitative ResearchApproach Approach
a. Qualitative approaches involve the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into phenomena of interest. The data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of a verbal hypothesis.
a. Quantitative approach involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and control phenomena of interest. The data analysis is mainly statistical
b. Qualitative approach involves primarily induction
b. Quantitative approach primarily involves deduction
c. If hypothesis are involved a c. If hypotheses are involved a
17
Introduction
qualitative study is much more likely to generate them
quantitative study is much more likely to test them
d. In qualitative approach there is no such thing as value free inquiry
d. In quantitative research the researchers try to be totally objective i.e. value free
e. At operational level qualitative researchers are more holistic and process
e. Quantitative approaches are more focused and outcome oriented oriented
f. Qualitative researchers typically study many variables intensely over a period of time in order to find out the way things are, how and why they come to be that way and what it all measure? Qualitative researchers are more concerned with the meaning of their findings
f. Quantitative researches conversely typically concentrate on one or small number of variables in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationships including cause and effect relationships. They are more concerned with the generalizability of their findings then with the meaning of their findings
g. Qualitative researchers do not want to intervene or to control anything they want to study phenomena as they are in natural settings
g. Quantitative researchers on the other hand often intervene and attempt to control as many variables as possible
h. Quantitative researchers conducted to promote greater understanding of not just the way things are but also why?
h. Qualitative research is are not just concerned with describing the way things are but also gaining insight into how things got to be the way things are, how people feel about the way things are, what they believe and what meaning they attach to various activities?
18
Introduction
19
Selection of Research Problem
UNIT-2: SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
2.1 SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Now the question is what are the qualities of a good research
problem. The qualities attributed to a good research problem are:
It is not too broad
It is manageable
It is not too subjective
It is not too controversial
It should not be too familiar
It is not too technical
It should express relationship between two or
more variables
It should be stated clearly and unambiguously
preferably in question form
It should be such as implies or permits
possibilities or empirical testing
It must be new and novel
It is researchable
It has theoretical as well practical significances
It should be justified in terms of its contribution to
educational theory or practice
20
Selection of Research Problem
It is a good problem in the sense that the
researcher possesses the research skill, available
resources and time
2.2 EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Evaluation research is sometimes called as program evaluation,
which refers to a research purpose rather than a specific method.
Prior to the selection of problem by the researcher it is
recommended to ask a series of inter connected questions
regarding the topic because these questions will greatly help the
researchers in personal satisfaction and suitability and will also
know about the social value of the selected topic (Farooq, 2001).
Some of these questions are:
Is the selected problem a researchable one or not?
The researcher select such topic which are reasonable because
there are some issues which are answered by the systematic
approach / research like philosophical and ethical questions.
Is the selected problem a novel?
The researcher should select such topic which is fresh and no
study had been conducted on that very topic. To avoid duplications
the researcher must study the previous topics because if he select
the topic in which already many researches had conducted then the
researcher is giving needles time to the current selected topic.
Is the hitch considerable?
This purpose is to evaluate the impact of social interventions such
as new approaches in teaching, innovations in parole, and a host of
21
Selection of Research Problem
others. Evaluation research is a form of applied research which is
intended to have some real-world effect.
Will the clarification of the selected problem may be helpful in the promotion of further study?
The problem which is selected for the study by the researcher
should not be an end but this should pave way to further study and
unlock various other milieu for the study.
2.3 REFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Prior to the starting of the research, it is the major responsibility of
the researcher to check out that whether the study which s/he is
going to conduct is feasible or not. Various types of questions are
arising in the mind of the researcher and the best way is to make a
list of these questions and then check it with the topic. The most
relevant questions should be selected and subject for study.
2.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This study will be directed by the following objectives:
a. To analyze in depth the government policies and initiatives on
the development of elementary education in the country.
b. To analyze in detail the policy and programmes of the
provincial government on the development of elementary
education in the region.
c. To analyze the specific situation contributing towards
disparities in the development of elementary education in the
province.
22
Selection of Research Problem
d. To analyze the specific situation of the development of
elementary education in Nowshera District.
e. To propose an “Action Plan” for improving of the situation
with special reference to removing the existing disparities in
elementary education and achieving the targets laid in the
National Policy for 2010.
2.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The statement of the hypotheses or key questions to be answered
in the investigation complete the fourth stage of the procedure
guide such as the problem statement formulated, conceptual
framework sharpened the focus of study, the objectives narrowed
further the investigation and the statement of hypotheses/questions
formulated.
The statement of the hypotheses and questions is actually a two-
steps process i.e. selecting the key questions appropriate to the
objectives and operationalizing the definitions that will be
employed for the major variables in the study in preparation for
describing the design, instrumentation and analysis appropriate to
the inquiry.
It may be advisable to formulate a major hypothesis and several
minor hypotheses. This clarifies the nature of the problem and the
rationale behind the method adopted for collection of data. The
hypotheses should first be stated in positive or in literacy form. For
example “participation in extra-curricular activities by students of
ix-x classes adversely affect their academic performance in Board
Examination” later on in the chapter on research methodology, the
statistical hypotheses should be stated in negative or null form.
Such as “There is no significant difference between the academic
23
Selection of Research Problem
performance of Board Examination of those who participate and
those who do not participate in extra curricular activities in classes
ix-x”.
A good hypothesis has the following characteristics:
It is researchable
It is consistent with known facts or theories
It is stated in such a form as to permit testing and
validation/rejection
It is stated in simplest possible form
It is important that the hypotheses be formulated before
data are gathered
The formulation of hypotheses in advance of data gathering
process is necessary for an unbiased investigation.
2.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES/ HYPOTHESES
What is hypothesis? It has been defined by various educationists
and research experts. A few of such definitions are given below;
According to Fred N. Karlinger (1983) hypothesis is a conjectural
statement, a tentative proposition about the relation between two
or more phenomena or variables. For example a scientist will say,
“if such and such occurs then so and so results”.
In view of Cohen M. (1956) hypothesis is a conjectural statement
of the relation between two or more variables.
John W. Best (1982) defines hypothesis as a tentative answer to a
question. It is a hunch or an educated guess to be subjected to the
process of verification or disconfirmation.
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Selection of Research Problem
Van Dalen (1978) says that hypotheses are suggested problem
solutions, which are expressed as generalizations or propositions.
They are statements consisting of elements expressed in an orderly
system of relationships, which seek to explain conditions or events
that have not yet even been confirmed by facts.
According to L.R. Gay (1992) hypothesis is a tentative explanation
for certain behaviour, phenomena of events that have occurred or
will occur. He further says that a hypothesis states the researcher’s
expectations concerning the relationship between the variables in
the research problem. A hypothesis is the most specific statement
of a problem. It states what the researcher thinks the outcome of
the study will be.
Good and Hatt maintains that a hypothesis looks forward. It is a
preposition to be put to test to determine its validity. It may prove
to be correct or incorrect.
In view of James B. Creighton, hypothesis is a tentative
supposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the
situation under observation.
In the words of A. Lumbery, hypothesis is a tentative
generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested in its
imaginative idea which leads to further investigation.
Barr and Scaled define hypothesis as a statement temporarily
accepted as true in the light of what is at the time known about a
phenomena and it is employed as a basis for action in the search
for new truth, when the hypothesis is fully established it may take
the form of facts, principles of theories.
Carter V. Good defines hypothesis as an informed guess or
inference with a reasonable chance of being right, formulated and
25
Selection of Research Problem
tentatively adopted to explain observed facts or conditions to guide
in future investigation.
George G. Mouly observes that hypothesis is an assumption or
proposition whose testability is to be listed on the basis of the
compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and with
previous knowledge.
Walter J. Borg says that hypothesis reflects the research worker’s
guess as to be probable outcome of the experiment.
J.C. Aggrawal (1991) simply defines hypothesis as a proposition
to be put to test to determine its validity.
In short a hypothesis is an informed and shrewed guess, inference
or supposition, hunch or a tentative generalization as to the
existence of some facts, condition or relationship relative to some
phenomena which serves to explain such facts as already are
known to exist in a given area of research and to guide the research
for new truth.
2.7 LITERATURE REVIEW
A separate section is written on this requirement. However, its
need, importance is briefly described in this section.
After identification and definition of the problem and before
formulation of hypotheses, a critical review or analysis of the
related literature is essential for researcher, because without such
exercise, a researcher cannot form the basis for a final statement of
research hypotheses or objectives of the study. This stage should
not be ignored in the process of research.
The review of the literature is very important in the sense that it
involves the systematic identification, location, and analysis of the
26
Selection of Research Problem
documents containing information related to the research problem.
In fact, the review determines what has already been done that
relates to the problem. Such knowledge not only avoids
unintentional duplication but also provides the understanding and
insight necessary for the development of logical framework into
which the research problem fits. The review not only provides a
rationale for the research hypotheses but also provides a
justification for the study. Moreover, it helps the research to
evolve strategies, procedure and measuring instrument for the
study.
In short, a research, which is not based on a thorough review of
relevant literature, may remain a deficient and an isolated study.
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Preparing Research Proposal
UNIT-3: PREPARING RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3.1 THE RESEARCH PURPOSES OF SYNOPSIS
A research plan serves several purposes such as:
a. It makes researcher to think through every step or aspect of the
study
b. It facilitates evaluation of the proposed study
c. It also allows others to identify flaws to make suggestions for
its improvement
d. It provide a guide and guidelines for conducting a study
e. A well-thought plan saves times, energy and resources of the
researcher
f. It reduces the probability of costly mistakes and generally
results in higher quality of research
g. It reduces the chances of researcher’s “trial and error”
approach while undertaking the study
h. It permits the researcher to assess the overall impact of any
changes in the study as a whole
3.2 FORMATS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
As already indicated various formats or styles are adopted by
researchers for writing or presentation of the research report.
Allama Iqbal Open University in its book Educational Research
and Statistics (EPM: 1990) has suggested the following format to
be followed by its students.
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Preparing Research Proposal
(i) Format Recommended by Allama Iqbal Open University
A. Preliminary Section or Front Matters
a. Title of the study
b. Acknowledgement
c. Table of content
d. List of tables
e. Abstract
B. Main Body of the Report
Chapter-1: Nature and Background of the Study
a. Statement of the problem
b. Reasons for making the study
c. Review of the related literature
d. Further elaboration of the problem
e. General hypotheses
Chapter-2: Method of Study and Presentation of Data
a. Actual steps followed in the course of research
b. Instrument used for collection of data
c. Validity and reliability of the instrument
d. Population and sample studied
e. Description of the evidence gathered
f. Summary of data
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Preparing Research Proposal
Chapter-3: Summary and Conclusion
It contains a brief recapitulation on the entire study and
presents briefly arguments and data supporting the
conclusion drawn from the interpretation of data.
Chapter-4: Recommendations
In this chapter, the researcher makes recommendations
about actions to be taken to use the new knowledge
discovered in the study.
C. References
Appendix:
(ii) Format Recommended by L.R. Gay (1992)
L.R. Gay in his book Educational Research (1992) has suggested
the following “Format” for the presentation of the research report.
A. Preliminary Pages
Title of the study
Acknowledgement
Table of content
List of tables and figures
Abstract
B. Main Body of the Report
Chapter-I: Introduction
a. Statement of the problem
b. Review of the Related Literature
c. Statement of the Hypotheses
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Preparing Research Proposal
Chapter-2: Method
a. Subjects
b. Instrument
c. Design
d. Procedure
Chapter-3: Results
a. Discussion/COncluSi01 and Recommendations
b. References/Bibliography
c. Appendex
(iii) Format” Forwarded by John W. Best in his books Research in Education
(1982) for Presentation of Research Report
A. Preliminary Section or Front Matters
Title page
Acknowledgement
Table of content
List of tables
List of Figures
B Main Body of the Report
Chapter-I: Introduction
Statement of the problem
Significance of the study/problem
Purposes of the study
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Preparing Research Proposal
Assumptions and Limitation
Definitions of important terms
Chapter-2: Review of the Related Literature or Analysis of
Previous Researches
Chapter-3: Design of the Study
Procedure used
Sources of data
Method of gathering data
Description of data gathering instrument used
Chapter-4: Presentation and Analysis of Data
Text
Tables
Figures
Chapter-5: Summary and Conclusions
Re-statement of the problem
Description of procedure used
Principal Findings and conclusions
Recommendations for further Researches
C. References Section
Bibliography
Appendex
(iv)" “Format” Usually Adopted by the Author with some Modification, is stated below:
A. Preliminary Section/Front Matters
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Preparing Research Proposal
Title of the study
Bismillah (in Arabic Words)
Dedication (if desired)
Declaration (Required by AIOU)
Approval Sheet (by supervisor)
Forwarding sheet (by supervisor)
Acknowledgement
Table of content
List of tables (if any)
List of Figures (if any)
List of Graphs (if any)
Abstract
B. Main Body of the Report
Chapter-I: Introduction
a. Background of the study
b. Statement of the study
c. Objectives of the study
d. Significance of the study
e. Assumptions underlying the study
f. Delimitation of the problem
g. Hypotheses or key questions to be answered in the
study
h. Definition of terms/abbreviations used
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Preparing Research Proposal
Chapter-2: Review of the Related Literature
In this chapter, the related literature is reviewed which,
provides further justification for the research and the
knowledge which is related to those aspects of the problem
with which the research deals.
Chapter-3: Method and Procedure of the Study/Design of
the Study
Actual steps followed in course of research
Preparation/construction of instruments
Validity and reliability of instrument
Population and sample studied/selected
Characteristics of sample
Chapter-4: Analysis of Data
The data collected is organized, tabulated and interpreted
accordingly. If tables are long, they are placed in
Appendix and their interpretation is presented in the text.
Chapter-5: Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
Major findings are drawn
Conclusions are made
Recommendations are forwarded for correction or
improving the situation
C. References Section
Bibliography
Appendex
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Preparing Research Proposal
3.3 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PLAN OR PROPOSAL?
Development of a research plan or proposal is critical step in
conducting research. Having formulated specific hypotheses, it is
necessary to carefully delineate the method and procedure to be
followed in testing them. occasionally it will become apparent in
formulating a plan that the proposed study is not feasible in its
present form. That decision is best made before the researchers
have extended considerable time and energy on a study which
cannot be properly executed.
The research plan has been defined by various specialists such as
according to L.R. Gay (1992) a research plan is a detailed
description of a proposed study designed to investigate a selected
problem. It includes justification for hypotheses to be tested, a
detailed presentation of the research steps that will be followed in
collecting and analyzing data and a projected time schedule for
each major step. It also includes proposed budget if it is submitted
to a funding agency.
According to John W. Best (1982) the “proposal” is comparable to
the blue print which the architect prepare before work on a
building is started. The initial draft proposal is subject to
modification in the light of the analysis by the student and his
adviser. Since good research must be planned and systematically
carried out, procedures that is improvised from step to step, will
not suffice. A worth whole research project is likely to result only
from a well-designed proposal.
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Preparing Research Proposal
3.4 ELABORATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH PLAN / PROPOSAL
a. Statement of the Problem
In the words of Dr. JR. Hassan (1990) one of the unholy joys one
feels as Pakistani researcher is the realization that what a fertile
land Pakistan is for research”. There are in fact, unlimited number
of problems to be investigated by researcher. Research students
usually are not taking pains to identifS’ certain important problems
for research. Even they show lack of “insight” or they are
“problem blind”. The research proposal may be considered as
responses to a problem, because that is what research really is. The
deficiency or weakness which is usually observed in a research
proposal is the lack of a clear problem statement to define and
guide the inquiry. The problem statement should be adequate to
define, guide and conduct systematic research.
(i) Qualities of a Good Research Problem
Now the question is what are the qualities of a good research
problem. The qualities attributed to a good research problem are:
It is not too broad
It is manageable
It is not too subjective
It is not too controversial
It should not be too familiar
It is not too technical
It should express relationship between two or
more variables
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Preparing Research Proposal
It should be stated clearly and unambiguously
preferably in question form
It should be such as implies or permits
possibilities or empirical testing
It must be new and novel
It is researchable
It has theoretical as well practical significances
It should be justified in terms of its contribution to
educational theory or practice
It is a good problem in the sense that the
researcher possesses the research skill, available
resources and time
(ii) Qualities of a Research Statement
Qualities of a statement of the problems are:
A statement of the problem is the first component of the
introduction of both a research plan and a research report
of a completed study. Since the problem statement gives
direction to the rest of the plan or report, it should be
stated as soon as possible. The statement of the problem
should be accompanied by a presentation of the
background of the problem including justification of the
study in terms of the significance of the problem.
Background of and the problem means information
required for an understanding of the problem
A statement of the problem indicates interest of the
researcher in the problem and the specific relationship
between those variables which is to interpreted
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Preparing Research Proposal
A statement of the problem also defines all relevant
variable either directly or operationally
Objectives of the Study
When the problem has been selected and its theoretical, framework
determined, the * step is to state the purposes, objectives and
significance of the study. Research is always undertaken in
response to a problem. Accordingly the purpose of the study is
always to understand better more possible solutions of the
problem.
Free floating objectives, and objectives without criteria add no
new knowledge to the one already known. Therefore, objectives
should be carefully thought out and they must be involved from
the theoretical framework and confirm to the criteria laid down for
the relationship to be established amongst a set of variables.
Significance of the Study
Related to the purposes or objectives of the study is the question of
significance of the study which could warrant an urgency and
justifying its worth. The researcher should indicate how the answer
to the question or solution to the problem can influence
educational theory or practices. The researcher should be sure that
he/she is not wasting time, energy and resources on trivial,
irrelevant and superficial investigation.
Definitions, Abbreviations, Assumptions and Limitations
(i) Definitions and Abbreviations
In this section the research student provides definitions of all such
terms being used in the statement of the problem as are ambiguous
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Preparing Research Proposal
and likely to misinterpreted. The definitions of these terms help to
establish or sharpen the frame of reference with which the
researcher approaches the problem. The researcher should also
explain the abbreviations, which would be used in the study.
(ii) Assumptions and Limitations
The assumptions that the researcher has made, should be stated.
He should not make a long list of such assumptions. He should
also clearly and frankly state the limitations or short comings of
his study. This will not reduce the significance of the study but
will provide more confidence in the solution of the problem.
Review of the Literature
A review of the literature is an integral part of the study. It should
not be taken as luxury. It provides researcher “insight” into the
problem, broaden his horizon of the nature of the problem and
prevents him from repetition and duplication and overlapping of
his research efforts, while reviewing related literature, a resume or
a brief summary of previous researches and writings of the
recognized experts provide evidence that researcher is familiar
with what is already done and with what is still to be done. In
reviewing other researches, the researcher should specifically look
into matters like the nature of problem, design of the study,
population. variables, deficiencies and suggestions for further
researches. Preferably the review should include a summary of the
areas of ‘agreement’ and ‘disagreement’ in findings.
Theoretical Framework
The concept of theoretical framework has been defined as a set of
concepts, variables and relationship with in which the problem is
39
Preparing Research Proposal
formulated and solved. It has been further explained by Dr. I.H.
Hassan in the following words.
“Neither can a problem be formulated, nor can adequate research
design be developed, except within a specified theoretical
framework. What is meant by framework is a conceptual or
theoretical frame which every researcher has to adopt to view a
problem and find a solution. Implicitly or explicitly every inquirer
adopts his own pair of glasses through which he views the
problems and within that perspective identified and orders the
variables on which he will concentrate his attention (Ed Research
1999 p.92).
The concept of theoretical framework can better be explained
through answering such questions.
a. Which factors are most responsible for the solution of a
problem?
b. How to restrict the study?
c. How to restrict the population? from which a sample is
selected?
d. How to restrict the variables so as to make a meaningful study
possible?
e. How to sharpen the focus and increase clarity?
f. In simple words what should be included and what should be
excluded?
In short, such focalization, clarification and exclusion are essential
in the process of choosing a theoretical framework and should be
decided explicitly and rationally before initiating the study
otherwise the study will be obscure and vague and the researcher
will be confused.
40
Preparing Research Proposal
The study of related literature is therefore, important in the sense
that in developing a research design, it helps the researcher to
realize how many facts of the problem do exist and what other
conceptual framework has been applied to solve the problem
earlier.
Proposed Research Method/Procedure
In this section of the research proposal, an outline of the research
plan or procedure should be given. The research plan or procedure
deals with the variables to be measured, the population to be
sampled, the measuring devices to be adopted and the procedure to
be used, in analyzing the data. The validity and reliability of data
gathering devices should be critically evaluated and the limitations
if any, should be pointed. Let us take for example a researcher is
interested to conduct research on the “job preferences of high
school students”. The outline of the research proposal shall have to
detail or specify.
How many schools shall be selected?
From which area schools should be selected?
Would an equal number rural and urban schools be
selected?
Would an equal number of boys and girls high schools be
sampled?
How many students studying in these high schools be
chosen?
How shall the job preference of students be obtained?
Shall a questionnaire be administered?
How the data thus collected, be analyzed?
41
Preparing Research Proposal
Shall any attempt be made to obtain the aspirations of
parents of sample students be correlated?
From the above example, it is observed that the proposed
procedure describes what must be done and how will be done?
What data will be needed? And what gathering device will be
employed with evaluation of their validity and reliability? How
sources will be selected and how the data will be analyzed and
conclusion reached?
(i) Time Schedule
A schedule should be prepared so that the researcher may budget
his time and energy effectively. Dividing the project/study into
parts/phases and assigning dates for the completion of each part
helps to systematize the project/study and minimize the natural
tendency to procrastinate.
The preparation of work plan with definite dates/goals is most
important because the academic research project usually involves
critical time limitation and definite deadlines for submitting the
complete report.
The preparation of the schedule also allows the advisor of the
student to monitor the progress of his work. Thus it serves as a
stimulus helping the researcher to proceed systematically towards
the goal of completing the project with the deadline set by the
degree awarding institution.
Conclusion
The ultimate objective of this chapter is to familiarize the research
students of steps to be taken towards the formulation of their
research outline or proposal. Various steps have been discussed
but for which specific care and attention are needed, are the
42
Preparing Research Proposal
preparation of a statement of the problem, conceptualizing the
theoretical framework, formulating hypotheses and designing an
appropriate research procedure.
43
Sampling
UNIT-4: SAMPLING
The Basic Minimum Needs (BMN) Project was initiated through
collaborative efforts of the provincial government and WHO in a
small union council of MandorilJabbi in the area of Nizampur
District Nowshera North-West-Frontier Province in 1994. About
14000 people of the area live below the poverty line in the target
area. The village Jabbi having population of 6588 was selected on
the basis of being most backward area and the availability of
potential resources to be developed as the pilot site for the
implementation of BMN programme. Later on the BMN activities
were extended to other five adjoining villages including Mandori.
The BMN is an innovative and bold initiative of human resource
development. It aims at to alleviate the poverty of the people and
promises a better quality of life. The priorities set in the project are
the solution of irrigation problem, introduction of cash crops,
development of diary activities, starting forestation of land in the
target village. So far as education and health are concerned, a
general assessment of the situation has been made by the planners
and ‘grey areas’ have been identified for improvement. The project
is in its second phase of implementation indicating encouraging
impact on the improvement of socio-economic situation of the
village. Such impact is attributed to the financial support of WHO,
community share, and bottom up planning of self-management and
community participation.
As revealed from the BMN project, Jabbi village holds 1830 (997
male and 833 female) population of schools going children 25.0
percent of which are enrolled in six primary schools (4 for boys
and 2 for girls). The situation is grave. Children dropout for
various reasons. The main contributing factors are poverty,
44
Sampling
malnutrition, other physical disabilities, lack of instructional
facilities, poor scholarship and unstimulating school environment.
Teachers academic and professional preparation is low. The
phenomena of untrained teachers exists in schools. Most of
teachers are matric and have undergone short in-service courses
which are inadequate.
In view of the importance of basic education providing firm
bedrock to the socio-economic development of a poor society, an
integral part of the BMN project, the grave situation that prevails
in the institutions, the interest of UNESCO to provide technical
assistance for its re-orientation in the village seems essential. The
UNESCO therefore approached Institute of Education and
Research (IER) University of Peshawar as a research center to help
it in identifying the ‘orientation mandate’ for which it could
provide technical assistance in planning and implementation of
reorienting basic education towards poverty alleviation and
improvement of quality of life of the people of village Jabbi.
According to the terms of reference of the TSS-I given to the
researcher i.e. to review the governments poverty alleviation
policy and practices, the basic education delivery system, the
current status of teaching-learning situation with reference to
facilities, teacher preparations, supervision, curriculum,
participation of children and learning achievement problems,
issues affecting basic education and to identify programmes and
kind of intervention that suit reorientation of basic education in
Jabbi. The researchers have been able to conduct a three
dimensional study on the specific educational situation and the
socio-economic conditions of the target group. Both the survey
and field observation provided researchers an insight into the
45
Sampling
crucial issues affecting basic education and the socioeconomic
aspect of life of the people.
The survey had also provided rationale to look for an integrated
approach in which education could play pivotal role towards
poverty alleviation and adopt alternatives for income generation of
the community and mobilization of their human and material
resources and their support in developmental efforts. These are
such issues which have also been addressed in the BMN project.
On the basis of findings of this study, a strategy, will therefore; be
proposed for the implementation of the pilot project in the target
village.
4.1 RATIONALE OF SAMPLING
Sampling is much easy to collect data in terms of saving the
money and time because it is somewhat impossible to collect data
form the whole population while the sampling provides
approximately similar and accurate as the population may elicit.
The sampling provides valid measures of reliability and that is the
main purpose of sampling. The basic and essential purposes of
sampling are
To elicit or provide sufficient information about the traits of
population without evaluating every unit of population
To find the reliability of the expectation obtained from the sample
(Chaudhry.2008).
4.2 STEPS IN SAMPLING
A statistical plan relevant to the steps and process taken in the
sampling comes under the umbrella of sample design. The steps
46
Sampling
which are taken under considerations while selecting sample are
given below:
The objectives of the survey must be clearly stated
Give background knowledge about the population of
interest
State complete sampling unit in population
Select proper sample size
Organize the field work to achieve the proposed objectives
Analyze and conclude the data
Few points may be elaborated regarding the process
occurs in sampling.
Select the unit of analysis
When selecting the sample, it is to be needed that the sampling
procedures select cases which are based on this unit of analysis.
Suppose, the unit of analysis is students, then the sampling
procedure must focus only on the procedure of selecting the
students and it would be an error to describe the selection of
schools instead of selecting students.
How many numbers of units needed to be sampled?
Larger sample acts as strong representative of the target population
and elicit strong statistical power but it, on the other hand,
decrease the quality of research (particularly in experimental and
quasi – experimental research). If many respondents participate in
the treatment of experimental research design then the quality of
treatment may be suffered resulting in providing inaccurate
47
Sampling
conclusions. So the researcher should avoid the problem of
overpopulation in experiments. The best example here is the
number of students in the classroom. If the numbers of the students
are high in a classroom then it adversely affect the impact of
instruction and method of teaching. Similar is the case with the
experimental design. Therefore, smaller treatment groups are
generally preferable.
4.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The probability sampling is considered as one of the best sample
because it enhances the likelihood of obtaining samples that
represents of the population(Chaudhry.2008).
Probability Sampling (Representative Samples)
Probability samples are selected in such a way that it represents
the whole population. This sampling procedure provides valid
results because they reflect the overall characteristics of the
population from which they are drawn / selected (e.g., residents of
a particular community, students at an elementary school, etc.).
There are two types of probability samples: random and stratified.
Random Sample
The term random means that each sample unit (individual) in the
selected population has the equal chances of selection.
The key to random selection is that there is no bias involved in the
selection of the sample. Any variation between the sample
characteristics and the population characteristics is only a matter
of chance (Chaudhry.2008).
48
Sampling
Stratified Sample
A stratified sample is a micro – replication of the whole
population. Prior to sampling, the population is categorized into
characteristics of interest/ importance for the research. For
example, by gender, social class, education level, religion, etc.
Then the population is randomly sampled within each category or
stratum.
Stratified samples are difficult to develop because for the purpose
of making categorization, the researcher should bear advance
knowledge of the population traits (Chaudhry.2008).
4.4 NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLES (NON-
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES) The non probability sampling is less desirable than probability
sampling and is not true representative. The validity of non –
probability sampling can be enhances by conducting to select the
approximate random selection and reducing the sources which
develops bias in sample.
i) Quota sample
A quota sample is type of judgment sample in which the
information are collected for certain purpose, from the segment of
the population. E.g. the quotas of male and female, urban and rural
etc. These factors are the quota control. Quota sampling can be
considered as the stratified sampling because the selection of the
units or sample units within the strata is non – random.
49
Sampling
Quota samplings are easy to administered, need low cost, and give
abrupt results. This approach is mainly used in public opinions
polls and research surveys (Chaudhry.2008).
Purposive Sampling
Purposive sample is a non – random sample in which the selection
of the sampling units mainly depends up on the experts’ perception
about the population. The purposive sample is not based on
probability theory that is why the measuring of the reliability of
the sample outcomes is lacking and due to this the purpose sample
cannot acts as the basis for statistical inference (Chaudhry.2008).
4.5 THE SIZE OF THE SAMPLE (FUNDAMENTALS)
Sample units are segments or parts selected from the population
constitute the sample size. A complete list of the students studying
in M.Ed at university level, lists of maps clearly mentioning wheat
fields etc. are the examples of sample selected from the
population. The following are the few traits of sample size:
Complete
Free from errors and omissions
Timely modified
4.6 THE CONCEPT OF SAMPLING ERROR
The error in sampling is the systematic elements of error which
affects the result obtained from the selected sample. There is a
difference in random error and sample error. In case of the random
error, the errors are absorbed or become balanced in the long run
while the sampling error is cumulative and increases when the
50
Sampling
sample size increases. Sampling errors are propagated in the
following approaches.
Intentional Selection
Selection of sample on the basis of personal judgments develops
the errors.
Replacement
Sometimes the sample which is selected for the study is not
accessible or the contact is not developed which results in the
replacement of that unit with the easy or accessible one. This
approach creates errors.
Incomplete Coverage
Errors are developing when the researcher fails to cover all the
selected sample of the study.
Zigzag selection
Irregular or zigzag collection of the data from the respondents also
creates problems. The researcher must be specific in collecting
data from the target sample.
Incomplete Interviewing
Errors also develop when the interview process is inadequate and
misleading. The process of interviewing should be completed with
great care (Chaudhry.2008).
51
Ethical Considerations and Validity and Reliability in Educational
Research
UNIT-5: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
5.1 RESEARCH ETHICS
Research ethics provides step by step guidance for the responsible
conduct of research (research in all fields). Moreover, the research
ethics teaches and monitors the researcher in conducting research
to guarantee a high ethical moral and standard.
Principles of Ethics
In words of Shamoo (2009), the imperative and fundamental
ethical principles are as under:
i) Honesty
Try hard for honesty in all scientific communications. The data,
methods, procedures, results and publications should be honestly
reported and avoid any of the false and misinterpreted data that
may damaged the research study and also do not betray colleagues,
granting agencies, or the public.
ii) Objectivity
Struggle to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing,
expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception and
release personal or financial interests that may affect research.
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iii) Integrity
Keep your agreements and act with sincerity and also strive for
consistency of thought and action.
iv) Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and laxity; carefully and critically examine
your own work and the work of your peers. Keep first-class
records of research activities such as data collection and research
design.
v) Openness
The next important principle of ethics is to share data, results,
ideas, tools, resources and be open to criticism and new ideas.
vi) Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property.
Avoid using unpublished data, methods, or results without proper
permission and also give proper acknowledgement or credit for all
contributions to research.
vii) Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants
submitted for publication, personnel records associated to
research.
viii) Respect for colleagues
Do respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
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ix) Non-Discrimination
An important ethical principle is to avoid discrimination against
colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other
factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.
x) Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects, try to reduce harms
and risks and maximize benefits.
5.2 TECHNICAL ISSUES IN ASSESSMENT
The main technical issues often used in educational research are
the validity and reliability. They are briefly discussed as under.
Validity
The degree to which the test or tool used as measuring instruments
measures what it tends to measures.
This means that if the researchers design a test or tool for
measuring certain aspects in education or socials sciences, then up
to what extent or degree that very test is successful in achieving its
goals for which it is designed. Does the test (developed for certain
purpose) accomplish that purpose or not.
Types of Validity
Validity has the following important types which are discussed
briefly.
a) Face Validity
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The degree or the extent to which test (are developed and) appears
to measure the purpose for which it is being developed.
The assessment of face validity can be easily judged by the
stakeholders. However this very approach is not a scientific one
but still dwells various components of motivation for the
stakeholders. But if the stakeholders do not believe to measure the
face validity in an accurate way then they become withdraw any
time from the task (Cozby, 2001).
Example
If a measure of science project is encouraged to be created. All of
the projects and items should be related to different elements and
types of science. If the questions are regarding hypothetical
projects, with no reference to any experimental approach, the
stakeholders may not be motivated to give their best effort or
invest in this measure because they do not believe that it is a true
assessment of science appreciation.
a) Content validity
Content validity can be defined as the measures of links between
test and the relevant curriculum objectives. A test is said to have a
content validity if it demonstrates the link between the curriculum
objectives and the test developed for such purposes (Cozby, 2001).
b) Construct Validity
Construct validity can be defined as the measurement of the links
between the tests and knowledge, skills and behaviors which
support the curriculum objectives. The panels of experts can
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accurately measures and assess this type of validity. The experts
can examine the items (and its difficulty level) and decide what
that specific item is intended to measure. Students are sometimes
involved in this process to obtain their feedback (Cozby, 2001).
Example:
If the paper setter develops a paper on the research methodologies
and the questions are designed in a complicated way like the tough
words and phrases are used. Then this can cause the test an
unintentionally becoming the test of reading comprehension rather
than a test about research methodologies. Therefore it is essential
that the measures are actually assessing the intended construct,
rather than an unnecessary factor.
c) Consequential validity
A test that has the impact on the improvement of students’
performance in a curriculum area. Or in other words the test which
has a drilling effect on the development of the students
performance in a specific curriculum area (Cozby, 2001).
d) Criterion-Related Validity
This type of validity is used to predict about the upcoming or
future or current performance and it correlates the test results with
another criterion of interest (Cozby, 2001).
Example:
If for an educational program, measures are developed to assess
the cumulative student learning throughout the major. There will
be a correlation between the new measuring approach / tool with
the standardized measure of ability in this very discipline (like
GRE subject test). The higher the correlation between the
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standardized measures with the new measure, the more faith will
be developed among the stakeholders on the new emerged
instrument.
b) Formative Validity
The subjections of formative validity on the plethora outcomes of
certain program will provide valuable information which leads to
the improvement and development of that program (Moskal,
2000).
Example:
When designing a rubric for education, the knowledge of the
student’s could be assessing across the discipline. If information
regarding the measures among the students are lacking in certain
area then this assessment instrument is providing valuable and
meaningful information that leads to the development and
improvement in the requirements of the course or program.
b) Sampling Validity (similar to content validity)
This validity is similar to content validity but here overall links are
measures while in sampling validity only the selected samples are
taken under considerations. It can be defined as “the measures that
cover a wide range of area of interest within the concept under
study”.
Covering every aspect is a difficult task so the items needed to be
sampled from all the domains. This can be easily accomplished
with the help of experts (Cozby, 2001).
Additionally, a panel can help limit “expert” bias (i.e. a test
reflecting what an individual personally feels are the most
important or relevant areas).
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Example:
When designing an assessment of learning in the education, so it
would not be sufficient to only cover topics or issues related to
teaching but other areas like integration of these teaching in their
best practical ways (integration of theory into practice) and the
provision of guidance and counseling should be included. The
content area should be entirely reflected through assessment.
Suggestions for the improvement of validity
The following are the essential measures used to improve
the validity.
The goals and objectives should be clearly defined and
should be operationalized. In addition the expectations of
students should be jot down.
The assessment measures should be matched with the
goals and objectives. Moreover, the test may be reviewed
by faculty at other institutes to obtain the valuable
feedback from an outside party who is less invested in the
instrument.
The students should be involved and the responsibilities of
the student are to assess for difficult wording and other
difficulties.
If it is possible then compare the current measures with
other measures or data that may be available and
important.
Reliability
The degree or the extent of the similarities among the results
obtained on several occasion. Or in other words it can be defined
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as the degree to which an assessment instruments elicit stable and
consistent plethora results.
Reliability in most cases is concerned with the dependability of
assessment outcomes. If the procedure for the assessment practices
were to be repeated, either by subjecting a test for second time or
by rechecking the whole test procedures. Then the reliability of the
assessment practices can be observed if the results elicited form
the test procedures on different occasion are the same.
In subjective assessment, marks allocated are different and for that
purposes they should be checked by two independent markers /
evaluators and if the results are similar or in approximate, the test
is said to be reliably assessed (Cronbach, 1971).
Factors which affects the reliability
The factors which badly effects the reliability are as under
The examinee: fatigue, burden, lack of motivation,
carelessness
Trait of test: ambiguous items, poorly worded direction,
tricky questions, in familiar format
Conditions of test – taking and marking: poor
examination condition, excessive heat or cold,
carelessness in marking, disregards or lack of clear
standards for scoring, computational errors.
Types of Reliability
The following are the main types of reliability.
Test-retest reliability
Parallel forms reliability
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Inter-rater reliability
Internal consistency reliability
i) Average inter-item correlation
ii) Split-half reliability
Test-retest reliability
When the reliability of the results are to measured, then at that
very situation the test retest approaches are used. In this approach
the test are subjected to the group of students at different periods
of time. The scores obtained form first and second time can be
correlated in order to check the stability and persistency of test.
Example:
A test designed to assess students’ learning in philosophy of
education could be subjected twice on a group of students, there is
a gap (of suppose one week) between first and the second test
second test. The obtained coefficient of correlation would indicate
the persistency and stability of the scores.
Parallel forms reliability
When the different sets or different parts of a test (suppose
questionnaire A and questionnaire B) are developed but they must
have a linkage (in a sense of knowledge, skills and behaviors) and
then these assessment instruments are subjected on the same
group. The results obtained from these groups are then correlated
which can show the reliability of the test in regards of the alternate
sets of instruments.
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Example:
If the high order learning is required to be assessed among the
students, then the set of items which are to be designed must have
the questions regarding the high order learning. Then this
questionnaire or the tool must be implemented among the students
which would represent the parallel forms of reliability.
Inter-rater reliability
The measures of the reliability about the different judges agree
upon the decisions about the assessment is called inter – rater
reliability. The answers cannot effectively interpret by human
observers and for that very purpose the inter–rater reliability is of
utmost importance.
Example:
Inter-rater reliability might be employed when different judges are
evaluating the degree to which art portfolios meet certain
standards. Inter-rater reliability is especially useful when
judgments can be considered relatively subjective. Thus, the use
of this type of reliability would probably be more likely when
evaluating artwork as opposed to math problems.
Internal consistency reliability
When the reliability of similar results obtained from different
judgment of two different sets of items is measured, it is called as
internal consistency reliability.
The internal consistency reliability has two main types.
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Average inter-item correlation
It is a type of internal consistency reliability. It is achieved by
taking the entire items of sets under considerations that have the
similar approach in investigations the same constructs (e.g.
developing portfolios) which determines the correlation coefficient
for each pair of items and then finally taking the average of all of
these correlation coefficients. This final step will give the average
inter-item correlation.
Split-half reliability
It is another type of internal consistency reliability. All the items
of the tests are split in half having the same purpose of
investigating the same area of knowledge (e.g. educational
psychology) in order to form two sets of items. The entire set is
subjected among the students and the scores of each set are
computed with the others. The split half reliability is obtained
resulting in determination of the two set of scores.
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UNIT-6: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a scheme of inquest engaged in many
different academic disciplines usually in the social sciences.
Qualitative researchers intend to collect fully understanding of
human behavior and the grounds that govern such behavior.
The qualitative process explores the why and how of choices
making not just what, where, when. Therefore, minor but focused
samples are more frequently needed than large samples
(Stenhouse, 1975).
The crucial aim of qualitative research is to put forward a
viewpoint of certain situations and to elicit well-written research
reports that reproduce the researcher's ability to demonstrate or
explain the analogous observable fact. One of the supreme potency
of the qualitative approach is the opulence and vigour of
searchings and descriptions.
6.1.1 ETHNOGRAPHY
The focal points of ethnographic research are the culture of a
group of people. The ethnographic research can be briefly stated as
under:
a. Macro – Ethnographic Research:
In this type of research the researchers select largely distinct
cultures (e.g. The British etc.).
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b. Micro – Ethnographic Research:
In this type of research, the researchers select narrower defined
cultures (e.g. the cultures of hostel life for students)
Purpose of Ethnographic Research
The major aspire of the ethnographer is to learn from members of
a cultural group leading (rather than to study) to understand their
world view as they define it. Ethnographic researchers for a
moment pass on to emic and etic perspectives (Richardson, 2000).
An emic outlook refers to the way the members of the culture
imagine their world. It is the insiders view. Whereas the etic
outlook is concerned with the outsider’s explanation of the
practices of that very culture.
Ethnographers struggle to obtain an emic perspective of a culture
under study. Moreover, they struggle to make known what has
been pass on to as unspoken knowledge.
Methodology
The two basic approaches often used in anthropology are emic and
etic. The emic approach to research entails the studying of
behaviour from within the culture while on the other hand the etic
approach includes the studying of behaviour from outside the
culture and examining the similarities and differences across
cultures. The following are the steps exercised in the ethnographic
research:
a) Recognition of the culture of interest
b) Recognizing the important variables within the culture
c) Review literature,
d) Gaining access
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e) Cultural engagement
f) Get hold of informers
g) Collecting data
h) Data analysis,
i) Description of the culture
j) Development of theory
Collection of Data and Analysis
The collection of data primarily employs the observation and
interview approaches. The researcher may become a participant or
observer in the culture during the process of data collection
(Richardson, 2000).
Analysis engages in the identification of the meanings of the
quality of objects and events by members of the culture. The
validation of these meanings can be accomplished by the members
of the culture of interest prior to finalize the outcomes.
6.1.2 PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology is a modern philosophical movement devoted to
relating the structures of experience as they present themselves to
realization without recourse to theory or inference from other
disciplines.
Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a research approach. The
rationale of phenomenological research is to illustrate experiences
as they are dwells in phenomenological terms. The supporters of
phenomenology philosophy are Husserl, Kierkegaard, Heidegger
and Jean Paul Sartre.
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Philosophical Orientation
According to the phenomenologist’s view, an individual is an
essential part of an environment. The main focal point of
phenomenological research is to know about people's experience
in gazing to an event and how they interpret their experiences. The
entire phenomenologist’s agree that not a single reality exist
because every individual has his / her own reality. This is well
thought-out true even of the researcher’s practice in gathering data
and analysing it. Genuineness is an elucidation of some process
that is why the more communal that interpretation is, the more
accurate it seems to be, thus far it remains of time and cultural
(Hoepfl, 1997).
The following are the important aspects which are generally taken
under consideration are phenomenological researchers:
Lived room (spatiality)
Lived human rapports (relationality)
Lived moment (temporality)
Methodology
One of the most important questions answered by
phenomenologist is “What is the meaning of one’s subsist
practices”. The merely reliable supply of information to answer the
aforesaid questions is the person.
The human attitude or practices requires the person convey the
action to the researcher and then that very conveyed actions can be
interpreted by the researcher.
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Budding the Research Questions
The opening step in performing a phenomenological study is to
recognize the process to be explored. Then the researcher will
develop research questions. The two important factors may be
considered in designing the research questions:
What are the essential elements of this sentiment or practice?
What does the continuation of this sentiment or practice point out
regarding the nature of the human being?
Sampling
Subsequent to designing the research questions, the researcher
recognize the sources of the phenomenon or process being studied
and from these sources look for the individuals who have eager to
explain their experience(s) with the phenomenon in question.
The sample of the study (individuals) should know and be ready to
articulate their inner feelings and explain any physiological
incidents that occur with the feelings.
Data Collection and Analysis
Collection of data can be accomplished by different modes such
that observation, interactive interviews, videotape and in black and
white descriptions by subjects.
In general, the data is collected by in-depth conversations in which
the researcher and the subject (informer) are completely
interactive. When the first data are collected the analysis begins.
This very analysis will steer verdicts related to further collection of
data. The meanings connected to the data are articulated within the
phenomenological philosophy. The plethora product of analysis is
a theoretical statement reply to the research question. Validation of
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the statement can be done by giving examples of the data generally
by taking direct quotes from the subjects.
6.2.3 CASE STUDY
I. The Meaning and Concept of Case Study
A case study is a simple approach in educational and social
research in which a single individual or small groups of people is
studied. The concept is further elaborated. When the focus of
attention is directed towards a single case or a limited number of
cases, the process is personalized and such researches are included
in the case study method of descriptive research. This study is
extended to include any relatively detailed description and analysis
of a single person, event, institution or community. This study is
said to be ideographic in the sense that it attempts to understand
behaviour or attitudes of the individuals without attempting to
generalize these findings to other persons or groups. Here the
emphasis is not upon the individual representing a type but upon
the individual as a “unique personality” with his own problems
and needs.
As indicated earlier, it is an in depth investigation of a single case
in its totality. Because of this intensive nature, the case studies
highlights the important variables, processes and interaction that
deserve action.
In short the case study attempt to examine and analyze extensively
the background, current studies, social, political, economic and
environmental interaction or relationship of a given social unit i.e.
individual, a group, an institution, a community or an examination
of a given phenomena.
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A case study is similar to survey but instead of gathering data
covering a few factors from a large number of social units, an
intensive study of a limited number of representative cases is
made. It is narrower in scope but more exhaustive in nature than a
survey.
(ii) Purposes of Case Studies
The case studies in research are undertaken for the following
purposes.
a. To provide the investigator with hypotheses that might be
difficult to study in other context.
b. To provide the investigator unique situation that can be used to
test hypotheses.
c. To provide new insights, help modify pre-existing beliefs, and
point out gaps in knowledge.
d. To be useful in demonstrating how a theoretical model can be
established in a concrete model.
e. To understand the life cycle or an important part of the life
cycle of an individual unit. This may be a person, family, a
group or a social institution or an entire community.
(iii) Sources of Data for Case Studies
Data for a case study may be collected by a variety of methods
such as:
a. Making observation by a researcher of the informants physical
characteristics, social qualities or behaviour.
b. Conducting interview with subjects, his/her relatives, friends,
teachers counselors and others.
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c. Using questionnaire, opinionmaire, psychological tests and
inventories.
d. Consulting recorded data from news paper, schools, courts,
clinics, government agencies and other sources.
e. Consulting personal documents such as diaries letters etc.
(iv) Pre-Cautions to be Taken by Researcher in a Case
Study
Certain precautions should be taken by a research while
undertaking a case study.
a. The method may look deceptively simple. To use it
effectively, the researcher must be thoroughly familiar with
existing theoretical knowledge of the field of inquiry and
skilful in isolating significant variables from those that are
irrelevant. There is tendency to select variables because of
their spectacular nature rather than for their crucial
significance.
b. Subjective bias is a constant threat to objective data gathering
and analysis. The danger of selecting variable relationship
beset upon pre-conceived condition and the apparent
consistency of a too limited sample of observation may lead to
the researcher to an unwarranted feeling of certainly about the
validity of his/her conclusion.
c. Effects may be wrongly attributed to factors that are merely
associated rather than cause and effect related while the case
study process is susceptible to the post hoc fallacy, it is also a
hazard associated with other type of non-experimental studies.
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6.1.4 GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory is an inductive approach which is developed for
health-related topics by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. This technique
arises from the field of sociology. The term grounded means that
the theory urbanized from the research is grounded or in other
words that the theory has its origins in the data from which it was
derivate.
Philosophical Point of Reference
Grounded theory majorly based on the representative interaction
theory. This theory dwells on many notions in common with
phenomenology. The founder of this theory was George Herbert
Mead (1934) who was a social psychologist.
In brief, the symbolic interactive approach discovers how people
describe the reality and how their notions are related to their deeds.
Reality is created by people via connecting meaning to situations.
The meanings are articulated by symbols such as words, religious
objects, and clothing. These symbolic meanings are the foundation
for actions and interactions. Haplessly, the symbolic meanings are
different for each and every individual. These shared meanings are
then shifted to new members by socialisation.
Methodology
The steps in grounded theory research come about concurrently.
The researcher will be observing, gathering and organizing data
and then forming theory from the data at the same time. One of the
most important methodological approaches often used in grounded
theory research is the regular comparative process in which every
section of data is compared with every other section.
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The basic notion of the grounded theory is to read and re – read the
text and find out various variables and also to find out their mutual
relationships. The ability to distinguish variables and relationships
is named as theoretical sensitivity and this theoretical sensitivity is
influenced by a number of entities including one's reading of the
literature and one's use of techniques designed.
Data Collection and Analysis Techniques
The data may be collected by interview, observation, records, or a
mixture of these. Typically grounded theory research projects have
a sample of 25 - 50 people and are conducted by in depth
interview.
The process of data collection usually results in large amounts of
hand-written notes, typed interview transcripts, or video/audio
taped conversations that contain multiple sections of data to be
sorted and analysed. This process is initiated by coding and
categorising the data.
Open Coding
Open coding is the fraction of the analysis associated with the
recognition the naming, categorizing and relating the processes or
phenomena found in the text.
Axial Coding
Axial coding is the process of linking codes i.e. categories and
properties, to each other by way of a combination of inductive and
deductive thoughts. The grounded theorists highlight causal
relationships and fit things into a primary casing of generic
relationships.
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Selective Coding
The process of selective coding involves the choosing of one
category to be the core category and relating all other categories to
that category. This means that one category is selected as the super
category and all the other categories are related to the super one.
Memos
Memos are short texts written by oneself as one ensues through the
analysis of a quantity of data. The theoretical notes have the same
importance as the memo bear.
Outcomes
The outcome is an assumption elucidation the incident under
study. The research report subject the theory duly supported by
examples from the data.
6.1.5 CRITICAL RESEARCH
The purpose of scientific research is to articulate something of
added value about reality and its processes; in doing so, it follows
detailed rules regarding the necessity to apply adequate guidelines.
There are four fundamental units which jointly make up a specific
field of explanation and understanding of the processes under
consideration. These are the theoretical introduction, methodology,
information and analysis, and discussion. Research is composed of
these four units, in addition to the technological segment that
accompany them: the title page, the table of contents, and the
references.
This approach is based on a preliminary supposition that to open
the gateway of method is to enable phenomena to enter into the
logic of how it operates and will necessitate fundamental
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transformations in its structure and uses. This requires that method
be placed on the same plane as the phenomena based on which
their relationship is to be structured. In other words, the reading of
methodology is at the same time, at least according to our norm, a
reading of the reality of socio-historical processes that categorize
the phenomena that scientific methodology examines. The
movement between methodology and phenomena is sometimes a
parallel, and at other times an intersecting one. The study of
methodology raises an important problem that characterizes the
instrumental relationships of utilization and performance that
revolve around the method of implementation, and most probably
these relationships do not attend to the material content which is of
real concern to us. It is possible to differentiate between the
instruments that are formed as a medium between the productive
social individual and his direct material environment and the
mental instruments that also play the role of the medium between
the individual/the community and the social/material environment
that they live through and that it lives through them (Babbie,
1980).
Data Collection
In a qualitative study, any number of strategies can be adopted
when collecting data, including numerical questionnaires with
open-ended questions, interviews (semi-structured and
unstructured), participant observation and historical or
contemporary documents. The researcher must outline the
rationale for the selected method of data collection and offer
sufficient information of the process. If using a particular
approach, such as grounded theory, it should be evident from the
discussion that the researcher has stick on to the processes inherent
in the methodology. Interviews are by far the most common
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method of data collection and are mainly either semi-structured or
unstructured. If a semi structured interview format is selected it
should be evident how the themes or questions were derived. In
unstructured interviews the early opening question must be
presented and clearly linked to the purpose of the study. Interviews
are more frequently conducted face to face, but online or telephone
interviews are also used.
6.1.6 ACTION RESEARCH
The alternative names of action research are participatory research,
collaborative inquiry, emancipator research, action learning and
contextual action research, but the entire are disparities on a
theme. Action research is learning by doing, in which a group of
people recognize a problem and do something to solve it. A more
brief definition is action research aims to give both to the practical
concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to
further the goals of social science simultaneously (Thomas, 1986).
Action research merges theory and practice and (researchers and
practitioners) through change and reflection in an instant
problematic situation within a jointly satisfactory principled
framework.
The aim of an action researcher is to bring about development in
his/her practice by analyzing existing practice and identifying
elements for change. The process is founded on the gathering of
evidence on which to make informed rather than intuitive
judgments and decisions. The most important aspect of action
research is that the process enhances teachers’ professional
development through the fostering of their capability as
professional knowledge makers, rather than simply as professional
knowledge users (Waters – Adams, 2006).
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Principles of Action Research
Winter (1989) provides a complete outline of six key principles.
a) Reflexive Critique
The principle of reflective critique ensures people to reflect on
problems and processes and make clear the interpretations, biases,
postulation and concerns upon which decisions are made. In this
way, practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.
b) Dialectical Critique
Reality, predominantly communal reality is validated which is
shared through language. Events are conceptualized in exchange of
ideas, as a result a dialectical critique is necessary to recognize the
set of associations both between the phenomenon and its context
and between the rudiments which make up the phenomenon.
c) Collaborative Resource
Contributors in an action research are co-researchers. The principle
of two-way resource assumes that each person’s ideas are equally
significant as potential resources for generating interpretive
categories of analysis, negotiated among the participants. It
struggles to avoid the twisting of trustworthiness stemming from
the prior status of an idea-holder. It particularly creates possible
the insights gleaned from noting the contradictions both between
many viewpoints and within a single viewpoint.
d) Risk
The change in process potentially warns all previously established
ways of doing things thus creating intuitive fears among the
practitioners. One of the more prominent fears comes from the
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risk to ego stemming from open discussion of one’s
interpretations, ideas, and judgments. Initiators of action research
will use this principle to calm others’ fears and invite participation
by pointing out that they will be subject to the same process and
that whatever the outcome, the learning will take place.
e) Plural Structure
The nature of the research personifies an array of views,
explanations and critiques leading to multiple possible actions and
interpretations. This plural structure of inquiry requires a plural
text for reporting which means that there will be many accounts
made open with observations on their contradictions and a range of
options for action presented. Therefore, a report acts as a support
for ongoing discussion among colleague rather than a final
conclusion of fact.
f) Theory, Practice, Transformation
For action researchers, theory informs practice and these practices
refine theory in a continuous transformation. In any scenery,
people’s actions are based on absolutely held postulations, theories
and hypotheses and with every observed result the theoretical
knowledge is improved. The two are entangled features of a single
change process. It is up to the researchers to make open the
theoretical validation for the actions and to question the bases of
those validations.
Action Research Tool
Action Research is supplementary of a holistic approach to
problem-solving to a certain extent than a single method for
collecting and analyzing data. Thus, it allows for several different
research tools to be used as the project is conducted. These
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various methods, which are generally common to the qualitative
research paradigm, include:
Keeping a research journal
Document collection
Analysis
Participant observation recordings
Questionnaire surveys
Structured and unstructured interviews
Case studies.
Limitations of Action Research
Following are some of the limitations of action research:
Lack of Time
Action researchers work in the chaos of their own practices.
Keeping an eye closely on these practices as they are acting within
it insist space and time which the practice does not give easily. It is
therefore difficult to maintain rigor in data gathering etc.
Validity as Research
Action research is carried out by individuals who are interested
parties in the research. This fact has led to criticisms of the validity
of the research process with the charges of predictable researcher
bias in data gathering and analysis. The reason for action research
counters this criticism by suggesting that it is impossible to access
practice without involving the practitioner. Practice is action
informed by values and aims which are not fully accessible from
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the outside. The practitioner may not even be wholly aware of the
meaning of his or her values until he or she tries to embody them
in her action.
Unfamiliarity with Research Methods
Action researchers often explore what may constitute ample
research methods at the same time as they are researching their
practice. This kind of training and resulting extemporized planning
has led to charges of unreliability in data gathering. To some
extent, this unreliability is inevitable but the idea only makes sense
in the presence of verifiably reliable data gathering. From this
perspective, action research would claim that the procedure elicits
the most reliable access to practice (Carr, 1986).
Lack of Generalization
The results of action research are not subject to generalization.
Baffling Issues
Illustration of the process of action research may confuse rather
than make clear to. The ranges of visual diagrams of the action
research process are of changeable intricacy and perhaps not
always be helpful (McNiff, 1988). The expression of action
research may be confusing or in contradiction with the main values
of the process.
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6.2 NON – INTERACTIVE RESEARCH
6.2.1 CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content Analysis is explains as the systematic study of content of
communication. It is the study of the content with allusion to the
meanings, background and aim enclosed in messages.
Bernard Berelson in 1952 published Content analysis in
Communication Research, which was the sign of gratitude for the
method as a adaptable tool for social science and media
researchers. Yet, the method attained larger fame among social
science scholars as well as a method of communication research
(Chai, 1978).
According to Berelson (1952) content analysis is a research
technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of communication.
Tools of Content Analysis
The stuff for the content analysis can be letters, diaries, newspaper
contents, short stories, messages of Radio, television, documents
or text or any symbols.
Principles of Content Analysis
Similarly to the other research method the content analysis
conforms to three basic principles of systematic method. They are:
Objectivity
It means that the analysis is chased on the basis of clear rules
which facilitate different researchers to get the same results from
the same documents or messages.
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6.2.2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
The major difficulty encountered by a historian is determining the
problem so that a satisfactory analysis is made possible. An
experienced historian realizes that historical research must
involve ‘penetrating’ analysis of limited problem rather than
superficial examination of a broad problem. However, such
problem still exists in historical research.
6.3 THE HISTORICAL HYPOTHESES
The historian formulates hypotheses but the type of hypotheses
and procedure for testing themt, differ from physical scientist.
The indications are;
a. The historian deals with a much more complex phenomena
b. He experiences greater difficulty in ascertaining the cause of
an historical event under investigation
c. It is much more difficult to hypothize a cause because some of
factors associated with the past event may be unmeasurable or
unrecorded
d. A historical phenomena may have a greater number of
antecedents and a more complicated pattern of interaction
among them
e. A historian often reports to multiple hypotheses
f. Because of these complexities, the historian is unable to draw
conclusions, that are inclusive and decisive as those of
physical sciences
Inspite of these constraints and limitations, the historian formulate
purposefully hypotheses. When the historical hypotheses once
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have been tested satisfactorily, it may become a central thesis,
unifying themes or the principles of interpretation used by the
historian.
Some examples of hypotheses of historical nature relating to
education system in the past, are given below:
The British deliberately discouraged indigenous system of
education in India.
The emergence of a national system of education has been resisted
by bureaucrats in the subcontinent.
The system of grant in aid and job incentive led to the supremacy
of English in Indian education system.
The ambiguity of education policy adopted by the company rule,
led to a long controversy in education system in India.
6.4 THE HISTORICAL REPORT
(a) Elements of Research Report
Reporting the findings of historical research is the last and the
most important phase of research. In view of the special nature of
historical research the report makes certain demands on the
investigator. According to Van Dalen, the report mainly includes:
a. A statement of the problem
b. b. A review of the literature
c. The basic assumptions underlying the hypotheses
d. The method employed in testing the hypotheses
e. The results obtained and the conclusion drawn
f. Bibliography
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(b) Considerations to the taken in Research Report
Some considerations should be taken in view in writing of the
research report. In writing of the research report, the investigators
will pattern his material in some systematic order. Such as
chronological, geographical, topical or a combination of all these
approaches. Generally experienced historians in modern days
adopt topical arrangement of material to make the discussion
interesting and to keep the focus on major issues.
Reporting all the evidence collected during the investigation would
make the account dull and uninteresting so, historian must use his
judgment in determining the amount of emphasis on space to give
to various evidence. A rapraisal of the hypotheses and the purpose
of the study would help decide which data are most significant for
the study and how to organize or integrate them, the narrative
should realize the twin objectives of maintaining accuracy and
interest. This requires creativity as well as an imagination and
resourcefulness. The research report should be written in a
scholarly style that is dignified as well as objective.
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UNIT-7: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
7.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
7.1.1 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
The Backgruound
Design No.1 and No.3 have been discussed as “pre-experimental
design” as they provide either no control group or no way of
equating the group that are used with the result that these designs
are least effective. The Design No.1 does not provide for any pre-
treatment observation and does not have any external and explicit
standard of reference for the purpose of comparison.
Design No.2 provides for a pre-treatment observation as a standard
for comparison but it does not provide for a control group as an
external standard of reference for comparison.
Design No.3 does provide control group as an external standard of
reference for the purpose of comparison but it does not provide
pre-treatment observation in either of group.
This situation therefore, demands a design which should have a
control group as well as to provide for a pre-treatment observation
for both experimental and control group s that the design may be
true experimental one.
In a true experiment, according to Best the “equivalence” of the
experimental and control groups is provided by random
assignment of subject to experimental and control groups.
Although, it is difficult to arrange a true experimental design in
behavioural science like education management, however, it is the
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strongest type of design and should be used whenever possible.
These design are discussed below.
Design No-4 Post Test only Equivalent Groups Design
This design may be symbolized as under
RE= T O1
RC= - O2
This design is one of the most effective in minimizing the threats
to experimental validity. It differs from Design No.3 is that,
experimental and control groups are equated by random
assignment. At the end of experimental period, the difference
between “the mean test scores” of the experimental as well as of
the control groups are subjected to statistical significance. A 1-test
or an analysis of variance, are relevant for this purpose.
Example:
A researcher selects 16 principals from a population of 100
principals in a division. They are randomly assignment to
experimental and control groups such as 8 of than are used as
experimental group and 8 of than as control group.
The experimental group is provided an intensive training (for
example) in “Leadership in Education” for a certain period where
as the control group is not provided any training and they
continued their routine work in traditional manner.
All the factors are equated. At the end of the period (P) the
experimental and control groups were administered a test of
statistical significance. In case, the statistically significance
difference is found in favour of the experimental group, one can
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safely conclude that this effect in the efficiency of the principals is
due to the training variable and in this way, the cause and effect
relationship is determined between the training treatments and
efficiency (observation).
In case the difference between the mean score is found to favour
the experimental group but not to the extent of being statistically
significant. one can conclude that this superiority of experimental
group (E) over the control group (C) could well have been the
result of sampling error and that there was no evidence of the
superiority of the training component over those principals who
were not provided such training.
However, there is one drawback in this design that is the non
existence of pre-test. If a pre-test is added to both the groups. we
can arrive at another design which can be named as Design No.5.
2. Design No-5 Pre Test Post-Test Equivalent Groups
The following is the symbolic representation of the design.
(i) RE= O1 T O2
RC=03 T O4
(ii) D= dRE O2- O1
dRC=O4 T O3
(iii) D=dRE-dRC
The design is similar to Design No.4 except that pretests are
administered before the appreciation of the experimental group
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treatments and post test at the end of the treatment. The difference
between the scores on pre-test and post test for the experimental
group is denoted as dRE and is calculated by the use of formula
dRE= 02 — 0 where as the difference between the scores on pre-
test and post-test of control group is dRE and is calculated by the
use of formula dRC= 04 — 03. Thus the gains in experimental and
control group are dRE — dRC respectively and can be compared
by calculating the net difference between these two gains i.e. with
the help formula
D= dRE - dRC
It is reasonable to attribute the difference between these two gains
(i.e. capital D) to the treatment (Training to the principals in the
example referred frequently) that one group received and the other
group did not. The gain score may also be compared and subjected
to a test of significance of the difference means. Pre-test scores can
also be used in the analysis of co-variance to statistically control
for any difference between the groups at the beginning of the
study.
Let us take the example of training of principals as discussed in
design 4 where in each of this experimental and control groups is
to be subjected to a pre-test (the same or parallel) before the
conduct of experiment. Then the training component is planned to
be given to the experimental group and the control group is not to
be exposed to treatment (training) After the experimental treatment
is over, the same or parallel test (post-test is to be conducted for
both the groups. The gain (02 - Oi) named as dRE in the
experimental group now has its counterpart dRC which is equal to
(04 — 03) in the control group and these gains can be compared.
Their difference is D which is equal to dRE — dRC or (02 — 01)
— (04 — 03). It is reasonable to attribute the difference between
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these gains (D) to the treatment or training received by
experimental group and not by control group.
The design is clearly an improvement over design No.4 where in
no pretest was provided and the group had been equated only
statistically. This design is also an improvement our design no.2 in
which there was no assurance that the treatment alone was
responsible for any gained observed. The presence of control
group in design No.5 now makes it possible to control maturation
and practice effects. In brief, Design 5 has an advantage over
previous designs that the pretest affords an opportunity to check on
the initial equivalence of the groups. Thus this is a strong and a
true experimental design but there may be possibility of the
influence of the effect of testing and the interaction with the
experimental variability.
Design No-6 The Solomon Four Group Design
The symbolic representation of the design is as under:
RE O1 T O2
RC O3 T O4
RE - T O5
RC - - O6
The characteristics of this design are:
i. Subjects are randomly assigned to four groups
ii. Two groups receive experimental treatment (T)
iii. One experimental group receive a pre-test (O)
iv. Two control groups do not receive treatment (T)
v. One control group receive a pre-test (03)
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vi. All four groups receive post-tests (02 04 05 06)
The design is really a combination of the two groups design
previously described (the post test only and the pre-test and post
test). It is possible to evaluate the effects of training. Analysis of
variance is used to compare the four post-test scores and an
analysis of co-variance is used to compare gains in 02 and 04.
Because this design provides for two numerous experiments the
advantage of a replication are incorporated. A major difficulty is
finding enough subjects to assign randomly to four equivalent
groups.
7.1.2 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
The quasi experimental designs provide control of when and to
whom the measurement is applied. Out of a number of quasi
experimental designs, a few are described in this section.
Design No-7: The Pre-Test and Post-Test Non-Equivalent Groups Design
The symbolic representation of this design is as under:
E O1 T O2
C 03 T O4
Where O1and O3 are observation or pre-tests and 02 and 04 are the
observation on post-tests.
The design I as indicated earlier makes use of intact groups which
are formed on the basis of some natural grouping. Thus
experimental and control groups are formed neither by randomly
assigning scores nor by matching. Randomization is preferred over
the selection of intact groups. Randomization (as compared to
matching which can equates groups, on a few variables) can assure
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the researcher that there is no systematic biases in groups
containing randomly assigned individuals and it can determine
which individual is to receive treatment and which is not to
receive, thus eliminating systematic difference between the groups.
The addition of control group is the major advantage of this
design, though it lacks the characteristics of Design No.5.
A researcher should be aware of the fact that the basic requirement
of design 7 is not pre test scores for experimental and control
groups. They are as similar as possible and that the initial
assignment of individuals to groups does not reflect biases.
This design is justified on the following grounds. The design is
adopted when obtaining of equivalent groups through
randomization for experimental and control groups may
sometimes become difficult because this would involve splitting
classes, disturbing class schedule or assembling scattered subjects
at one place. Therefore, there is need to have a design which could
use pre-assembled subjects for experimental and control groups.
The difference between the mean of the 0 and 02 scores and the
difference between the mean of the 03 and 04 scores are tested for
statistical significance. Analysis of co-variance may also be used.
Because this design may be the only possible one, the comparison
is justified but the results should be interpreted with care.
Design No-8: The Time Series Design
The time series experimental is a type of longitudinal research
where subjects undergo repeated measurements both before and
after the introduction of the experimental variables. It can be
diagrammed in the following way.
02 03 04 T 05 06 07 08
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There are four observation period (the number may vary
considerably).
The time series design is actually an elaboration of the one group
pre test and post test design. One group is repeatedly pre-tested
(more than once but not necessarily four times as shown in the
above diagram) expoed to a treatment and then repeatedly post
tested. If a group scores essentially the same on a number of pre-
test and then significantly improve following a treatment, the
researcher has more confidence in the effectiveness of the
treatment than if just one pre test and one post test are
administered.
The characteristics of this design are that maturation is eliminated
in most time series design, testing is also absent because the
effects of repeated measurement can be eliminated.
Weaknesses in the Design
There are certain weaknesses in the design such as:
History is still a problem in this design something might happen
between the last pre test and the first post test the effect of which
might be confused with the treatment
Instrumentation may also be a problem in case the experimenter is
changing measuring instruments during the study
Pre-treatment Interaction is also a validity problem
Although the design is simple to execute but the analysis of the
interpretation of data is complex and difficult to handle
In this design for the analysis of data, the statistical technique of
“trend analysis” needs to be used.
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7.1.3 SINGLE SUBJECT
Single-subject also referred to as single-case or single-system
designs which offer a substitute to group designs. The very name
proposed that the focal point is on an N = 1, (a single subject) in
which the 1 can be an individual, an agency or else a community.
The formation of these designs which are simply modified to
social work practice makes them useful for research on
involvement in the direct and community practice. Single subject
research design is a quantitative experimental research approach in
which study contributors serve up their own control (Gast, 2010, p.
13-14).
The fundamental principle of a single-subject design (as a social
work research method) is that if an involvement with a customer,
agency, or community is effective then it must be possible to
observe a modify in status from the period earlier to involvement
to the period during and after the involvement.
Mechanism of Single Subject Design:
As a social work research tool, this type of design has three
components:
Repeated Measurement
Single-subject designs require the repeated measurement of a
dependent variable. Before opening an involvement and during the
involvement itself the researcher must be able to measure the
subject’s status on the target problem at regular intervals of time.
On the other hand, the repeated measures of the dependent variable
can begin when the patron is getting an intrusion for other
problems. Usually, behaviors and occurrence are easier to recall
than the doldrums or feelings. Even the recall of behaviors or
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events becomes more difficult with the passage of time and almost
certainly should be restricted to the preceding month.
Baseline Phase
The baseline phase stand for the period in which the involvement
to be assessed is not presented to the respondents. During the
baseline phase, repeated measurements of the dependent variable
are taken or renovated. These measures reflect the status of the
consumer (agency or community) on the dependent variable before
the accomplishment of the involvement.
The baseline phase measurements provide two aspects of control
analogous to a control group in a group design. First in a group
design, the researchers expect the treatment group to have
dissimilar scores than the control group after the involvement.
Second, in a control group design, random assignment controls for
intimidation to internal validity. In a single-subject design, the
repeated baseline measurements permit the researcher to the
reduction of most intimidation to the internal validity of the
design.
Treatment Phase
The treatment phase stands for the time period during which the
involvement is implemented. During the treatment phase the
repeated measurements of the same dependent variable using the
same measures are obtained. In due course, the patterns and
magnitude of the data points are compared to the data points in the
baseline phase to determine whether a change has occurred. It is
recommended that the length of the treatment phase be as long as
the baseline phase.
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Graphing
The phases of a single-subject design are always summarized on a
graph. Graphing the data make possible the supervising and
assessing the impact of the involvement. In the graph, the Y axis is
often used to represent the scores of the dependent variable while
the X axis represents a unit of time.
7.2 NON – EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
7.2.1 DESCRIPTIVE
A descriptive research includes the collection of data in order to
check the proposed hypothesis regarding the topic of interest. This
research sometimes deals with the existing processes or events
relevant to the preceding one or to check the impact of previous
event on the current. The whole process comprises the collection
and tabulation of the facts, analysis and interpretation, comparison
and contrast among the variables as well as their categorizations
and assessment (Ghaffar, 2005).
The importance of the descriptive research dwells on the fact that
not much advancement can be made in coping up with the
problems unless the researchers contains descriptions of the events
with which they work. Descriptive research is well-liked because a
numerous research studies are descriptive in nature. It so used in
solving varieties of hampers and impedes in education field
because it is majorly concerned with the evaluation of behavior,
notions, background studies (Ghaffar, 2005).
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Descriptive research is sometimes called as non – experimental
research because it is often used to investigate the relationships
between two variables and the hypothesis drawn (Ghaffar, 2005).
Steps in descriptive research
The following are the important steps used in the descriptive
research.
Investigative a problematic condition / process
Recognition of the problem
Defining the problem
Developing the hypothesis / research questions
Shaping the postulations upon which the assumptions or
processes are based
Opting suitable subjects and source of materials
Developing tools for data collection
Formulation of categories for data classification
Validation of the collecting tools
Creating judgments and objective observations
Describing, analyzing and interpreting data
Establishing findings and developing the conclusions
7.2.2 COMPARATIVE
Educational and social researchers while carrying out descriptive
research not only try to discover what a phenomena is but also to
see how and why it occurs. They try to determine what factors or
circumstances, certain events or practices accompany the
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occurrence of the phenomena. In social sciences, where it is
difficult to control various variables, causal comparative method is
usually employed instead of experimental research. It is not always
possible for researcher to select, control and manipulate the factors
necessary to study cause and effect relationship. So this method
enables the researcher to analyze what happens in a natural
situation rather than in a laboratory situation. In an experiment, the
researcher hypothesizes, then manipulates important variables.
And exposes the experimental group to experience A while
withholding the experience from a control group and observes the
result. In a causal comparative study, the researcher observes
phenomena B and searches back through multiplicity of possible
causes for the factors independent that are related or contributed to
the accurence of phenomena B. three examples are quoted here to
clarify the nature of a causal comparative study.
Examples-1 If a researcher wants to determine the cause of
unrest in an educational institution, he cannot set up a control
group to test whether certain factors will cause an unrest. He will
compare the institutions where unrest occurred with other
institutions, which had no unrest or riots. He will study the
likeness and difference between the two situations and will
determine the factors that appear to account for the unrest in one
instance and for its lack in the other.
Example-2 If a researcher intends to identify the causes of
automobile accidents in order to study their causes. He will incline
to automobile industry police department, safety commission and
other insurance companies to study the conditions associated with
the accidents that have occurred. Such factors as mechanical faults,
or failure, excessive speed, driving under the influence of drugs
and others have been identified as causes.
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Example-3 Studies on juvenile delinquency may compare the
social and educational background of delinquents and non-
delinquents, what factors if any were common to the delinquent
groups? What factors if any were common to non-delinquent
groups. Any factors common to one groups but not to the other
might serve as possible explanation of the underlying causes of
delinquency.
Weaknesses or Limitations of Causal Comparative Studies
This type of studies possess certain weaknesses or limitations.
a. The study of the past event may be the only practicable way to
investigate certain problems, the researcher needs to be aware
of the problems inherent in this type of research. The
researcher must be cognizant of the fact that the information
used in ex-post facto studies may be incomplete. That the
researcher may not have sufficient information about all the
events and variables that were occurring at the time being
studied.
b. Lack of control is the greatest weakness of this method.
Suppose a researcher observe phenomena B and hypothesizes
that A caused B. The data may show that A is related to B but
without controlling A, he cannot be certain that some other
factors as C.D.E etc did not cause the occurrence B. So we can
say that causal comparative studies do not produce precise,
reliable knowledge that an experimental study can do. But they
provide a way to problemlproblems that cannot be probed in a
laboratory situation.
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7.2.3 CORRELATION
Description of phenomena are sometimes made by complying
correlation technique which helps in ascertaining the extent to
which two variables are related or the extent to which variations in
one factor correspond with variation in another factor. The
investigator in these types of studies does not manipulate the
independent variable but he merely makes observations of both the
independent as well as the dependent variable as these occur in
natural setting.
For example, a researcher studying the relationship between IQ
and achievement randomly selects some groups and measure both
the IQ and the achievement through some tests. The two variables
in this type of research may be closely relatyd, moderately related
or completely unrelated. Generally, the magnitude of the
correlation depends upon the extent to which an increase or
decrease in one variable is accompanied by increase or decrease in
other variable whether in the same direction or in opposite
direction. For example, a high positive correlation exists if a high
rank in one set is accompanied by a high rank in other (high IQ
high achievement test score) and a low rank in one set is
accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative
correlation exists if in general a high rank in one set of scores
corresponds with a low rank in the other (high IQ low achievement
test score). No or little correlation exists if a high score in one set
is just as likely to corresponds with a low or with a high score in
the other set. Correlations therefore, range over a state which
extend from a perfect negative correlation to no correlation and to
perfect positive correlation.
The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a
coefficient of correlation merely qualifies the extent to which two
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variables are related and it does not imply that cause- effect-
relationship necessarily exists. The meaning of the relationship is
interpreted by logical analysis rather than statistical compilation.
This interpretation has as the limitations to which causal
comparative studies are subjected.
With some ingenuity, correlation method can be used in studying
various educational and social problems.
7.2.4 SURVEY
The survey is a non-experimental and descriptive research method.
Surveys can be useful when a researcher wants to gather data on
process that cannot be directly observed. The survey research is
significant because it not only an endeavor to measure past and
present behavior but also to measures for future behavior (Busha,
1980).
Key Features of Surveys
The following are the crucial and important features:
Collect data on one-shot basis
Symbolize a wide target population
Create numerical
Give explanatory and inferential data
Operate key issues and variables;
Collect standardized information;
Determine correlations;
Eliminate contextual data;
Collect data from multiple choice and closed questions
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Support or refute hypotheses about the target population
They are piloted
Make generalizations about and observe patterns of
response in the targets of focus
Collect data which can be processed statistically.
Types of Surveys
Data are usually collected via using of questionnaires even though
sometimes researchers directly interview the respondents. Surveys
can use qualitative or quantitative measures (Babbie, 1980). There
are two basic types of surveys
a. Cross-Sectional Surveys
Cross-sectional surveys are used to collect the information on a
population at a single point in time. An example of a cross
sectional survey would be a questionnaire that collects data on
how parents feel about their students’ academic achievements in
the year 2013. A different cross-sectional survey questionnaire
might try to determine the relationship between two factors.
b. Longitudinal Surveys
Longitudinal surveys collect data over a period of time. The
researcher may then analyze changes in the population and attempt
to explain them. The three main types of longitudinal surveys are
Trend Studies
Trend studies focus on a particular population which is sampled
and scrutinized repeatedly. Trend studies may be conducted over a
long period of time and do not have to be conducted by just one
researcher or by one research project. A researcher may combine
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data from several studies of the same population in order to show a
trend.
Cohort Studies
Cohort studies focus on a particular population taken sample and
studied more than once but the focal point of the cohort studies are
different.
Panel Studies
Panel studies permit the researcher to find out the reason of
changes occurred in the population as the researchers use the same
sample of people every time. That sample is called a panel. Panel
studies elicits extremely specific and useful rationalization but can
be tough job to conduct. They are expensive and take a lot of time
and also may be suffer from high abrasion rates. Abrasion is what
happens when people drop out of the study.
Stages in Survey Design
The following are the important steps often exercised during the
survey study:
Define the objectives;
Decide the kind of survey required;
Formulate research questions or hypotheses;
Decide the issues on which to focus;
Decide the information that is needed to address the issues;
Decide the sampling required;
Decide the instrumentation and the metrics required;
Generate the data collection instruments;
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Decide how the data will be collected;
Pilot the instruments and refine them;
Train the interviewers (if appropriate);
Collect the data
Analyze the data;
Report the results.
Problems in Surveys
The problems often emerge to the researchers during conducting
survey researches are:
Deprived sampling
Poor question design and wording
Erroneous or unfair responses
Low response or no response
7.2.5 SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
In primary data analysis the individuals who assemble the data
also analyze it; for meta-analysis the researcher quantitatively
unite the statistical results from multiple studies of an event to
meet a conclusion; in secondary data analysis individuals who
were not involved in the assortment of the data analyze the data.
Secondary data analysis may be based on the published data or it
may be based on the original data. Secondary data analysis based
on published data has been used effectively. Secondary data
analysis can also be based on the original data if the original data
are available in records.
Secondary data analysis can be literally defined as the second-hand
analysis. It is the analysis of data that was either collected by
someone else or for some other reason than the one now being
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considered or frequently a amalgamation of the two (Cnossen
1997).
If secondary research and data analysis is embarking on with heed
and carefulness, it can provide a cost-effective way of gaining a
wide understanding of research questions.
Secondary data are also supportive in scheming following primary
research and additionally can elicit a baseline with which to
evaluate the researchers’ primary data collection results.
Therefore, it is always astute to start any research activity with a
review of the secondary data (Novak 1996).
Sources of Secondary Data
The following are the important sources of secondary data.
Government Documents
Official Statistics
Technical Reports
Scholarly Journals
Trade Journals
Review Articles
Reference Books
Research organizations
Universities
Libraries, Library Search Engines
Computerized Databases
Divergence of Secondary data
When conducting secondary data analysis, it is common to come
across data sources that oppose or conflict with each other. To help
overcome this problem the researcher should:
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Make a decision if the source of the data is a primary or a
secondary source. In other words, look for a reference. If the
source is simply quoting a number or statistic it may not be
accurate and must be taken carefully.
If the researcher fails to find the original source of the data in
question then look for more data sources casing the topic and
decide the most extensively held conclusion. If two independent
secondary data sources agree then the information is probably
more authentic.
Check with a local specialist in the topic area. The researcher
should make valuable resources around him / her.
Importance of Data Disaggregation
The point of data aggregation or disaggregation merely refers the
degree to which the information or data is broken down.
Aggregate data are the data which explain a group of observations
with the grouping made on defined norms. Aggregated data can
also be defined by time interval (e.g. the number of persons that
voyaged to urban milieus in the last five years).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data Analysis
Advantages
The following are the important advantages of the secondary data.
a) Secondary data analysis can be done quite quickly when
compared to proper primary data assembling and analysis
exercises.
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b) Where good secondary data is accessible, the researchers
save time and money by making good use of available
data rather than assembling primary data, thus avoiding
copying of effort.
c) Using secondary data provides relatively low-cost modes
of comparing the level of well-being of different
political units. Though, keep in mind that data collection
methods vary which may damage the comparability of
the data.
d) Depending on the level of data disaggregation, the
secondary data analysis provides itself to trend analysis as
it offers a relatively easy way to check change over time.
e) It informs and complements primary data collection,
saving time and resources often associated with over-
collecting primary data.
f) Persons with limited research training or technical
expertise can be trained to conduct a secondary data
review (Slavin, 2007)
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages.
Secondary data helps us understand the condition or status of a
group, but compared to primary data they are imperfect reflections
of reality. Without proper interpretation and analysis they do not
help us understand why something is happening.
The person reviewing the secondary data can easily become
overwhelmed by the volume of secondary data available, if
selectivity is not exercised.
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It is often difficult to determine the quality of some of the data in
question.
Sources may conflict with each other.
Because secondary data is usually not collected for the same
purpose as the original researcher had, the goals and purposes of
the original researcher can potentially bias the study.
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UNIT-8: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
8.1 QUESTIONNAIRE
a. Questionnaire Defined
Questionnaire is a type of tools of research which is popularly
used in educational and social research. According to John W.
Best (1992) a questionnaire is used when factual information is
desired, when opinion rather than facts are desired, an
“Opinionnaire” or “Attitude Scale” is used.
Van Dalen (1992) defines a questionnaire as an instrument that is
widely used by educational workers to obtain facts about current
conditions and practices and to make inquiries concerning attitude
and opinion.
In view of Ahmad A. Arain (1980) a questionnaire is a set of
carefully selected and ordered questions prepared by an
investigator to seek factual information from respondents or to
find their opinion, attitude or interest.
Some restrict the use of the words “questionnaire” to a set of
questions seeking factual information where as those seeking
opinion are called “opinionnaire” and those dealing with attitude
of the respondent called “attitude scale”. However it is generally
agreed that isolating specific questions for the consideration of
respondents tend to objectify, intensify and standardized their
observations.
b. Forms/Kinds of Questionnaire
A researcher can construct questions in the form of a ‘closed’,
‘open’ ‘pictorial’ and ‘scale items’. He can utilize one type of
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questionnaire exclusively or a combination of them when
structuring his questionnaire. The nature of the problem and the
character of the respondents determine which form or forms will
most likely supply the desired data. These forms are briefly
described.
(i) Close Form
Questionnaire that call for short, check responses are as the
restricted, or close form type. They provide for marking a “Yes” or
“No”, a short response or checking an item from a list of suggested
responses.
The following example illustrate a closed form item.
Why did you intend to do your M.Ed from I.E.R University of
Peshawar’? Please indicate three reasons in order of importance
using, for most important. 2 for the second most important and 3
for the third most important.
Accessible
Enjoys reputation
Expenses are low
Financial assistance is available
Courses are easy
Any other (please specify)
Even when using the close form, it is desirable to provide for
‘unanticipated’ responses, providing an other category as given in
the above example, permits the respondents to indicate what might
be his most important reaction, one that the questionnaire frame
had not anticipated specification is essential for tabulation or
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interpretation purpose. Such type of option relaxes the rigidily of
the form.
(ii) Advantages of the Close-Form
For certain type of information the close form questionnaire is
entirely satisfactory. Such as:
It is easy to fill out
It takes little time by respondents
It keeps the respondent on the subject
It is relatively objective
It is fairly easy to tabulate and analyze
It provides a good looking format to the questionnaire
Answers are standardized
Answers are relatively complete
The respondent is often clear about the meaning of the
question
As questions are self contained, they can be answered
quickly
They require fewer instruction than open end questions
(iii) Limitations of the Close Form Questionnaire
The following are certain limitations of the close form
questionnaire.
The close form questionnaire often fails to reveal the respondents
motives and does not always get information of sufficient scope
and in depth and may not discriminate between the ‘finer shades’
of meaning
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Fixed alternative responses may make respondents take a stand on
issue about which they have not crystallized opinion or may force
them give answers that do not accurately express their ideas
The respondents may feel frustrated because the appropriate
category of their answers are either not provided or is not provided
in detail
There may be too many answers categories to print on the
questionnaire
There is more likelihood of clerical mistakes
Usually respondents check items blindly without giving attention
to their purpose
Sometimes a respondent check an item without understanding its
meaning
(iv) The Open Form of the Questionnaire
The open form or unstructured type of questionnaire calls for a
free response in respondents own words. For example:
Why did you intend to take admission in M.Ed Programme in IER
University of Peshawar?
In what respects IER programme needs improvement?
The open form probably provides for greater depth of response.
The respondent reveals his/her frame of reference and possibly, the
reasons for his/her responses. Since it requires greater effort on the
part of respondent, return are often meager. This type of item
question is sometimes difficult to interpret, tabulate and
summarize in the research study.
(v) Some Considerations Need to be Taken in View while Framing Open — End Questions
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Questions should be such that they are answered clearly
Questions should be clearly worded
The terms should be defined that could not be misinterpreted
Unwarranted assumptions should be avoided in questions
Questioned should be phrased so that they are appropriate for all
respondents
Questions should be designed such that they will give a complete
response
The nature of questions must ensure the systematic quantification
of responses
Double barreled questions should be avoided
(vi) Advantages of the Open Form Questionnaire
In the words of Dr. Ahmad A. Arain several advantages are
attributed to open end questionnaire such as:
Open end questions are flexible. They have the possibility of depth
and have the capacity to encourage cooperation and achieve
support and to make better estimates of respondents true
intentions, beliefs and attitude
The response to open end questions may suggest the possibility of
relations and hypothesis. Respondents will sometime give
unexpected answers that may indicate the existence of relations not
originally anticipated by researcher in the development of
questionnaire
They can be used when all possible answer categories are not
known
They allow the respondents to answer adequately
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They can be used when there are too many potential answer
categories to test on the questionnaire
They are preferable to complex issues that cannot be condensed
into small categories
They allow more opportunity for creativity, thinking and self
expression
They are used for complex questions that could be answered in a
few simple categories but require more detail discussion
(vii) Disadvantages or Limitations of Open Form
Questionnaire
Some limitations or disadvantages are attributed to Open-Form
type of Questionnaire. They are:
There is possibility of collection of worthless or irrelevant
information
Data collected through open end questionnaire are not often
standardized from person to person
Coding is difficult and subjective
Pictorial Form
Some questionnaire present respondents with drawings and
photographs rather than written statement from which to choose
answers. This form of questionnaire is particularly suitable tool for
collecting data from children and adults who had not yet
developed reading ability. Pictures often capture the attention of
respondents more readily than printed words, lessen subjects
resistance and stimulate the interest in questions.
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Scale Items
A scale items is a question to which the respondents expresses his
agreement or disagreement of various levels. Such items have
fixed alternative and the respondent indicates where he stands on
the scale. For example the item indicated earlier relating to English
medium school may be presented as follow:
All English Medium Institutions should be closed forth with.
Strongly agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly disagree
(i) What is Interview?
An interview is essentially the oral, in person administration of a
questionnaire to each member of the sample.
(ii) Advantages
When well-conducted, it can produce in depth data not possible
with a questionnaire. On other hand, it is expensive and time
consuming and generally involves smaller samples
The interview is most appropnate for asking questions which
cannot effectively be structured into a single multiple choice
format
In contrast to a questionnaire, the interview is flexible, the
interviewer can adopt the situation to each subject
By establishing support and a trust relationship the interviewer can
often obtain data that a subject will not give on a questionnaire
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The interview may also result in more accurate and honest
responses since the interviewer can explain and clarify the
purposes of research and individual questions
Interviewer can follow up on incomplete or unclear responses by
asking additional probing questions
Disadvantages of the Interview
Direct interviewer and interviewee contact also has it
disadvantage. The responses given by a subject may be biased and
affected by his/her reaction to the interviewer either positive or
negative.
Construction of Interview Guide/Schedule
The interviewer must have a “Written-Guide” which indicates
what questions are to be asked and in what order and what
additional prompting or probing is permitted. In order to obtain
standardized comparable data, from each subject all interviews
must be conducted in essentially the same manner. As with a
questionnaire, each question in the interview should relate to a
specific study objective. Also as with a questionnaire, questions
may be structured or unstructured.
Since interviewee is usually used when a questionnaire is not
really appropriate, it usually involves unstructured or semi-
structured questions. Structured questions which require the
interviewee to select from alternative, are of course, easier to
analyze but tends to defeat the purpose of an interview.
Completely unstructured questions, on the other hand which allow
absolute freedom of response can yield in depth response and
provide otherwise unobtainable insight but produce data that are
very difficult to quantify and tabulate. Therefore, most interviews
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use a semi-structured approach involving the asking of structured
questions followed by clarifying unstructured or open-end
questions. The unstructured questions facilitate explanation and
understanding of the responses to the structured questions. Thus a
combination of objectivity and depth can be obtained and result
can be tabulated as well as interpreted.
Many of the guidelines for constructing questionnaire apply to the
construction of interview guides. The interview should be as brief
as possible and questions should be worded as clearly as possible.
Terms should be defined when necessary and a point of reference
given when appropriate leading questions should also be avoided.
Communication During Interview
Effective communication during the interview is critical and
interviewer should be well trained before the study begins.
Before the first formal question is asked, sometime should be
spent in establishing rapport and putting the interviewee at case.
The purpose of the study should be explained and strict
confidentiality of responses be assured. As the interview proceeds,
the interviewer should take full use of the advantages of the
interview situation. He should also be sensitive to the reactions of
the subjects and proceed accordingly. If the interviewee gets off
the track, he should gently get his/her back on target. Above all the
interviewer should avoid words or actions that may make the
subject unhappy or feel threatened.
Recording Responses
Responses made during an interview can be recorded manually by
interviewer or mechanicall.y by recording device. If the
interviewer record the responses, space is provided after each
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question in the interview guide and responses are recorded either
during the interview as it progresses or after interview is
completed. If responses are recorded during the interview, it may
tend to slow things down, especially if responses are lengthy. It
may also make some subjects nervous to have something writing
down every word they say. It responses are recorded after the
interview, the interviewer is not likely to recall every response
exactly as given specially it many questions are asked. On the
other hand, if a recording (as an audio tap/cassette recorder) is
used, the interviewer moves more quickly and responses are
recorded exactly as given. In general. mechanical recording is
more objective, feasible and advisable.
Pre-Testing the Interview Procedure
The interview guide, interview procedure and analysis procedure
should be tried out before the main study is initiated using a small
sample of population. Feedback from a small ‘pilot study’ can be
used to revise, improve questions in the ‘guide’ that are apparently
not clean and do not solicit the desired information or produce
negative reaction in the subjects. The pilot study will determine
whether the resulting data can be quantified and analyzed in the
manner intended.
Interview studies enjoys the characteristics of flexibility better
performance rate and control over environment as compared to the
questionnaire studies. However, comparatively, they are costly,
time consuming and inconvenient.
8.2 INTERVIEWS
Interview is a research approach often used in qualitative data
collection from the respondents and participation of the study. It
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can be defined as an oral and face to face communication between
two persons in which one asks some questions and the other give
relevant responses (Punch, 2009).
Purpose of Interview
The main purposes of conducting an interview are
Collecting data
Hypothesis testing
Therapies
Types of Interview
There are various types of interview but the main among them are
Structured Interview
Types of interview in which the contents and protocols of the
interview are pre – planned are termed as structured interview.
Some predetermined and set questions are asked form the
interviewee aiming to the point responses.
Unstructured Interview
Unstructured interviews are very much lithe and flexible; the
milieu subjected on the interviewee is somewhat free and there are
no pre – planned questions. The questions are asked according to
the situations.
Yet, the whole interviewee process revolves around the objectives.
In this type of interviews the interviewee are subjected to
formulate their notions and ideas.
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Non – Directive Interview
This interview was first used by the Sigmund Freud for the first
time for therapeutic treatment for treatment of psychological
problems. In this type of interview the interviewers first develop a
strong rapport with the interviewee (on the basis of confidence
and trust). After development of rapport the interviewee are
allowed to express his / her full expressions and thoughts. These
types of interview are often conducted by the clinical psychologist
to solve the problems confronted by the interviewee (client).
Focused Interview
These types of interview are often used to check the proposed
hypothesis. The whole processes in these interviews are first
planned and then relate it with the major milieu of hypothesis. The
interviewees are particularly involved in the enduring process. The
responses obtained in these interviews are used for
i) To verify hypothesis
ii) Validation of hypothesis
iii) To modify or to continue the hypothesis
Individual or Group Interview
The interviews are generally conducted in privacy but sometimes
groups’ interviews can also be conducted by a single interviewer
in which the numbers of the interviewee are high. These types of
interviews help the interviewee to recall their own notions and
ideas.
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Single or Panel Interview
An interview in which single interviewer conduct an interview
from a number of interviewer is termed as single interview and on
the other when a number of interviewer conduct an interview (one
by one) from a number of interviewees are termed as panel
interview.
Type of Questions in Interview
The important feature about the interview is that what kinds of
questions are often asked and what is the nature of the questions.
The main domain about the questions expected to be asked in an
interview are as under:
i) Experience / behavioral questions – where the times of
yore I / past activities and prospect / future planning of the
interviewee are explored.
ii) Notion / Value questions – in which the ideas, thoughts,
expression and notions are desired to explored.
iii) Sentiment / Feeling questions – which are related to the
feeling of an individual.
iv) Information / Knowledge questions – related to the
cognition, responsiveness and factual information.
v) Sensory questions – aimed in knowing the sensory
awareness and accuracy of an individual.
vi) Demographic / Background questions–related to the
individual personal life and for this a strong rapport among
the interviewer and the interviewee are required.
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Conducting and Recording an Interview
The process of conducting interview is a laborious task followed
up by systematic protocols. Before conducting the interview, the
objectives of the interview must be specified and formulated.
According to the proposed objectives, the questions are designed
either in the form of structured or unstructured interview.
Generally, semi – structured interviews are encouraged and are
more suitable and apt; which includes both the structured and
unstructured items. The items includes in the interview are often in
the form of interrogative form or in the form of a statement. The
time should be strictly taken under consideration in interview
process. The initials questions of the interview are such that to
relax the interviewee and helpful in the development of the full
confidence and rapport among the interviewer and interviewee.
For the initials questions, it is suggested to develop such questions
which have the reflection of the background study regarding the
subject. While asking questions from the participant of the study, a
friendly milieu must be develop and also eliminate the vague
points for his / her ease. The questions included in the interview
must have a specific sequence and must be interrelated to each
other with the use of familiar and easy words (avoid the of
verbose) because it develops hampers and impedes to the
participant. The responses given by the interviewee are recorded
(either manually or mechanically) on the spot to avoid the chances
of errors and biasness. The interview is then closed with the good
words such that motivating the participant. It is highly
recommended to pilot the interview questions because prior to
applying on the target sample it should be subjected on a small
sample to eliminate the errors and omission and to polish the
designed questions (Punch, 2009).
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8.3 ACCOUNTS
Account a tool of collecting data from the topic of interest. The
data is collected by various modes like documents (which bear the
data), books, government documents, official statistics, technical
reports, scholarly journals, trade journals, review articles,
reference books, research organizations, Universities Libraries,
library search engines and computerized databases. The data are
gathered by such approaches are reliable and suitable for the study
of interest.
8.4 OBSERVATION
The Nature of Observation
In an observational study or through un-observational technique,
the current status of a phenomena is determined not by asking but
by observing. Observation is most appropriate approach for
studying the covert behaviour of persons. Observation as a
research technique should be directed by a specified purpose
systematic carefully focused and thoroughly recorded procedure.
Like other methods it should be subjected to checks for accuracy,
validity and reliability.
Observation may be direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled.
There are participant observation and non participant observation.
Participant-observation is usually associated with qualitative
research. Naturalistic observation includes both natural
observation and simulation observation and typically involves
observation of human subject.
Here non-participant, naturalistic observation and simulation
observation are briefly described.
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Non-Participant Observation
In non participant observation, the observer is not directly
involved in the situation to be observed. In other words the
observer is on the outside looking in and does not intentionally
interact with, or effect the object of the observation.
Naturalistic Observation
Certain kind of behaviour can only be (or least be) observed as
they occur naturally. In such situation then observer purposefully
controls or manipulates nothing, and infact, works very hard but
not affecting the observed situation in any way. The intent is to
record and study behaviour as it normally occurs. For example,
classroom behaviour of the teacher, behaviour of the students and
the interaction between the teacher and the students can best be
studied through naturalistic observation, often form the foundation
non controlled research in an area. The work of Piaget for
example, involved primarily naturalistic observation of children.
His research which has stimulated researches (in naturalistic
observations) have provided education which many important
findings regarding concept development in children.
Simulation Observation
The simulation observation, the researcher creates the situation to
be observed and tells subject what activities they are to engage in.
the technique allows the researcher to observe behaviour but
occurs frequently in natural situation or not at all. The major
disadvantage of this type of observation is of course that it is not
natural and the behaviour exhibited by subjects may not be the
behavour that would occur in natural setting. However, this is not
a serious problem. Subjects tend carried away with their roles and
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often exhibit very true to life situation. The major types of
simulation are individual role playing and team role playing.
Conducting Observation
Steps Followed in Observation
The steps in conducting observational research are essentially the
same as followed for other type of research. The researcher clearly
defines what specific behaviour are intended? What observation
must be quantified and how observation times are randomly
selected.
Observers should have to deserve and record only one behaviour at
a time. It is probably better to record observations as the behaviour
occurs. Probably the most often used type of recording form and
the most efficient is a check list that fits an behaviour to be
observed so that the observer can simply check each behaviour as
it occurs. Rating scales are also sometimes used for this purpose.
Assessing Observer’s Reliability
Determining observer’s reliability generally requires that at least
two observers independently make observations, their recorded
judgment as to what occurred can then be compared to see how
well they agree. Recorded situations to be observed allow observer
to play back or often taps at a time convenient to his/her to play
them back as often needed.
Observers need to be trained in order to have some assurance that
all observers are observing and recording the same behaviour in
the same way.
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Reducing Observation Bias
Efforts be made to reduce observer’s bias in the process of
observation which refers to “invalid observation”, the “halo-
effect” or the “observers effect”.
Methods of Recording Observation
As indicated earlier, for recording observations a number of
devices are used. Two of them which are popular and exclusively
used are “check-list” and “rating scale”. The instruments help the
researchers focus his attention on specific phenomena, make
objective observation and systematize the collection of data. These
instruments are briefly observed.
8.5 TESTS AND APPRAISAL INSTRUMENT
Multifarious research based appraisal instruments such as tests,
inventories, scales etc have been developed and are used
extensively in experimental and descriptive researches. These
instruments have been designed to describe and measure sample of
aspects of human behaviour. These instruments assess variety of
human abilities, potentials achievements and behaviour tendencies.
They possess different degrees of validity reliability and
applicability.
Types of Instruments
The following types of instrument designed for different facilities
and purposes are briefly described.
a. Achievement Tests
Achievement tests (also known tests of proficiency) yield
measures of what the individual knows or the extent of his
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achievement and performance in the solution of problem and
completion of set tasks. These tests attempt to measure what the
individual has learned, his present level of performance/* in a
subject or skill as result of instruction. Such tests measure
performance in a specific area e.g. typing, computer, spellings,
reading or arithmetic. Achievement tests can be used for
diagnosing strength and weaknesses of an individual and for
evaluating influence of a course of study, teaching methods etc.
These tests can also be used to select equivalent groups to be used
as control and experimental group to measure gains made by
experimental and control group by applying the test before and
after the treatment and to evaluate the relative effectiveness of two
teaching methods, courses of study, text book etc.
b. Aptitude Tests
Aptitude tests seek to assess the level of achievement that an
individual can attain in some particular academic or vocational
field. In other words, aptitude tests attempt to predict an
individuals capacity to require improved performance with
additional training. Aptitude tests may measure mechanical, motor
coordination, artistic aptitude, aptitude for medicine, engineering,
computer language etc.
c. Personality Tests
Another broad area of psychological testing is concerned with the
non-intellectual aspect of human behaviour. Personality tests most
often refer to measure of such characteristics and attitudes. Most
of these tests are usually self-report instruments. The individual
checks responses to certain questions indicating what he prefers to
do or how he intends to act in a given situation. Personality tests
are classified in the broad categories; personality questionnaires
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and proj ective techniques. The “Minnesota Multiple Personality
Inventory” (MMPI) and the Edward Personal Preference Schedule
(EPPS) are used as personality questionnaires for assessing the
personality. Projective method has been applied in a number of
ways. The more well-known one “Rorschach Ink Blot Test” and
“Thematic Apperception Test “TAT) are used for personality
assessment.
Steps in the Construction of a Standardized Test
The following steps are followed in the construction of a
standardized test.
a. Test construction is started with the definition of ability for
which test is written
b. Test questions/items are written for each component
c. The test is pre-tested and statistically analyzed. It goes through
a series of revision till it becomes an adequately valid and
reliable test
d. The norms are prepared for purpose of interpretation
Qualities of a Good Test
The qualities of a good test are:
a. It is standardized
b. It is reliable
c. It is valid
d. It is consistent
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8.6 PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY
In 1955, George Kelly published "The Psychology of Personal
Constructs" (Kelly, 1955) which was merely the conclusion of
about twenty years of revolutionary work in the field of
psychology and is the amalgamation of Kelly's own practices, not
only in the clinical psychology but also in his wide-ranging
educational background (as Kelly receiving degrees in physics,
mathematics, educational sociology, education and psychology).
Populaces often exercise “constructs” to categorize people and
state they come across.
They are normally bi-polar adjectives such as clever-boring,
sociable-aloof, constant-unbalanced. Each of us has develops of
our own set often use in different situations to make
evaluations. These constructs are also used as a source of data
collection and thus used in research. By establishing our own
constructs systems, we will be able to make:
The world more predictable.
To make efforts in creating sense of our world.
Growth and brings some changes if needed.
Perceptions and expectations which are influenced by
these constructs.
The constructs system more important than others.
Your construct system is your truth as you understand and
experience it.
Construct systems are not always internally consistent.
Some of our constructs which represents our foundation ethics and
norms concerned to our key relationships are complex, quite
firmly fixed, wide-ranging and difficult to change. On the other
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hand, about others such things don't matter so much or about
which we haven't much experience, are simpler, narrower and
carry less personal commitment.
A person's construct systems stand for the truth as they realize it.
Construct systems cannot be judged in terms of their objectives.
When we meet someone whose construct system is different from
our own, especially if we don't like it, or think that it is wrong, we
sometimes employ words like chauvinism or label to convey our
difference. We might try confronting them with opposing beliefs
and get frustrated if we see them immunizing their constructs
instead of adapting them. But we have to accept that their system
has worked, more or less, for them so far, and that if it is different
from ours then that is a reflection of the fact that they've had
different experiences, different reactions, and see different things
as important.
8.7 SCALES
A scale is a type of composite measure that is composed of several
items that have a logical structure among them. The most
commonly used scale is the Likert scale, which contains response
categories such as "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree," and
"strongly disagree." Other scales used in educational and social
science research comprise the Thurstone scale, Guttman scale,
Bogardus social distance scale, and the semantic differential scale.
Types of Scales
There are several different types of scales but the commonly used
scales in educational and social science research are given as
under:
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Likert Scale
Likert scales are one of the most commonly used scales in
educational and social science research. A psychologist Rensis
Likert for the first time develops this type of scales. On a survey or
questionnaire, the Likert scale typically has the following format:
Strongly agree
Agree
Neither agree nor disagree / Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
It must be noted that the individual who use the questions in this
format are called Likert items while the Likert scale is a sum of
several Likert items. To create the scale, each answer choices are
assigned a score (say 1-5) and the answers for several Likert items
(that measure the same concept) can be summed together for each
individual to get an overall Likert score.
Thurstone Scale
The Thurstone scale was first shaped by Louis Thurstone, is
planned to develop a format for generating groups of indicators of
a variable that have an empirical structure among them. For
example, if the researchers were studying a topic on
discrimination, s/he would put together a list of items and then ask
respondents to assign scores (suppose 1 to 10) to each item. In real
meaning, they are ranking the items in order of which is the
weakest indicator of discrimination all the way to which is the
strongest indicator.
Once the respondents have scored the items, the researcher
examines the scores assigned to each item by all the respondents to
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determine which items the respondents agreed upon the most. If
the scale items were adequately developed and scored, the
economy and effectiveness of data reduction present in the
Bogardus social distance scale would appear.
Bogardus Social Distance Scale
The Bogardus social distance scale was fashioned by Emory
Bogardus as a technique for measuring the willingness of people to
participate in social relations with other kinds of people. For
example; we are interested in the extent to which Muslims are
willing to associate with Hindu. We might ask the following
questions:
1. Are you willing to live in the same country as Hindu?
2. Are you willing to live in the same community as Hindu?
3. Are you willing to live in the same neighborhood as Hindu?
4. Are you willing to live next door to a Hindu?
5. Are you willing to let your child marry a Hindu?
The clear differences in intensity suggest a structure among the
items. Presumably if a person is willing to accept a certain
association, he or she is willing to accept all those that precede it
on the list (those with lesser intensities). The Bogardus scale
demonstrates that scales can be important data reduction tools. By
knowing how many relationships with Hindu a given respondent
will accept, we know which relationships were accepted. A single
number can thus accurately summarize five or six data items
without a loss of information.
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Research Instruments
Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential scale asks respondents of a questionnaire
to choose between two opposite positions using qualifiers to
bridge the gap between them. Let’s look at an example. Suppose
you wanted to get respondents’ opinions about a new comedy
stage show. You must first decide what dimensions you wish to
measure and then find two opposite terms that represent those
dimensions. For example: Enjoyable and un – enjoyable, funny
and not funny, relatable and not relatable. You would then create a
rating sheet for each respondent to indicate how they feel about the
stage show in each dimension. Your questionnaire would look
something like this:
8.8 ANECDOTAL RECORDS
An anecdote is an account of happening in a participant’s day. The
record of this happening can be detailed or brief. These petite
reports; in an accurate way, describes the incident, its context, and
what was said or done by the participant(s). In most cases,
anecdotes focus on very simple, everyday interactions among
personal of the society and participant (s) or focused person (s), as
well as with materials in the environment (Punch, 2009).
Ideally, the anecdotal record should be recorded as it unfolds or
immediately after. However, anecdotal records usually have to be
written later at the end of the day or event. Keeping brief notes on
index cards or sticky notes carried can be helpful. Jotting one-
word substitution may gives reminders or short phrases on the
cards about the event can provide a set of reminders when the
anecdote is written.
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Research Instruments
Characteristics of Anecdotal Records
The traits of the anecdotal records are:
Effortless reports of behavior'
Outcomes of direct observation.
Accurate and specific
Gives context of participant’s behavior
Records typical or odd behaviors
Purpose
Anecdotes confine the richness and complexities of the moment as
focal person interact with one another and with materials. These
records of focal person’s behavior and learning accumulated over
time enhance the narrator’s understanding of the individual focal
person as patterns or profiles begin to emerge. Behavioral change
can be tracked and documented, and placed in the focal person’s
portfolio resulting in suggestions for future observations.
Precautions
The following should be taken under consideration while
conducting an anecdote.
The anecdote should be accurate, objective and specific.
The narrator should not make assumptions or use subjective or
ambiguous words.
The following should ask the narrators from himself / herself while
narrating the event or anecdote.
Am I writing in such a way that anyone else viewing the same
event would the write in exact the same way?
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Research Instruments
By closing their eyes, they have the view of the same scene in their
mind?
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Analysis of Data
UNIT-9: ANALYSIS OF DATA
9.1 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Qualitative data dwells on words and observations instead of
numbers. As with all data, analysis and interpretation are required
to bring order and understanding. This requires creativity,
discipline and a systematic approach. The analysis of qualitative
data depends upon
The questions to be answered
The needs of those who will use information
The researchers resources
Text or narrative data come in many forms and from an array of
sources. The following may produce narrative data which need
analysis.
Open – ended questions and written assignments on
questionnaire may elicit single word, phrases or full
paragraph or text.
Testimonials may elicit reactions to a program in a few
words or lengthy comments.
Individual interview provide data in forms of notes.
Discussion group or focused grouped interviews often
involves full transcripts and notes from observer.
Logs, journals and dairies might provide structured entries.
Observations might be recorded in your field notes.
Stories may provide data from personal accounts of
experiences and results of programs in folks’ own words.
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Analysis of Data
Case studies generally dwell on many of the above.
The Analysis Process
Once the data is collected from these sources the following steps
are followed up for the analysis.
Step 1 Acquaintance with the data
Good analysis dwells on the understanding level of the researcher
on the collected data. In case of qualitative data analysis, the
researcher read and re – read the collected data (if tape record or
other electronic device (s) are used then that may be listened
carefully). If some impressions are used then include them because
it will be helpful later on. Sometimes the data does not fulfill the
required and proposed criteria. Therefore, before the analysis of
the data the quality of the data may be taken under the
consideration (Krathwohl, 1998).
Step 2 Focus the analysis
The purpose of the evaluation should be reviewed and identify
various key questions and write these questions. These questions
will help the researcher how to start. The analysis of the results
mainly depends upon the purpose and way of analysis. This dwell
on the following main approaches:
Focus by questions / topic / time / period / event – the researcher
mainly focus that how the participants gives response regarding
the questions / topic in some specific time. These responses are
then examined by looking the differences and similarities among
the respondents.
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Analysis of Data
Focus by case / individuals / group – the researcher can collect
data from or about the case, individual or group and analyze it as a
whole.
Step 3 Categorization of Information
For the purpose of categorization:
Recognizing the themes or patterns which includes notions,
attitude, interactions, incidents, terms or phrased used.
Organize these themes into logical and coherent categories that
help in the summarization and convey meaning to the text.
These two approaches are very laborious and depending up on the
data the researcher have but in fact these are the crux of qualitative
analysis which involves reading and re – reading of the text to
identify coherent categories. The abbreviated codes of a few
letters, words or symbols may be developed and then place them in
front of the ideas the researchers had find in the text.
For narrative data, there are two approaches i.e. preset and
emergent categories.
Preset Categories
In this approach the researcher make a list of the themes (which he
/ she want to explore) and then find them in the data. This
approach helps the researcher to be focused and give directions for
what he/she look for in the data.
Emergent Categories
Instead of developing pre – planned themes or categories, the
researcher needs to go through the data and note all those themes
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Analysis of Data
which emerged during the reading process. This approach allows
the categories to emerge from the data.
Sometimes these two approaches can combine to analyze the
qualitative data.
Step 4 identify the pattern and connections within and between the categories
While organizing the data into different categories, it is the
responsibilities of the researcher to check the relevancy and
connections between the categories.
Within Category Description
The researcher while analyzing the data, s/he may be acquainted
with the data to know about the similarities and differences in the
data and capture the themes. For this purpose the researcher will
assemble all the data containing the particular themes. The themes
mention the key concepts within the category. Therefore, it is
important to write the summary of the theme that describes the
points of interest.
Bigger Categories
The researcher sometimes creates super categories while working
with the data which combines several categories. During this
process, the researcher can work up from more specific categories
towards the larger notions and expression; from which the relation
can be easily judged.
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Analysis of Data
Relative Importance
The researcher can count the number of occurrence regarding
some specific theme (s) which comes frequently in the data. From
this the importance of theme(s) can be acknowledged.
Step 5 Interpretation
It seems to very helpful to develop a list of all the key points or
important finding in a data. Develop an outline to present the
results of the study for writing a final report. It is often helpful to
include some quotes or descriptive examples to point up important
points.
Sometimes diagrammatic representations can help all the parts to
fit together. Developing such sculpts / models helps in pointing out
the gaps in the study which are remain unclear.
Foundations of Narrative Analysis
A shift from a bunch of words to a final draft requires modes for
organizing and keeping way to the next. It can be called as
protocols of trimming and arrangement the data.
The management giving preference to the data majorly depends
upon the amount and type of qualitative data. The important tips
regarding the management of data are as under:
Confirm the data
Provides ID number to the respondents
Arrange the data for analysis
Craft copies (keep the original and work in duplicate)
Spot / Recognize all the sources of the data
Spot / Mark key / crucial themes
Classify and describe Categories
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Analysis of Data
Trim and Organize the data
Create connections
Enriching the Process of Analysis
As with any of the analysis process, there are some biases which
affect the results. The following are the tips which enhance the
reliability process.
Exercise more than a few sources of data
Follow the choices of interest
Engage others.
Pitfalls to Avoid
Dealing with any of the qualitative data analysis, avoid the
following points.
Avoid generalization
Opt quotes carefully
Take in hand the restrictions and alternatives
Dealing with the qualitative data is a prosperous and informative
practice. Doing more practice it will be easier and more reward
full because it involves significant, cognitive idea and ingenuity,
pioneering perspectives (Patton, 1990).
9.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Quantitative data analysis is supportive in educational research
because it elicits quantifiable and easy to understand results.
Quantitative data can be analyzed in a variety of different ways.
The quantitative data analysis depends upon the association and
the level of measurement with the data (Maxwell, 1996). The main
levels of measurements are as under:
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Analysis of Data
Nominal data
Types of data which has no logical information and the data act as
the basis of classification.
Example: Gender: Male or Female
Color: Yellow, White, Black
Ordinal data
Types of data which has some specific and clear logical order but
the differences between the values are not constant (such that they
raise or lessen with the existence of the traits).
Example: T-shirt size (small, medium, large)
Weight of an entity (light, heavy, heaviest)
Interval data
The data is continuous and constant with logical order and the data
has standardized differences between values. The ratios for
interval data are meaningless.
Example: Fahrenheit degrees
One cannot say that today is twice as hot as another day.
Items measured on a Likert scale – rank the satisfaction of oneself
on scale of 1-5.
1 = Very Dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Neutral
4 = Satisfied, 5 = Very satisfied
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Analysis of Data
Ratio data
The data is continuous and constant, properly ordered and has
standardized differences between values with a natural
zero sometimes.
Example: height, weight, age, length
Having an absolute zero elicits meaningful outcomes that one
measure is twice as long as another.
For example – 20 inches is twice as long as 10 inches.
This ratio hold true regardless of which scale the object is being
measured in (e.g. meters or yards).
Once the researcher identified the levels of measurement, s/he can
begin using some of the quantitative data analysis protocols are
outlined below. Due to the restrictions in sample size, the types of
quantitative methods at the researchers’ disposal are limited. The
main protocols in the quantitative data analysis are as under:
a) Data tabulation (frequency distributions & percent distributions)
The first step in the quantitative data analysis is the tabulation of
the collected data. This process will give complete picture of what
the data looks like and help the researcher in identifying patterns.
The best ways to do this are by constructing frequency and percent
distributions
A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number
of individuals or scores located in each category. The purposes of
frequency distribution are to help and know about that:
If scores are entered correctly
If scores are high or low
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Analysis of Data
Number of sample in each category
The increase in scores
A percent distribution displays the proportion of participants who
are represented within each category.
b) Descriptive data
A descriptive refers to calculations that are used to describe the
data set. The most common descriptive used are:
Mean – the sum of the selected sample divided by the total number
of sample. Or the numerical average of scores for a particular
variable
X = Σx/n
Range – the difference between the highest and lowest value for a
particular variable
Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value
Median – the numerical middle value or score that separate the
distribution in half for a particular variable.
Calculate by:
Record the scores in order and counting the number of scores
If the number of scores is odd, the median is the number that splits
the distribution
If the number of scores is even, calculate the mean of the middle
two scores
Mode – the most common number score or value occurred in a
sample for a particular variable.
Note that:
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Analysis of Data
A meaningful mean can only be calculated from interval and ratio
data.
Range can be calculated for all levels of measurement.
A meaningful median can only be calculated from ordinal,
interval, and ratio data
The mode can be calculated for all levels of measurement
c) Data Disaggregation
The data can be disaggregated by subcategories within a variable.
This allows in taking a deeper look at the units that make up that
category.
d) Moderate and advanced analytical methods
In addition to the basic methods described above, there are a
variety of more complex analytical protocols that may help in the
analysis of the data. These include:
Correlation
Regression
Analysis of variance
Such types of analyses generally require computer software (e.g.,
SPSS, SAS, STATA, and MINITAB) and a sound understanding
of statistics to interpret the results.
Correlation
A correlation is a statistical calculation which describes the nature
of the relationship between two variables (i.e., strong and negative,
weak and positive).
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Analysis of Data
An important aspect regarding the use of correlation is that a
correlations does not explain the causation but it merely indicates
that whether a relationship exit or not and it does not mean that
one variable is the cause of the other.
Analysis of Variance
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine whether
the difference in means (averages) for two groups is statistically
significant or not.
For example, an analysis of variance will help in determining that
the regular students of M.Ed have good grades (means) rather than
those who are private students.
Regression
Regression is an extension of correlation and is used to determine
whether one variable is a predictor of another variable or not.
Regression are normally used to know about the relationship
between two variables and the also their association whether they
are stout or feeble. A variable can have a positive or negative
influence, and the strength of the effect can be weak or strong.
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Research Report Writing
UNIT-10: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
10.1 FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
In the following the nature and overall procedures of the research
can be described.
We will divide the whole research in to three main domains which
are then sub grouped accordingly. The first, second and third
domain of the research are named as preliminary section, main
body and reference section.
Preliminary Section
This section includes
Title page
Acknowledgments (if any)
Table of contents
List of tables (if any)
List of figures (if any)
Abstract
Each of the above will be briefly discussed.
Title
When the researchers select the title or topic for his / her research
study, he / she must be specific and give a clear idea of what the
researcher wants to investigate. Such topic should be selected for
the study which can be accomplished within the proposed time.
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Research Report Writing
Acknowledgment
This section includes those individuals or groups which help the
researcher on the fulfillment of the research.
Table of Contents
The table of contents sections includes the overall chapters, major
heading and sub heading followed by page numbers. Generally,
the page number is stated in front of the chapters, heading, and sub
heading.
List of tables and list of figures
This section includes the overall tables and figures or graph used
in the whole research report / study.
Abstract
This portion is just the summary of the whole research/ project
report which mainly includes the hypothesis, procedures, major
findings, suggestions and recommendations. It is generally advised
to use one word substitution in abstract. The abstract must fulfilled
the following questions.
Does it give a clear and brief summary of the research?
Does it clearly state the problem?
Does it quote / mark the literature dealing with the problem?
Does it summarize the key findings of the research?
Main Body
This portion is divided into five major units which include
introduction, review literature, methods and procedure, results and
discussion, and findings, suggestions and recommendations. All of
these are discussed as under:
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Research Report Writing
Introduction (including Statement of Problem, Purpose of Research, and Significance of Research)
The introduction of a research topic should begin with a statement
of what is being proposed and then should proceed to introduce the
subject to a layman. It should give enough background to enable
an informed layman to place current and particular research
problem in a context of common knowledge and should show how
its solution will advance the field or be important for some other
work. The statement describes the significance of the problem(s),
referring to appropriate studies or statistics.
Statement of the research problem
A clear and logical statement about the problem of the study gives
an in-depth insight to the individual (or to a layman) from the start
of the research study. Before finalizing the problems, it is
necessary to study sufficient materials relevant to the problem. It is
suggested to the researcher to select a burning issue for their
studies which if solved properly have a great impact on the
individual personalities and on the society.
Objectives of the Study
The research objectives are closely related to the research
problems and they are just the summary of the study followed by
certain achievements. The general objectives of the study deals
with the expected results of the study expect by the researcher. It is
recommended to convert general objectives into smaller parts
which are logically connected to each other and then such
objectives are termed as specific objectives. These specific
objectives should be systematically elaborating various research
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Research Report Writing
questions. Draw few objectives of the study. The objectives will
help the researcher to be focus on the area of his / her interest.
Significant of the Problem
The problem selected for the study have a background study in the
introduction chapter and after stating the problem the justification
to the problems is done by its significance. Furthermore, it also
pave way to future beneficiaries regarding the study (Farooq,
2001).
Establishing Hypothesis
The hypothesis is the important aspects of the research. If the
researchers are conducting a quantitative research then the
researchers will state some specific hypotheses that have been
developed from the literature review. A hypothesis is the
researcher’s prediction about the relationship that exists among the
variables of the interest which are to be investigated.
Limitation and Delimitation
The actual area of the study must be demarcated by the researcher.
This also includes the various sources of the study.
Terminologies
Difficult terminologies and definitions (if present in the study)
must be defined so that the reader may understand and cope up
with the scope of the study. Further, it clarifies the baffled concept
of the reader.
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Review Literature
The purpose of the review literature is to know about the relevant
and similar research work done prior on the current topic / study.
When the researchers conduct a review literature, it help them a lot
and the researcher came to know about the selected topic that how
much and up to what extent a research has been conducted on his /
her area of interest. The review literatures also help the researchers
to revise their topic and also show the procedures, approaches and
specificity of the problem to the selected research project. The
most important aspect of review literature is that, after completing
a through literature review, the researcher will be able to specify
the research questions and hypothesis and the researcher can get a
clear picture (Jack, 2007).
Methods and Procedures
Sampling
Experiential research always depends upon a sample which is
understood to precisely represent a population. Therefore, the
techniques by which the sample was chosen are crucial to a
discussion the validity of the research findings.
Empirical research methodology measurement instruments
When particular measurement instruments are used it is often vital
to make clear how those instruments were designed and where and
up to what extent they have formerly been used.
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Research Report Writing
Data Collection Procedures
The process of data collection events must also be incorporated so
that other
researchers can imitate your method precisely (if required).
Data Analysis
A choice of practices of quantitative and qualitative data analysis
subsist and
must be portray in detail in this segment. This section also includes
the discussions, conclusion and drawing the results of the study.
Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
This chapter includes the finding of the research study and the
conclusions are drawn and on the basis of these findings and
conclusions, the recommendations are formulated.
Findings
The final unit of the study as a rule restrains the findings of the
study. These are generally exposed after the analysis process.
Conclusions
The conclusions made by the researcher are the one of the
important element of the study. In jotting down the conclusion, the
researcher should point out what were his / her hand-outs in the
field towards the study. The conclusions also put up with the
positive and negative results of the study.
Recommendations
In this portion, the researcher stated such suggestions to the
problems which are confronted to the individual, to the society, to
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Research Report Writing
the nations etc. the recommendations helps in problem-solving
strategy decisions for implementations.
References
This portion includes all the citations and researchers whose ideas
and notions are used in the study. These may be in chronological
order and usually use APA format. Other formats like MLA,
Chicago, Turabian and SIST02 are also used.
Appendices / Annexure
This portion includes all the maps, concerned letters, research
instruments etc. This section is followed after the references.
10.2 VOICE AND POINT OF VIEW
Point of View
When the researchers are subjected to write the research report,
he / she can opt any of the three approaches in this regard. The
main approaches often taken under considerations are first-person,
second-person and third person.
First-Person Approach
This is a strappingly individualized point of view in which the
researcher draw on his / her own experience and verbalize to his /
her addressees in his / her own voice (using pronouns like I, me,
mine, we, our, and us). This approach highlights the researcher, the
writer and is a good choice for writing based on primarily personal
experience.
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Research Report Writing
Second-Person Approach
In this method, the author verbalizes directly to the reader (using
the pronoun you). This method highlights the reader and works
glowing for giving advices, instructions, or explanation how to
carry out something. Otherwise, as a general rule, never use the
word you in academic writing.
Third-Person Approach
This approach is the most universal point of view used in
academic writing. In the third-person, the author contains no direct
references to the reader (you) or the self (I, me). It gets its name
from its posture such that of an outsider or third-person observing
and reporting on matters of public rather than private importance.
This approach emphasizes the subject and draws on information
that the writer has acquired through observation, thinking, or
reading. It is appropriate in formal academic and professional
writing. Coherence suffers whenever a draft shifts confusingly
from one point of view to another. The solution is to choose a
suitable perspective and then stay with it.
Active and passive verbs are both grammatically correct, but
active verbs are usually more effective because they are simpler
and more direct. Furthermore, carefully selected verbs can
energize a piece of writing.
Prefer Active Voice
Sentences in active voice are also briefer than those in passive
voice because fewer words are required to express action in active
voice than in passive. Use the active voice unless you have a good
reason for choosing the passive.
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Choosing Passive Voice
In scientific writing, passive voice is more eagerly accepted since
using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the
names of particular researchers. This do helps to create the
appearance of an objective, fact-based paper. Even in scientific
writing, the gorge of passive voice or use of passive voice in long
and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or
become confused. That is why the sentences in active voice are
generally, though not always, clearer and more direct than those in
passive voice.
Unnecessary Shifts
Keep away from starting a sentence in active voice and then
shifting to passive.
10.3 PREPARATION OF THE REPORT
While preparing the research report, it is the will of the researcher
that what kind of approach he / she want to opt. However, deeming
some knowledge about the way how other researchers solve their
common errors will be helpful.
Developing preliminary outline and modifying the report
First the data is collected from the field and then subject that to
test the hypothesis. Most of the reports are crafted after testing the
hypothesis. The researcher make categories of the data for analysis
and after analysis, draw certain explanations and interpretation for
each category which have a links or connections between each
category. The first draft was then revised and gives them some sort
of a logical order and sequence. It is important to make a list of the
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Research Report Writing
entire key concept present in the data and then give them a
coherent and organized order for creating magnetism in the report.
Revise the draft carefully and point out the gaps (if present in the
research study) because the first draft can never be a final draft
(Farooq, 2001).
Report Inscription / Writing
Writing reports is a very laborious task. Experts and victorious
writers revise their draft several time to eliminate errors (if found)
to meet their satisfaction. Moreover, the essential correction and
modifications can be accomplished by their research supervisors.
Revising and modifying the report guzzle more time than that of
writing the innovative and guanine report (Farooq, 2001).
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Appendix
APPENDIX
II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen)(Specimen)
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF URBAN-RURAL -EDUCATION AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL IN N.W.F.P AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACTION PLAN FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF
2010 - 2015 TARGETS
1. Background of the Study
Elementary education is the fundamental right of every child. This
fundamental right has been recognized throughout the world.
Investment in education makes a vital contribution to socio-
economic development and improvement of quality of life.
Elementary education, which is a bed-rock of educational pyramid
contributes too, towards social stability and economic well-being
of the country. Educationally developed countries of the Asian
Region have achieved tremendous progress in elementary
education so that they could secure and sustain high percapita
gross national product and have narrowed down the gaps to
considerable extent between urban-rural and gender disparities.
Government of Pakistan is making efforts to eradicate illiteracy
and promote elementary education all over the country. Both in
individual capacity and in collaboration with other foreign
agencies, all education policies and plans have been based on an
agreed agenda such as removing urban-rural disparity, improving
quality, expanding access for out of school children, improving
management and supervision, capacity building, institutional
development and financial sustainability. These goals and targets
have been set from time to time in all successive educational
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policies, plans and development programmes but could not be
achieved due to various reasons.
The initiatives taken by the government of N.W.F.P for the
development and improvements of elementary education, can be
revealed from its efforts made during the past two decades. The
government had been executing a long range project “Elementary
Education Development Programme N.W.F.P. (1989-99)” since
1990 which had been sponsored by the Federal Government
(Islamabad) with the assistance of USAID worth of Rs. 3200.00
millions. The broad goals of the programme were to establishing a
foundations for sustained economic reforms in elementary
education, to strengthen the institutional capacity of the province,
to formulate and implement policy that would improve
“access”“equity” and “quality” of elementary education and thus
leading to the removal of grave disparity which existed between
urban and rural areas and in male female education.
The planners of the programme had taken in view some related
facts while formulating the plan of development. The most
important feature of the development efforts were to raise the
participation rate which in (1988-89) of male was 81.0 percent
(78.0 percent urban and 83.0 percent rural) and of female children,
it was 24.0 .percent (49.0 percent urban 19.0 percent rural). The
total participation rate of both sex was 54.0 percent (64.0 percent
urban and 52.0 percent rural). Similarly, the dropout rate indicated
in the plan was 63.0 percent, urban (60.0 percent, male and 70.0
percent female) and 71.0 percent rural (70.0 percent, male and
78.0 percent female) which was higher as compared to other
provinces. In 1989, there were 207 shelterless schools, most of
them were in the rural areas.
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The planners had further pointed out major issues like low
participation and poor standard of education at elementary level,
lack of proper accommodation, absence of permissive atmosphere,
poor teacher’s training, defective and unrelated curricula,
unattractive text books, lack of proper administration and
supervision, defective methods of recruitment and training,
the shortage of teachers and lack of facilities in schools in rural
areas. Now this project and other similar projects have been
completed. What changes and improvement have been brought
about, needs thorough investigation. The present study
concentrates on such basic issues. To what extent gaps in
education at the fist level in urban and rural areas, and in male and
female education, still exist? What is the nature of such
unbalanced situation? How are such disparities challenging and
demand changes and improvement in future? And how a balanced
education system at elementary level could be developed and
sustained in future? And how can an Action Plan of development
be devised to meet such target by 2010 and 2015? These are such
questions which have stimulated the researcher to undertake such
type of study.
2. Statement of the Problems
The problems of this study is to undertake a detailed comparative
study on conceptual as well as on situational analysis of the state
of elementary education in N.W.F.P with special reference to
highlight the gaps with multifarious dimensions that exist in male
and female education, urban and rural education and to ascertain
its implications for forwarding a development action plan for the
achievement of 2010 — 2015 targets.
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3. Objective of the Study
This study will be directed by the following objectives:
To analyze in depth the government policies and
initiatives on the development of elementary education in
the country.
To analyze in detail the policy and programmes of the
provincial government on the development of elementary
education in the region.
To analyze the specific situation contributing towards
disparities in the development of elementary education in
the province.
To analyze the specific situation of the development of
elementary education in Nowshera District.
To propose an “Action Plan” for improving of the
situation with special reference to removing the existing
disparities in elementary education and achieving the
targets laid in the National Policy for 2010.
4. Significance of the Study
The significance of the study can be justified on the following
grounds.
a. While analyzing the situation of the development of
elementary education in the country, and also in the region,
some crucial factors have come into limelight which have
always been irritating the minds of policy makers, planners.
administrators, teachers and the beneficiaries. Low enrolment,
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high wastage, poor facilities, shelterless schools, lack/absence
of basic facilities, unattractive school environment, irrelevant
curricula, unwilling teachers, inefficient supervisors,
centralized administration and absence of community
involvement etc. are such factors which have characterized the
sad state of primary education in the region. The situation has
been further aggravated by the grave disparities that exist in
urban-rural and male and female education.
b. Inspite of the fact that the government of N.W.F.P has
accorded top priority to elementary education, innovative
techniques have been adopted to improve the infrastructure,
teaching-learning environment and supervisory system, to
enhance the professional competence of teachers and to
restructure the traditional set up of the system, but, little have
been achieved so far against such high expectations. Such
paradoxical situation which despite of all out efforts being
made by the government, does not come up to the expectations
of the society. It obviously demands a thorough and objective
inquiry into the existing situation. Such inquiry will be in line
with the policy of the government, intending to give right
direction to the development of education, particularly, at the
first level in the province.
c. The study is hoped to provide guidelines to all concerned with
the development of elementary education, particularly for
female in the rural areas of the region.
d. The study could also be of value for perspective teachers,
teacher-educators and training institutions in the region and in
the country.
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e. The study is further expected to prove useful for foreign
educationists and students who are interested to study the
problems and issues obstructing the pace of development of
education and more particularly of primary education in the
developing countries like Pakistan.
5. Assumptions
There are disparities in education system in Pakistan. These are in
terms of provision of facilities, in urban and rural areas, male and
female education, in the medium of instruction and in varying
standards of physical facilities and environment. This situation has
been clearly exposed in all education policies since 1970.
Therefore, it is assumed that disparities of varied dimensions listed
below exist in education in general and in primary education in
particular.
The imbalance situation can be revealed from:
a. The access and equity of urban-rural, male and female
education
b. The quality of education
c. The delivery system
d. The mechanism of supervision
e. The mode of administration and management
f. The preparation of teachers
g. The institutional development of financial sustainability
h. The physical and instructional facilities
i. The retention capability of the school instructional and
physical environment
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6. Questions to be Answered in the Study
Questions to be answered in the study are primarily based on the
concept and underlying assumptions of the study. These however,
concentrate on the specific nature, issues and concerns of the
problems, such as:
a. What main concerns have been expressed by policy makers
regarding the existing disparity in education?
b. What are the main issues in the existing urban and rural
disparities particularly at elementary level?
c. What are the contributing factors for the existing gender
disparities in education?
d. What is the nature and extent of such disparity that exists in
the selected area of NWFP?
e. Which are the variables that reflect the gravity of situation
relating to the disparity in question?
f. What would be the socio-economic implications of narrowing
down such disparities?
g. What would be the implications for policy formulation and
future planning for removing the gaps so exist in the target
level?
h. How would this research influence the policy of the
government regarding the development of education in general
and primary education in particular in future? And
i. What type of a workable Action Plan could be developed to
correct the situation on one hand and achieve the development
targets as laid down in the National Education Policy 1998-
2010.
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7. Design of the Study
a. The Nature of Study
The study is descriptive in nature and scope, focusing on the
system analysis and other situational factors, obstructing the
developments of elementary education in the region.
b. Dimensions of the Study
The study is of two-dimensional so far as the situational analysis
of the problems is concerned. It will be conducted both at regional
and district.
Beside an intensive deskwork on the conceptual aspect of the
problem, a through analysis of the related statistical documents
issued by government of NWFP on the development of education
and socio-econômic sectors, will also be studied.
8. Literature Survey/Review
The following documents which will be specifically consulted for
the study are:
National Education Policies (1979-1998)
National Educational Plans (1978-1998)
Development of Education in Pakistan (1978-1980)
Primary Education Development Programmes (1989-99)
Provincial NWFP Profile Regarding Government Primary
Schools (1997)
NWFP Development Statistics (1997-1999)
District Wise Socio-Economic Indicators of NWFP.
(1996-1999)
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Any research done on the subject
Any national/international report available on the subject
9. Procedure of the Study
The following procedure will be adopted for the study:
a. Guidelines:
Guidelines will be prepared for collection of information on the
development of primary education in NWFP from all sources
mentioned in literature.
b. The Questionnaires:
The data relating to the development of primary education in
NWFP., Nowshera , Chitral will be obtained through separate
questionnaires.. Five percent schools both male and female each
from urban and rural areas, will be randomly selected for the study
at district level.
c. Organization and interpretation of data:
The data obtained through a documentary analysis and from the
field will be organized, tabulated and interpreted according to the
standard design of research. The method of percentage will be
used for the interpretation of statistical data collected from the
field. On the basis of findings of research, a set of
recommendations will be forwarded to the government to correct
the situation in future. An Action Plan for Development of
Elementary Education to achieve the target of National Education
20 10-2015 will be forwarded.
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10. References
1. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1947) All
Pakistan Education Conference November, Karachi
2. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1959) Report
of the Commission on National Education Rawalpindi
3. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1970) The
New Education Policy Islamabad
4. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1972) The
Education Policy (1972-80) Islamabad
5. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1978) The
National Educational Education Policy, Islamabad
6. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1992) The
National Educational Policy, Islamabad
7. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1998) The
National Education Policy. Islamabad
8. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Fifth Five
Year Plan (1978-83) Islamabad
9. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Sixth Five
Year Plan (1983-85) Islamabad
10. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Seventh
Five Year Plan (1988-93) Islamabad
11. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Eight Five
Year Plan (1993-98) Islamabad
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Appendix
12. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and
Development. Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP
Development Statistics (1996) Peshawar
13. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and
Development. Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP
Development Statistics (1997) Peshawar
14. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and
Development. Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP
Development Statistics (1998-99) Peshawar
15. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and
Development. Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP
Development Statistics Socio-Economic Indicators of NWFP
(1997-98) Peshawar
16. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and
Development. Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP
Development Statistics Socio-Economic Indicators of NWFP
(1998-99) Peshawar
17. Khan Namdar, (1970), Some Aspect of Planning for Primary
Education in Pakistan, Islarnabad.
18. Qureshi M.H. (1980) Universalization of Primary Education in
Pakistan Islamabad.
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