Research Book (Final) Nawaz.doc

RESEARCH IN EDUCATION &

Social Sciences

Dr. S. Abdul Ghaffar

Dr. Arbab Khan Afridi

In Collaboration With

MASTER COACHING ACADEMY (MCA)

(IER) UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR

All rights reserved with the Author

Authors: Dr. S. A. Ghaffar

Dr. Arbab Khan Afridi

Book: Research in Education andSocial Sciences

1st Edition: May, 2005

2nd Edition: October, 2013

Composer: M. Nawaz Khan Abbasi

0333-9352585

Printers: Ijaz Printers, Peshawar

Quantity: 1000

Price: 150/-

Available at MCA Academy and leading book shops

[email protected]

Contact: 091-5843361

Cell: 0300-5930899

mailto:[email protected]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................ I

UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION...................................................................1

1.1 The Nature of Research 1

1.2 Need for Research in Education 7

1.3 Procedure/ Format of Eductional Research 8

1.4 The Scientific Method; Positivism and Naturalism 10

1.5 Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed-Method Research Designs 17

UNIT-2: SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM...................................20

2.1 Sources of Research Problem 20

2.2 Evaluating the Research Problem 21

2.3 Refining the Research Problem 22

2.4 Research Objectives 22

2.5 Research Questions 23

2.6 Research Hypotheses/ Hypotheses 24

2.7 Literature Review 26

UNIT-3: PREPARING RESEARCH PROPOSAL......................................28

3.1 The Research Purposes of Synopsis 28

3.2 Formats of the Research Report 28

3.3 What is a Research Plan or Proposal? 35

3.4 Elaboration of the Elements of the Research Plan / Proposal 36

UNIT-4: SAMPLING.........................................................................44

4.1 Rationale of Sampling 46

4.2 Steps in Sampling 46

4.3 Probability Sampling 48

4.4 Non – Probability Samples (Non-Representative Samples) 49

4.5 The Size of the Sample (Fundamentals) 50

i

4.6 The Concept of Sampling Error 50

UNIT-5: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH..............................................52

5.1 Research Ethics 52

5.2 Technical Issues in Assessment 54

UNIT-6: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH....................................................63

6.1 Introduction to Qualitative Research 63

6.1.1 Ethnography 63

6.1.2 Phenomenology 65

6.2.3 Case Study 68

6.1.4 Grounded Theory 71

6.1.5 Critical Research 73

6.1.6 Action Research 75

6.2 Non – Interactive Research 80

6.2.1 Content Analysis 80

6.2.2 Historical Research 81

6.3 The Historical Hypotheses 81

6.4 The Historical Report 82

UNIT-7: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH..................................................84

7.1 Experimental Research Design 84

7.1.1 True Experimental 84

7.1.2 Quasi Experimental Designs 89

7.1.3 Single Subject 92

7.2 Non – Experimental Research Designs 94

7.2.1 Descriptive 94

7.2.2 Comparative 95

7.2.3 Correlation 97

7.2.4 Survey 99

7.2.5 Secondary Data Analysis 102

ii

UNIT-8: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS.................................................107

8.1 Questionnaire 107

8.2 Interviews 116

8.3 Accounts 121

8.4 Observation 121

8.5 Tests and Appraisal Instrument 124

8.6 Personal Construct Theory 127

8.7 Scales 128

8.8 Anecdotal Records 131

UNIT-9: ANALYSIS OF DATA...........................................................134

9.1 Qualitative Data Analysis 134

9.2 Quantitative Data Analysis 139

UNIT-10: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING............................................145

10.1 Format of the Research Report 145

10.2 Voice and Point of View 151

10.3 Preparation of the Report 153

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................155

APPENDIX.......................................................................................159

II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen) 159

iii

Introduction

UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

Research in education and in social sciences has become basic

requirement of any academic programme at any level. The days

are gone when it was offered optional against any subject or

subjects. The recent trend in research development is towards

skill-orientation than knowledge orientation, towards more on

application of the skill than mere interpretation of theory. This

book is hoped to provide both knowledge and skill to our students

and research workers and also develop their critical attitude

towards understanding and seeking solution of educational and

social problems. The purpose of writing of this book is to enable

our students to become "good researchers" and for becoming

"good researchers" they need to acquire both knowledge and skill

in the fields they are expected to work and produce significant

results.

Good books in educational and social research have been produced

and are available only in libraries of elite institutions to which

access of every student and a faculty member is difficult if not

possible. Moreover, such books have been written in the specific

ideological, social, economic and educational situations of their

own countries. Dealing with our own specific situation in research

matters, will need extra efforts. Such consideration has been taken

in view while making this humble attempt.

Two broad fields as observed from the title of this book education

and social sciences have been integrated in this document with

specific objective of meeting the knowledge and skill needs of

educational as well as of social sciences research. It will not be an

1

Introduction

unnatural discussion, because the basic concepts in education and

in social sciences are common and are interlinked so far as the

goals and ideals of a particular society or a community is

concerned.

Educational research aims at to develop new scientific tools,

techniques, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable

and valid study of human behaviour in teaching-learning situation

in the school or in the classroom, while the social research aims at

to develop new scientific, tools, techniques and theories which

would facilitate reliable, and valid study of human behaviour in

the street i.e. society or social life. Social research like educational

research adopts a systematic method of explaining, analyzing and

conceptualizing social life in order to extend, correct or verify

knowledge. Basically there is no difference in the concept,

approach and in the spirit of these two approaches. The difference

is if any, may be relating to the situation i.e. inside the classroom

and outside the classroom. If an educational researcher seeks to

find explanation to an unsolved educational problem, the social

worker strives to find out explanation to an unexplained social

problem in the society. The educational ideals are inspired by the

ideals of the society for the achievement of which institutions are

established and these institutions are influenced by social, cultural

values and differences of the society. So, there is no 'dichotomy' in

education and social sciences. They are infact. two sides of the

same coin. Mahatma Gandhi once rightly said, "School is the

replica of society" Schools are established for preservation and

promotion of ideological, social, cultural, and also economic and

political ideals of the society. Therefore, the mutual discussion on

educational and social problems and seeking their solution through

2

Introduction

scientific methods will not be out of place for which the writing of

this book has been attempted.

The content of the book spreads over thirteen units, which are

briefly stated:

Unit-1: This unit describes the concept of educational and

social research. Important issues like the need and

importance of research, areas of educational and

social research, interrelationship of educational

and social research, educational and social

research defined by educationists and social

scientists.

Unit-2: This unit focuses on the concept of "social

reality", the characteristics of physical and social

phenomena, the problems and complexities in

social reality, which may have serious

implications for research. What challenges are

faced by social and educational researchers, have

also been pointed in this unit.

Unit-3: This unit is mostly concerned with scientific

method, characteristics of scientific research and

research process, comparison of qualitative and

quantitative approaches in research. Various

stages of research process have been stated in

detail in this unit.

Unit-4: This unit describes the classification of research

by purpose. Four kinds of research, basic, applied,

action and evaluation research have been

discussed in this unit.

3

Introduction

Unit-5: This unit is devoted to a wide and exclusive

discussion on hypotheses, definitions, importance,

characteristics, types and examples of formulating,

testing hypotheses.

Unit-6: This unit relates to critical discussion on

"historical research". Scope and method of

historical research, sources, their selection,

formulation of historical problems, historical

criticism, weaknesses identified and difficulties

encountered by researchers, the nature of

historical hypotheses and the manner a historical

research report is presented, have been described

in this unit.

Unit-7: This unit explains the nature and scope of

"descriptive research". The concept of descriptive

research, types of descriptive research,

comparison between social surveys and social

research, kinds of survey studies with reference to

educational problems, ex-post facto or causal

comparative studies, correlation studies,

developmental studies, growth studies, trend

studies, case studies and statistical method of

educational and social research etc have been

described in this unit.

Unit-8: This unit concentrates on another important type

of research that is "experimental research". The

concept of experiment and of experimental

research, experimental process, components of

experiment, variables, techniques of controlling

4

Introduction

extraneous variables, and types of experimental

validity etc have been discussed in this unit.

Unit-9: This unit highlights various "experimental

designs. Ten experimental designs from simple to

complex have been described which are mostly

relevant to be applied in experimental studies.

Unit-10: This unit focuses on the nature and use of various

tools of research. The popular types of tools used

in educational and social research like sampling,

questionnaire, interview schedule, observation and

tests etc have been described in this unit.

Unit-11: This unit is devoted to discussion on preparation

of "research plan or proposal". Its need and

importance major components of the proposal,

various steps taken in formulation of the plan,

have been discussed.

Unit-12: This unit reflects the general nature of the research

report, chapter wise content of the research report,

other characteristics relating to the presentation of

the research report in appropriate manner, have

been described in this unit.

Unit-13: This unit is exclusively devoted to highlight the

important but the critical issues relating to the

organization of the content of the thesis and

dissertation. The discussion is divided into four

sections. All these sections explain the pros and

cons' of writing a thesis in a more applied and

skillful manner. The main purpose of writing of

this unit is to develop knowledge, and skill in our

5

Introduction

students of writing a research report which

observing all the required standard formalities.

Important examples have been given in the form

of Appendices at the end of this book. These

include specimens of preliminary pages and

research proposals or synopsis for our perspective

researchers.

As the writer is associated with Allama Iqbal Open University for

supervising its M.Phil and Ph.D students for a long time, the

material support extended to the writer for this purpose, has

greatly facilitated to enrich the content of this book, for which the

writer is highly indebted.

The important feature of this book is that it is written according to

the courses in research techniques, offered almost in all

departments of Arts and Social Sciences. More particularly the

contents are related to the courses in research in vogue in the

Institute of Education and Research, Sociology and Anthropology

Department, University of Peshawar who have kindly collaborated

in the provision of material for the preparation of this book.

Time and resources were constraints facing the writer. Selection of

content appropriate to the subject was an other problem.

Consequently, large margins have been left for improvement of

this document in future. Therefore, readers are requested to kindly

examine the book critically, identify weaknesses and forward

valuable suggestions for improvement and revision of the book so

that it could be reproduced in a more meaningful and acceptable

manner in future.

The writing of this book is mainly attributed to the encouragement

and assistance of the writers colleagues and friends Prof. Arbab

6

Introduction

Khan Afridi, M. Arshad Ali, Mohammad Rauf IER and Dr. Rashid

Khan, Sociology and Social Anthropology Department, University

of Peshawar.

1.2 NEED FOR RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

Research is a purposeful activity. It creates new knowledge and

expands the frontier of the existing knowledge. If research adds to

the existing knowledge, it is done in an orderly and systematic

manner. It is tested, validated and generalized and utilized when

need arises.

Research and progress are correlated, interrelated and

interdependent. Research is an essential tool in leading man

towards progress and prosperity. Research infact, has stimulated

socio-economic, scientific and technological development in the

world over. Information Technology (IT) once benefited by

research, is now revolutionizing and innovating research activities.

Research and development (R&D) are now synonymously used by

the policy makers and planners particularly in developing

countries like Pakistan. Even the secret of our cultural

development lies in the promotion of research, which breaks away

the boundaries of ignorance and superstition and open avenues of

enlightment, truth and better ways of life. The "blessings" of

research are evident in the form of countless discoveries and

inventions, which have dramatically changed our individual and

social life. If the goal of research is progress and prosperity,

happier and fuller life, then it must be accorded top priority in the

national plans of development and must be adequately supported

by `political will' and liberal financial resources. The

discriminatory policy as has been pursued between basic sciences

research and social sciences research, should be given up. 'Human

7

Introduction

development' as a human being is more important than the

development of physical infrastructure.

1.3 PROCEDURE/ FORMAT OF EDUCTIONAL RESEARCH

Various design/format or components of the research plan

or proposal have been suggested by research experts. A few of

them are outlined below:

(i) According to L.R Gay (1992) the following components

comprise a research plan have been suggested

a. Introduction

Statement of problem

Review of the literature

Statement of Hypotheses

b. Method

Subjects

Instrument

Design

Procedure

c. Data Analysis

d. Time schedule

e. Budget (if appropriate)

(ii) Format/Design Suggested by Allama Iqbal Open

University Islamabad, Important Components are:

a. Statement of the problem

8

Introduction

b. Purpose/objectives of the study

c. Definitions, assumptions and limitations

d. Review of the related literature

e. Theoretical framework

f. Hypotheses and questions

g. Proposed research procedure

h. Time frame

i. Proposed budget (if required)

(iii) An outline of Research Proposed by John. W. Best


b. The hypotheses

c. The significance of the problem

d. Definitions, assumptions and limitations

e. A resume for related literature

f. A careful and detailed analysis of proposed research

g. A time schedule

(iv) Looking into various FORI’VIATS of the research

proposed, the following pattern of research plan is

suggested by the author. It contains the following

elements


b. Objectives of the study

c. Method

d. Significance of the study

9

Introduction

e. Definitions, Abbreviations, assumptions limitations

f. Review of the related literature

g. Theoretical framework

h. Hypotheses/key questions

i. Research method and procedure

j. Time schedule

k. Proposed budget (if desired)

These elements of as research proposal are elaborated in the next

section so that students could be able to understand how to explain

each and every element of the plan according to nature of the

problem.

1.4 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD; POSITIVISM AND NATURALISM

1.4.1 Assumptions and Postulates

The scientific method has been evolved out of strenuous efforts by

scientists for the solution of problems. There are assumption on

which the conceptual framework of scientific method is based.

These assumptions directly, influence researcher's activity. They

form the basis for his procedures, influence the methods of

executing them and affect the interpretation of his findings. For

example, there is uniformity in the nature, the nature is not a

chaotic mass of isolated factors. In nature, there are objects,

events, processes and having stricking likeness or similarities.

There is relative permanency and orderliness in nature and that all

natural phenomena are detennined. All these assumptions have

10

Introduction

facilitated the work of a scientist and are playing indispensable

role in research.

1.4.2 Scientific Method

Gone are the days when people acquired knowledge by 'trial and

error' method and when authority, traditions, opinions of scholars

and of experts, deductive and inductive reasoning were the main

source of acquiring knowledge. Now the modem method of

acquiring knowledge is based on observed facts and on the

combination of inductive and deductive thought process.

In scientific method, purposeful facts are collected, premises are

tested and reflective thinking are engaged. According to John

Dewey five stages are involved in the act of problem solving.

a. A felt difficulty

b. Location and definition of the felt difficulty

c. Suggested solution of the problem/hypothesis

d. Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the

suggested solutions

e. Testing the hypotheses by action

The scientific method of reflective thinking is a tool that

investigators use to solve diverse types of problems. For example,

a pure research worker will try to find out new knowledge about

the mysteries of the universe. An applied researcher will seek to

develop a new product that can immediately improve some

existing condition. A classroom teacher will intend to solve certain

practical problem through undertaking action research.

Man had made tremendous progress in developing better methods

of seeking knowledge down through the ages and thus

revolutionary advances have been made by scientists in the past

11

Introduction

century. The tentative solutions to problems forwarded by

scientific method are accepted with greater confidence. Scientific

method is a purposeful and practical "torchlight for men to use in

lighting the way to the discovery of new truth".

1.4.3 Application of Scientific Method in Education and Other Social Sciences

As already stated research is a formal, systematic application of

the scientific method to the study of the problems. Educational and

social research is thus a formal, systematic application of the

scientific method to the study of educational and social problems.

However, there are differences between educational and social

research and other scientific research. The difference is of the

phenomena studied. It is considerably more difficult to explain,

predict and control situations involving human beings as the most

complex of all organisms. There are so many variables known and

unknown operating in any educational or social environment that

is extremely difficult to generalize or to replicate findings. The

kinds of controls that can be established and maintained for

example in a biochemistry laboratory are virtually impossible in an

educational or social setting. Observation is also more difficult in

educational and social research. Perhaps it is precisely the

difficulty and complexity of educational and social research that

make them such a challenging and exciting fields.

The main steps involved in conducting research look familiar since

they are directly parallel those of the scientific method such as

there are:

a. Selection and definition of a problem

b. Execution of a research procedure

c. Analysis of data and

12

Introduction

d. Drawing and stating conclusion

1.4.4 Limitations of Scientific Method

There are certain limitations in scientific method, which are briefly

stated.

a. Despite the improvements man has made in searching for

knowledge, he has not yet arrived at a perfect method for

seeking answers to his questions. Authority, experience,

inductive and deductive reasoning have certain limitations

as research tools. The scientific method has proved to be

specially useful means of seeking knowledge in the

method of sciences and it has also been helpful to

educators and social workers to probe into problems but a

scientific method is not suitable instrument for seeking

answers to certain type of questions. James B. Conant

once declared, "Only an occasional brave man will be

found now a days to claim that the so called scientific

method is applicable to the solution of almost all the

problems of daily life in the modern world".

b. Authorities have not reached a common agreement

concerning the breadth of the applicability of the scientific

method.

c. Some critics contend that scientific method cannot be used

except in the natural sciences. Other question whether the

scientific method follows a simple method of

investigation. They believe that no right set of logical rules

can be established for physical scientist, psychologists and

educationists and historians to follow in their respective

investigations. Some critics argue that since science differs

13

Introduction

from one another, each science requires a different

method.

Controversy exists concerning the nature and use of the scientific

method, but most scholars regard this intellectual tools as one of

the most promising instruments that man possesses for pushing

forward the frontier of human understanding and increasing the

accumulation of tested and verified knowledge.

Research is a scientific process. It enjoys all the characteristics of

science and scientific method. These characteristics can be derived

from various definitions described in the preceding section,

however, these are stated separately in the following lines.

a. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

The ultimate goal is to discover 'cause' and 'effect'

relationship between variables.

b. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations,

principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting

future occurrences.

c. Research is based upon observations, experiences or on

empirical evidence.

d. Research demands an accurate observation and

description.

e. Research involves gathering new data from primary or

first hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.

f. Research is often characterized by carefully designed

procedures that apply rigorous logical analysis.

g. Research requires expertise.

h. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved

problems and pushing back the frontiers of ignorance.

i. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried

activity. It is rarely spectacular and researchers sometimes

14

Introduction

will face disappointment and discouragement when they

pursue the answers to difficult questions or dealing with

complicated situation.

j. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Each

important point is defined, limiting factors are recognized,

procedures are described in detail, references are carefully

documented, results are objectively recorded and

conclusions are drawn with scholarly caution and restraint.

k. Research requires courage and steadfastness.

l. Research involves the elements of observation and

description and analysis of what happens under certain

circumstances.

m. Research places emphasis upon development of sound

theories and more upon the discovery of general principles

that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

n. Research is more than compiling, collecting and tabulating

data. It involves deducing the consequences of hypotheses

through careful observation and application of rigorous

logic.

o. Research is about establishing facts. It is objective. It is

scientific and it is always policy oriented.

p. Research involves an analysis of the relationship between

causes and effects, which imply the possibilities of an

empirical testing.

q. The research is highly purposive because it is directed

towards the solution of a problem; it originates from the

researcher's need to find an answer to a question.

r. The research is systematic in the sense that a researcher

identifies and defines the problem, formulates hypotheses,

collects, analyzes and interprets data and draws conclusion

or makes generalizations.

15

Introduction

s. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible

test to validate the procedures employed, data collected

and the conclusion reached. The researcher strives to

eliminate personal feelings and bias. The emphasis is on

testing matter rather than providing the hypotheses.

t. Research is a systematic and objective analysis and

recording of controlled observation that may lead to the

development of a generalization, principles or theories

resulting in prediction.

u. The basic characteristics shared by all types of research

are that they are to be planned, cautions, systematic and

reliable ways of finding out the solution of problems or

deepening understanding of the phenomena under

investigation.

Summary or Key-Points

The characteristics of scientific research described, are

summarized below.

A Scientific research is:

Highly purposive

Systematic

Critical, logical and objective

Accurate

Involving formulation and testing of hypotheses

Recording and reporting data in quantitative terms

Discovering general principles or arriving at

generalization

Requiring expertise

Future and policy-oriented

A strenuous and pains taking job

16

Introduction

Follows through carefully designed procedure

Discovering 'cause' and effect relationship

Directed towards the solution of a problem

It expands the frontiers of knowledge

1.5 QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND MIXED-METHOD RESEARCH DESIGNS

As indicated at several instances that educational and social

problems need solution. For solution of such problems different

methods or approaches are adopted. A researcher must be aware of

such methods or approaches. There are different approaches such

as qualitative, quantitative, field study, library, experimental etc.

In this section, only qualitative and quantitative methods or

approaches will be discussed. It is better to be comparatively

described so that their need, importance, nature and the manner

researchers are conducted through these modalities could be

comprehended by research students.

Qualitative Vs Quantitative Research Approaches

Qualitative Research Quantitative ResearchApproach Approach

a. Qualitative approaches involve the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into phenomena of interest. The data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of a verbal hypothesis.

a. Quantitative approach involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and control phenomena of interest. The data analysis is mainly statistical

b. Qualitative approach involves primarily induction

b. Quantitative approach primarily involves deduction

c. If hypothesis are involved a c. If hypotheses are involved a

17

Introduction

qualitative study is much more likely to generate them

quantitative study is much more likely to test them

d. In qualitative approach there is no such thing as value free inquiry

d. In quantitative research the researchers try to be totally objective i.e. value free

e. At operational level qualitative researchers are more holistic and process

e. Quantitative approaches are more focused and outcome oriented oriented

f. Qualitative researchers typically study many variables intensely over a period of time in order to find out the way things are, how and why they come to be that way and what it all measure? Qualitative researchers are more concerned with the meaning of their findings

f. Quantitative researches conversely typically concentrate on one or small number of variables in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationships including cause and effect relationships. They are more concerned with the generalizability of their findings then with the meaning of their findings

g. Qualitative researchers do not want to intervene or to control anything they want to study phenomena as they are in natural settings

g. Quantitative researchers on the other hand often intervene and attempt to control as many variables as possible

h. Quantitative researchers conducted to promote greater understanding of not just the way things are but also why?

h. Qualitative research is are not just concerned with describing the way things are but also gaining insight into how things got to be the way things are, how people feel about the way things are, what they believe and what meaning they attach to various activities?

18

Introduction

19

Selection of Research Problem

UNIT-2: SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

2.1 SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Now the question is what are the qualities of a good research

problem. The qualities attributed to a good research problem are:

It is not too broad

It is manageable

It is not too subjective

It is not too controversial

It should not be too familiar

It is not too technical

It should express relationship between two or

more variables

It should be stated clearly and unambiguously

preferably in question form

It should be such as implies or permits

possibilities or empirical testing

It must be new and novel

It is researchable

It has theoretical as well practical significances

It should be justified in terms of its contribution to

educational theory or practice

20


It is a good problem in the sense that the

researcher possesses the research skill, available

resources and time

2.2 EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Evaluation research is sometimes called as program evaluation,

which refers to a research purpose rather than a specific method.

Prior to the selection of problem by the researcher it is

recommended to ask a series of inter connected questions

regarding the topic because these questions will greatly help the

researchers in personal satisfaction and suitability and will also

know about the social value of the selected topic (Farooq, 2001).

Some of these questions are:

Is the selected problem a researchable one or not?

The researcher select such topic which are reasonable because

there are some issues which are answered by the systematic

approach / research like philosophical and ethical questions.

Is the selected problem a novel?

The researcher should select such topic which is fresh and no

study had been conducted on that very topic. To avoid duplications

the researcher must study the previous topics because if he select

the topic in which already many researches had conducted then the

researcher is giving needles time to the current selected topic.

Is the hitch considerable?

This purpose is to evaluate the impact of social interventions such

as new approaches in teaching, innovations in parole, and a host of

21


others. Evaluation research is a form of applied research which is

intended to have some real-world effect.

Will the clarification of the selected problem may be helpful in the promotion of further study?

The problem which is selected for the study by the researcher

should not be an end but this should pave way to further study and

unlock various other milieu for the study.

2.3 REFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Prior to the starting of the research, it is the major responsibility of

the researcher to check out that whether the study which s/he is

going to conduct is feasible or not. Various types of questions are

arising in the mind of the researcher and the best way is to make a

list of these questions and then check it with the topic. The most

relevant questions should be selected and subject for study.

2.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This study will be directed by the following objectives:

a. To analyze in depth the government policies and initiatives on

the development of elementary education in the country.

b. To analyze in detail the policy and programmes of the

provincial government on the development of elementary

education in the region.

c. To analyze the specific situation contributing towards

disparities in the development of elementary education in the

province.

22


d. To analyze the specific situation of the development of

elementary education in Nowshera District.

e. To propose an “Action Plan” for improving of the situation

with special reference to removing the existing disparities in

elementary education and achieving the targets laid in the

National Policy for 2010.

2.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The statement of the hypotheses or key questions to be answered

in the investigation complete the fourth stage of the procedure

guide such as the problem statement formulated, conceptual

framework sharpened the focus of study, the objectives narrowed

further the investigation and the statement of hypotheses/questions

formulated.

The statement of the hypotheses and questions is actually a two-

steps process i.e. selecting the key questions appropriate to the

objectives and operationalizing the definitions that will be

employed for the major variables in the study in preparation for

describing the design, instrumentation and analysis appropriate to

the inquiry.

It may be advisable to formulate a major hypothesis and several

minor hypotheses. This clarifies the nature of the problem and the

rationale behind the method adopted for collection of data. The

hypotheses should first be stated in positive or in literacy form. For

example “participation in extra-curricular activities by students of

ix-x classes adversely affect their academic performance in Board

Examination” later on in the chapter on research methodology, the

statistical hypotheses should be stated in negative or null form.

Such as “There is no significant difference between the academic

23


performance of Board Examination of those who participate and

those who do not participate in extra curricular activities in classes

ix-x”.

A good hypothesis has the following characteristics:

It is researchable

It is consistent with known facts or theories

It is stated in such a form as to permit testing and

validation/rejection

It is stated in simplest possible form

It is important that the hypotheses be formulated before

data are gathered

The formulation of hypotheses in advance of data gathering

process is necessary for an unbiased investigation.

2.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES/ HYPOTHESES

What is hypothesis? It has been defined by various educationists

and research experts. A few of such definitions are given below;

According to Fred N. Karlinger (1983) hypothesis is a conjectural

statement, a tentative proposition about the relation between two

or more phenomena or variables. For example a scientist will say,

“if such and such occurs then so and so results”.

In view of Cohen M. (1956) hypothesis is a conjectural statement

of the relation between two or more variables.

John W. Best (1982) defines hypothesis as a tentative answer to a

question. It is a hunch or an educated guess to be subjected to the

process of verification or disconfirmation.

24


Van Dalen (1978) says that hypotheses are suggested problem

solutions, which are expressed as generalizations or propositions.

They are statements consisting of elements expressed in an orderly

system of relationships, which seek to explain conditions or events

that have not yet even been confirmed by facts.

According to L.R. Gay (1992) hypothesis is a tentative explanation

for certain behaviour, phenomena of events that have occurred or

will occur. He further says that a hypothesis states the researcher’s

expectations concerning the relationship between the variables in

the research problem. A hypothesis is the most specific statement

of a problem. It states what the researcher thinks the outcome of

the study will be.

Good and Hatt maintains that a hypothesis looks forward. It is a

preposition to be put to test to determine its validity. It may prove

to be correct or incorrect.

In view of James B. Creighton, hypothesis is a tentative

supposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the

situation under observation.

In the words of A. Lumbery, hypothesis is a tentative

generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested in its

imaginative idea which leads to further investigation.

Barr and Scaled define hypothesis as a statement temporarily

accepted as true in the light of what is at the time known about a

phenomena and it is employed as a basis for action in the search

for new truth, when the hypothesis is fully established it may take

the form of facts, principles of theories.

Carter V. Good defines hypothesis as an informed guess or

inference with a reasonable chance of being right, formulated and

25


tentatively adopted to explain observed facts or conditions to guide

in future investigation.

George G. Mouly observes that hypothesis is an assumption or

proposition whose testability is to be listed on the basis of the

compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and with

previous knowledge.

Walter J. Borg says that hypothesis reflects the research worker’s

guess as to be probable outcome of the experiment.

J.C. Aggrawal (1991) simply defines hypothesis as a proposition

to be put to test to determine its validity.

In short a hypothesis is an informed and shrewed guess, inference

or supposition, hunch or a tentative generalization as to the

existence of some facts, condition or relationship relative to some

phenomena which serves to explain such facts as already are

known to exist in a given area of research and to guide the research

for new truth.

2.7 LITERATURE REVIEW

A separate section is written on this requirement. However, its

need, importance is briefly described in this section.

After identification and definition of the problem and before

formulation of hypotheses, a critical review or analysis of the

related literature is essential for researcher, because without such

exercise, a researcher cannot form the basis for a final statement of

research hypotheses or objectives of the study. This stage should

not be ignored in the process of research.

The review of the literature is very important in the sense that it

involves the systematic identification, location, and analysis of the

26


documents containing information related to the research problem.

In fact, the review determines what has already been done that

relates to the problem. Such knowledge not only avoids

unintentional duplication but also provides the understanding and

insight necessary for the development of logical framework into

which the research problem fits. The review not only provides a

rationale for the research hypotheses but also provides a

justification for the study. Moreover, it helps the research to

evolve strategies, procedure and measuring instrument for the

study.

In short, a research, which is not based on a thorough review of

relevant literature, may remain a deficient and an isolated study.

27

Preparing Research Proposal

UNIT-3: PREPARING RESEARCH PROPOSAL

3.1 THE RESEARCH PURPOSES OF SYNOPSIS

A research plan serves several purposes such as:

a. It makes researcher to think through every step or aspect of the

study

b. It facilitates evaluation of the proposed study

c. It also allows others to identify flaws to make suggestions for

its improvement

d. It provide a guide and guidelines for conducting a study

e. A well-thought plan saves times, energy and resources of the

researcher

f. It reduces the probability of costly mistakes and generally

results in higher quality of research

g. It reduces the chances of researcher’s “trial and error”

approach while undertaking the study

h. It permits the researcher to assess the overall impact of any

changes in the study as a whole

3.2 FORMATS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

As already indicated various formats or styles are adopted by

researchers for writing or presentation of the research report.

Allama Iqbal Open University in its book Educational Research

and Statistics (EPM: 1990) has suggested the following format to

be followed by its students.

28


(i) Format Recommended by Allama Iqbal Open University

A. Preliminary Section or Front Matters

a. Title of the study

b. Acknowledgement

c. Table of content

d. List of tables

e. Abstract

B. Main Body of the Report

Chapter-1: Nature and Background of the Study


b. Reasons for making the study

c. Review of the related literature

d. Further elaboration of the problem

e. General hypotheses

Chapter-2: Method of Study and Presentation of Data

a. Actual steps followed in the course of research

b. Instrument used for collection of data

c. Validity and reliability of the instrument

d. Population and sample studied

e. Description of the evidence gathered

f. Summary of data

29


Chapter-3: Summary and Conclusion

It contains a brief recapitulation on the entire study and

presents briefly arguments and data supporting the

conclusion drawn from the interpretation of data.

Chapter-4: Recommendations

In this chapter, the researcher makes recommendations

about actions to be taken to use the new knowledge

discovered in the study.

C. References

Appendix:

(ii) Format Recommended by L.R. Gay (1992)

L.R. Gay in his book Educational Research (1992) has suggested

the following “Format” for the presentation of the research report.

A. Preliminary Pages

Title of the study

Acknowledgement

Table of content

List of tables and figures

Abstract


Chapter-I: Introduction


b. Review of the Related Literature

c. Statement of the Hypotheses

30


Chapter-2: Method

a. Subjects

b. Instrument

c. Design

d. Procedure

Chapter-3: Results

a. Discussion/COncluSi01 and Recommendations

b. References/Bibliography

c. Appendex

(iii) Format” Forwarded by John W. Best in his books Research in Education

(1982) for Presentation of Research Report

A. Preliminary Section or Front Matters

Title page

Acknowledgement

Table of content

List of tables

List of Figures

B Main Body of the Report


Statement of the problem

Significance of the study/problem

Purposes of the study

31


Assumptions and Limitation

Definitions of important terms

Chapter-2: Review of the Related Literature or Analysis of

Previous Researches

Chapter-3: Design of the Study

Procedure used

Sources of data

Method of gathering data

Description of data gathering instrument used

Chapter-4: Presentation and Analysis of Data

Text

Tables

Figures

Chapter-5: Summary and Conclusions

Re-statement of the problem

Description of procedure used

Principal Findings and conclusions

Recommendations for further Researches

C. References Section

Bibliography

Appendex

(iv)" “Format” Usually Adopted by the Author with some Modification, is stated below:

A. Preliminary Section/Front Matters

32


Title of the study

Bismillah (in Arabic Words)

Dedication (if desired)

Declaration (Required by AIOU)

Approval Sheet (by supervisor)

Forwarding sheet (by supervisor)

Acknowledgement

Table of content

List of tables (if any)

List of Figures (if any)

List of Graphs (if any)

Abstract



a. Background of the study

b. Statement of the study

c. Objectives of the study

d. Significance of the study

e. Assumptions underlying the study

f. Delimitation of the problem

g. Hypotheses or key questions to be answered in the

study

h. Definition of terms/abbreviations used

33


Chapter-2: Review of the Related Literature

In this chapter, the related literature is reviewed which,

provides further justification for the research and the

knowledge which is related to those aspects of the problem

with which the research deals.

Chapter-3: Method and Procedure of the Study/Design of

the Study

Actual steps followed in course of research

Preparation/construction of instruments

Validity and reliability of instrument

Population and sample studied/selected

Characteristics of sample

Chapter-4: Analysis of Data

The data collected is organized, tabulated and interpreted

accordingly. If tables are long, they are placed in

Appendix and their interpretation is presented in the text.

Chapter-5: Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations

Major findings are drawn

Conclusions are made

Recommendations are forwarded for correction or

improving the situation

C. References Section

Bibliography

Appendex

34


3.3 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PLAN OR PROPOSAL?

Development of a research plan or proposal is critical step in

conducting research. Having formulated specific hypotheses, it is

necessary to carefully delineate the method and procedure to be

followed in testing them. occasionally it will become apparent in

formulating a plan that the proposed study is not feasible in its

present form. That decision is best made before the researchers

have extended considerable time and energy on a study which

cannot be properly executed.

The research plan has been defined by various specialists such as

according to L.R. Gay (1992) a research plan is a detailed

description of a proposed study designed to investigate a selected

problem. It includes justification for hypotheses to be tested, a

detailed presentation of the research steps that will be followed in

collecting and analyzing data and a projected time schedule for

each major step. It also includes proposed budget if it is submitted

to a funding agency.

According to John W. Best (1982) the “proposal” is comparable to

the blue print which the architect prepare before work on a

building is started. The initial draft proposal is subject to

modification in the light of the analysis by the student and his

adviser. Since good research must be planned and systematically

carried out, procedures that is improvised from step to step, will

not suffice. A worth whole research project is likely to result only

from a well-designed proposal.

35


3.4 ELABORATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH PLAN / PROPOSAL

a. Statement of the Problem

In the words of Dr. JR. Hassan (1990) one of the unholy joys one

feels as Pakistani researcher is the realization that what a fertile

land Pakistan is for research”. There are in fact, unlimited number

of problems to be investigated by researcher. Research students

usually are not taking pains to identifS’ certain important problems

for research. Even they show lack of “insight” or they are

“problem blind”. The research proposal may be considered as

responses to a problem, because that is what research really is. The

deficiency or weakness which is usually observed in a research

proposal is the lack of a clear problem statement to define and

guide the inquiry. The problem statement should be adequate to

define, guide and conduct systematic research.

(i) Qualities of a Good Research Problem

Now the question is what are the qualities of a good research

problem. The qualities attributed to a good research problem are:

It is not too broad

It is manageable

It is not too subjective

It is not too controversial

It should not be too familiar

It is not too technical

It should express relationship between two or

more variables

36


It should be stated clearly and unambiguously

preferably in question form

It should be such as implies or permits

possibilities or empirical testing

It must be new and novel

It is researchable

It has theoretical as well practical significances

It should be justified in terms of its contribution to

educational theory or practice

It is a good problem in the sense that the

researcher possesses the research skill, available

resources and time

(ii) Qualities of a Research Statement

Qualities of a statement of the problems are:

A statement of the problem is the first component of the

introduction of both a research plan and a research report

of a completed study. Since the problem statement gives

direction to the rest of the plan or report, it should be

stated as soon as possible. The statement of the problem

should be accompanied by a presentation of the

background of the problem including justification of the

study in terms of the significance of the problem.

Background of and the problem means information

required for an understanding of the problem

A statement of the problem indicates interest of the

researcher in the problem and the specific relationship

between those variables which is to interpreted

37


A statement of the problem also defines all relevant

variable either directly or operationally

Objectives of the Study

When the problem has been selected and its theoretical, framework

determined, the * step is to state the purposes, objectives and

significance of the study. Research is always undertaken in

response to a problem. Accordingly the purpose of the study is

always to understand better more possible solutions of the

problem.

Free floating objectives, and objectives without criteria add no

new knowledge to the one already known. Therefore, objectives

should be carefully thought out and they must be involved from

the theoretical framework and confirm to the criteria laid down for

the relationship to be established amongst a set of variables.

Significance of the Study

Related to the purposes or objectives of the study is the question of

significance of the study which could warrant an urgency and

justifying its worth. The researcher should indicate how the answer

to the question or solution to the problem can influence

educational theory or practices. The researcher should be sure that

he/she is not wasting time, energy and resources on trivial,

irrelevant and superficial investigation.

Definitions, Abbreviations, Assumptions and Limitations

(i) Definitions and Abbreviations

In this section the research student provides definitions of all such

terms being used in the statement of the problem as are ambiguous

38


and likely to misinterpreted. The definitions of these terms help to

establish or sharpen the frame of reference with which the

researcher approaches the problem. The researcher should also

explain the abbreviations, which would be used in the study.

(ii) Assumptions and Limitations

The assumptions that the researcher has made, should be stated.

He should not make a long list of such assumptions. He should

also clearly and frankly state the limitations or short comings of

his study. This will not reduce the significance of the study but

will provide more confidence in the solution of the problem.

Review of the Literature

A review of the literature is an integral part of the study. It should

not be taken as luxury. It provides researcher “insight” into the

problem, broaden his horizon of the nature of the problem and

prevents him from repetition and duplication and overlapping of

his research efforts, while reviewing related literature, a resume or

a brief summary of previous researches and writings of the

recognized experts provide evidence that researcher is familiar

with what is already done and with what is still to be done. In

reviewing other researches, the researcher should specifically look

into matters like the nature of problem, design of the study,

population. variables, deficiencies and suggestions for further

researches. Preferably the review should include a summary of the

areas of ‘agreement’ and ‘disagreement’ in findings.

Theoretical Framework

The concept of theoretical framework has been defined as a set of

concepts, variables and relationship with in which the problem is

39


formulated and solved. It has been further explained by Dr. I.H.

Hassan in the following words.

“Neither can a problem be formulated, nor can adequate research

design be developed, except within a specified theoretical

framework. What is meant by framework is a conceptual or

theoretical frame which every researcher has to adopt to view a

problem and find a solution. Implicitly or explicitly every inquirer

adopts his own pair of glasses through which he views the

problems and within that perspective identified and orders the

variables on which he will concentrate his attention (Ed Research

1999 p.92).

The concept of theoretical framework can better be explained

through answering such questions.

a. Which factors are most responsible for the solution of a

problem?

b. How to restrict the study?

c. How to restrict the population? from which a sample is

selected?

d. How to restrict the variables so as to make a meaningful study

possible?

e. How to sharpen the focus and increase clarity?

f. In simple words what should be included and what should be

excluded?

In short, such focalization, clarification and exclusion are essential

in the process of choosing a theoretical framework and should be

decided explicitly and rationally before initiating the study

otherwise the study will be obscure and vague and the researcher

will be confused.

40


The study of related literature is therefore, important in the sense

that in developing a research design, it helps the researcher to

realize how many facts of the problem do exist and what other

conceptual framework has been applied to solve the problem

earlier.

Proposed Research Method/Procedure

In this section of the research proposal, an outline of the research

plan or procedure should be given. The research plan or procedure

deals with the variables to be measured, the population to be

sampled, the measuring devices to be adopted and the procedure to

be used, in analyzing the data. The validity and reliability of data

gathering devices should be critically evaluated and the limitations

if any, should be pointed. Let us take for example a researcher is

interested to conduct research on the “job preferences of high

school students”. The outline of the research proposal shall have to

detail or specify.

How many schools shall be selected?

From which area schools should be selected?

Would an equal number rural and urban schools be

selected?

Would an equal number of boys and girls high schools be

sampled?

How many students studying in these high schools be

chosen?

How shall the job preference of students be obtained?

Shall a questionnaire be administered?

How the data thus collected, be analyzed?

41


Shall any attempt be made to obtain the aspirations of

parents of sample students be correlated?

From the above example, it is observed that the proposed

procedure describes what must be done and how will be done?

What data will be needed? And what gathering device will be

employed with evaluation of their validity and reliability? How

sources will be selected and how the data will be analyzed and

conclusion reached?

(i) Time Schedule

A schedule should be prepared so that the researcher may budget

his time and energy effectively. Dividing the project/study into

parts/phases and assigning dates for the completion of each part

helps to systematize the project/study and minimize the natural

tendency to procrastinate.

The preparation of work plan with definite dates/goals is most

important because the academic research project usually involves

critical time limitation and definite deadlines for submitting the

complete report.

The preparation of the schedule also allows the advisor of the

student to monitor the progress of his work. Thus it serves as a

stimulus helping the researcher to proceed systematically towards

the goal of completing the project with the deadline set by the

degree awarding institution.

Conclusion

The ultimate objective of this chapter is to familiarize the research

students of steps to be taken towards the formulation of their

research outline or proposal. Various steps have been discussed

but for which specific care and attention are needed, are the

42


preparation of a statement of the problem, conceptualizing the

theoretical framework, formulating hypotheses and designing an

appropriate research procedure.

43

Sampling

UNIT-4: SAMPLING

The Basic Minimum Needs (BMN) Project was initiated through

collaborative efforts of the provincial government and WHO in a

small union council of MandorilJabbi in the area of Nizampur

District Nowshera North-West-Frontier Province in 1994. About

14000 people of the area live below the poverty line in the target

area. The village Jabbi having population of 6588 was selected on

the basis of being most backward area and the availability of

potential resources to be developed as the pilot site for the

implementation of BMN programme. Later on the BMN activities

were extended to other five adjoining villages including Mandori.

The BMN is an innovative and bold initiative of human resource

development. It aims at to alleviate the poverty of the people and

promises a better quality of life. The priorities set in the project are

the solution of irrigation problem, introduction of cash crops,

development of diary activities, starting forestation of land in the

target village. So far as education and health are concerned, a

general assessment of the situation has been made by the planners

and ‘grey areas’ have been identified for improvement. The project

is in its second phase of implementation indicating encouraging

impact on the improvement of socio-economic situation of the

village. Such impact is attributed to the financial support of WHO,

community share, and bottom up planning of self-management and

community participation.

As revealed from the BMN project, Jabbi village holds 1830 (997

male and 833 female) population of schools going children 25.0

percent of which are enrolled in six primary schools (4 for boys

and 2 for girls). The situation is grave. Children dropout for

various reasons. The main contributing factors are poverty,

44

Sampling

malnutrition, other physical disabilities, lack of instructional

facilities, poor scholarship and unstimulating school environment.

Teachers academic and professional preparation is low. The

phenomena of untrained teachers exists in schools. Most of

teachers are matric and have undergone short in-service courses

which are inadequate.

In view of the importance of basic education providing firm

bedrock to the socio-economic development of a poor society, an

integral part of the BMN project, the grave situation that prevails

in the institutions, the interest of UNESCO to provide technical

assistance for its re-orientation in the village seems essential. The

UNESCO therefore approached Institute of Education and

Research (IER) University of Peshawar as a research center to help

it in identifying the ‘orientation mandate’ for which it could

provide technical assistance in planning and implementation of

reorienting basic education towards poverty alleviation and

improvement of quality of life of the people of village Jabbi.

According to the terms of reference of the TSS-I given to the

researcher i.e. to review the governments poverty alleviation

policy and practices, the basic education delivery system, the

current status of teaching-learning situation with reference to

facilities, teacher preparations, supervision, curriculum,

participation of children and learning achievement problems,

issues affecting basic education and to identify programmes and

kind of intervention that suit reorientation of basic education in

Jabbi. The researchers have been able to conduct a three

dimensional study on the specific educational situation and the

socio-economic conditions of the target group. Both the survey

and field observation provided researchers an insight into the

45

Sampling

crucial issues affecting basic education and the socioeconomic

aspect of life of the people.

The survey had also provided rationale to look for an integrated

approach in which education could play pivotal role towards

poverty alleviation and adopt alternatives for income generation of

the community and mobilization of their human and material

resources and their support in developmental efforts. These are

such issues which have also been addressed in the BMN project.

On the basis of findings of this study, a strategy, will therefore; be

proposed for the implementation of the pilot project in the target

village.

4.1 RATIONALE OF SAMPLING

Sampling is much easy to collect data in terms of saving the

money and time because it is somewhat impossible to collect data

form the whole population while the sampling provides

approximately similar and accurate as the population may elicit.

The sampling provides valid measures of reliability and that is the

main purpose of sampling. The basic and essential purposes of

sampling are

To elicit or provide sufficient information about the traits of

population without evaluating every unit of population

To find the reliability of the expectation obtained from the sample

(Chaudhry.2008).

4.2 STEPS IN SAMPLING

A statistical plan relevant to the steps and process taken in the

sampling comes under the umbrella of sample design. The steps

46

Sampling

which are taken under considerations while selecting sample are

given below:

The objectives of the survey must be clearly stated

Give background knowledge about the population of

interest

State complete sampling unit in population

Select proper sample size

Organize the field work to achieve the proposed objectives

Analyze and conclude the data

Few points may be elaborated regarding the process

occurs in sampling.

Select the unit of analysis

When selecting the sample, it is to be needed that the sampling

procedures select cases which are based on this unit of analysis.

Suppose, the unit of analysis is students, then the sampling

procedure must focus only on the procedure of selecting the

students and it would be an error to describe the selection of

schools instead of selecting students.

How many numbers of units needed to be sampled?

Larger sample acts as strong representative of the target population

and elicit strong statistical power but it, on the other hand,

decrease the quality of research (particularly in experimental and

quasi – experimental research). If many respondents participate in

the treatment of experimental research design then the quality of

treatment may be suffered resulting in providing inaccurate

47

Sampling

conclusions. So the researcher should avoid the problem of

overpopulation in experiments. The best example here is the

number of students in the classroom. If the numbers of the students

are high in a classroom then it adversely affect the impact of

instruction and method of teaching. Similar is the case with the

experimental design. Therefore, smaller treatment groups are

generally preferable.

4.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

The probability sampling is considered as one of the best sample

because it enhances the likelihood of obtaining samples that

represents of the population(Chaudhry.2008).

Probability Sampling (Representative Samples)

Probability samples are selected in such a way that it represents

the whole population. This sampling procedure provides valid

results because they reflect the overall characteristics of the

population from which they are drawn / selected (e.g., residents of

a particular community, students at an elementary school, etc.).

There are two types of probability samples: random and stratified.

Random Sample

The term random means that each sample unit (individual) in the

selected population has the equal chances of selection.

The key to random selection is that there is no bias involved in the

selection of the sample. Any variation between the sample

characteristics and the population characteristics is only a matter

of chance (Chaudhry.2008).

48

Sampling

Stratified Sample

A stratified sample is a micro – replication of the whole

population. Prior to sampling, the population is categorized into

characteristics of interest/ importance for the research. For

example, by gender, social class, education level, religion, etc.

Then the population is randomly sampled within each category or

stratum.

Stratified samples are difficult to develop because for the purpose

of making categorization, the researcher should bear advance

knowledge of the population traits (Chaudhry.2008).

4.4 NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLES (NON-

REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES) The non probability sampling is less desirable than probability

sampling and is not true representative. The validity of non –

probability sampling can be enhances by conducting to select the

approximate random selection and reducing the sources which

develops bias in sample.

i) Quota sample

A quota sample is type of judgment sample in which the

information are collected for certain purpose, from the segment of

the population. E.g. the quotas of male and female, urban and rural

etc. These factors are the quota control. Quota sampling can be

considered as the stratified sampling because the selection of the

units or sample units within the strata is non – random.

49

Sampling

Quota samplings are easy to administered, need low cost, and give

abrupt results. This approach is mainly used in public opinions

polls and research surveys (Chaudhry.2008).

Purposive Sampling

Purposive sample is a non – random sample in which the selection

of the sampling units mainly depends up on the experts’ perception

about the population. The purposive sample is not based on

probability theory that is why the measuring of the reliability of

the sample outcomes is lacking and due to this the purpose sample

cannot acts as the basis for statistical inference (Chaudhry.2008).

4.5 THE SIZE OF THE SAMPLE (FUNDAMENTALS)

Sample units are segments or parts selected from the population

constitute the sample size. A complete list of the students studying

in M.Ed at university level, lists of maps clearly mentioning wheat

fields etc. are the examples of sample selected from the

population. The following are the few traits of sample size:

Complete

Free from errors and omissions

Timely modified

4.6 THE CONCEPT OF SAMPLING ERROR

The error in sampling is the systematic elements of error which

affects the result obtained from the selected sample. There is a

difference in random error and sample error. In case of the random

error, the errors are absorbed or become balanced in the long run

while the sampling error is cumulative and increases when the

50

Sampling

sample size increases. Sampling errors are propagated in the

following approaches.

Intentional Selection

Selection of sample on the basis of personal judgments develops

the errors.

Replacement

Sometimes the sample which is selected for the study is not

accessible or the contact is not developed which results in the

replacement of that unit with the easy or accessible one. This

approach creates errors.

Incomplete Coverage

Errors are developing when the researcher fails to cover all the

selected sample of the study.

Zigzag selection

Irregular or zigzag collection of the data from the respondents also

creates problems. The researcher must be specific in collecting

data from the target sample.

Incomplete Interviewing

Errors also develop when the interview process is inadequate and

misleading. The process of interviewing should be completed with

great care (Chaudhry.2008).

51

Ethical Considerations and Validity and Reliability in Educational

Research

UNIT-5: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

5.1 RESEARCH ETHICS

Research ethics provides step by step guidance for the responsible

conduct of research (research in all fields). Moreover, the research

ethics teaches and monitors the researcher in conducting research

to guarantee a high ethical moral and standard.

Principles of Ethics

In words of Shamoo (2009), the imperative and fundamental

ethical principles are as under:

i) Honesty

Try hard for honesty in all scientific communications. The data,

methods, procedures, results and publications should be honestly

reported and avoid any of the false and misinterpreted data that

may damaged the research study and also do not betray colleagues,

granting agencies, or the public.

ii) Objectivity

Struggle to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data

interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing,

expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is

expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception and

release personal or financial interests that may affect research.

52


Research

iii) Integrity

Keep your agreements and act with sincerity and also strive for

consistency of thought and action.

iv) Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and laxity; carefully and critically examine

your own work and the work of your peers. Keep first-class

records of research activities such as data collection and research

design.

v) Openness

The next important principle of ethics is to share data, results,

ideas, tools, resources and be open to criticism and new ideas.

vi) Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property.

Avoid using unpublished data, methods, or results without proper

permission and also give proper acknowledgement or credit for all

contributions to research.

vii) Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants

submitted for publication, personnel records associated to

research.

viii) Respect for colleagues

Do respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

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ix) Non-Discrimination

An important ethical principle is to avoid discrimination against

colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other

factors that are not related to their scientific competence and

integrity.

x) Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, try to reduce harms

and risks and maximize benefits.

5.2 TECHNICAL ISSUES IN ASSESSMENT

The main technical issues often used in educational research are

the validity and reliability. They are briefly discussed as under.

Validity

The degree to which the test or tool used as measuring instruments

measures what it tends to measures.

This means that if the researchers design a test or tool for

measuring certain aspects in education or socials sciences, then up

to what extent or degree that very test is successful in achieving its

goals for which it is designed. Does the test (developed for certain

purpose) accomplish that purpose or not.

Types of Validity

Validity has the following important types which are discussed

briefly.

a) Face Validity

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The degree or the extent to which test (are developed and) appears

to measure the purpose for which it is being developed.

The assessment of face validity can be easily judged by the

stakeholders. However this very approach is not a scientific one

but still dwells various components of motivation for the

stakeholders. But if the stakeholders do not believe to measure the

face validity in an accurate way then they become withdraw any

time from the task (Cozby, 2001).

Example

If a measure of science project is encouraged to be created. All of

the projects and items should be related to different elements and

types of science. If the questions are regarding hypothetical

projects, with no reference to any experimental approach, the

stakeholders may not be motivated to give their best effort or

invest in this measure because they do not believe that it is a true

assessment of science appreciation.

a) Content validity

Content validity can be defined as the measures of links between

test and the relevant curriculum objectives. A test is said to have a

content validity if it demonstrates the link between the curriculum

objectives and the test developed for such purposes (Cozby, 2001).

b) Construct Validity

Construct validity can be defined as the measurement of the links

between the tests and knowledge, skills and behaviors which

support the curriculum objectives. The panels of experts can

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accurately measures and assess this type of validity. The experts

can examine the items (and its difficulty level) and decide what

that specific item is intended to measure. Students are sometimes

involved in this process to obtain their feedback (Cozby, 2001).

Example:

If the paper setter develops a paper on the research methodologies

and the questions are designed in a complicated way like the tough

words and phrases are used. Then this can cause the test an

unintentionally becoming the test of reading comprehension rather

than a test about research methodologies. Therefore it is essential

that the measures are actually assessing the intended construct,

rather than an unnecessary factor.

c) Consequential validity

A test that has the impact on the improvement of students’

performance in a curriculum area. Or in other words the test which

has a drilling effect on the development of the students

performance in a specific curriculum area (Cozby, 2001).

d) Criterion-Related Validity

This type of validity is used to predict about the upcoming or

future or current performance and it correlates the test results with

another criterion of interest (Cozby, 2001).

Example:

If for an educational program, measures are developed to assess

the cumulative student learning throughout the major. There will

be a correlation between the new measuring approach / tool with

the standardized measure of ability in this very discipline (like

GRE subject test). The higher the correlation between the

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standardized measures with the new measure, the more faith will

be developed among the stakeholders on the new emerged

instrument.

b) Formative Validity

The subjections of formative validity on the plethora outcomes of

certain program will provide valuable information which leads to

the improvement and development of that program (Moskal,

2000).

Example:

When designing a rubric for education, the knowledge of the

student’s could be assessing across the discipline. If information

regarding the measures among the students are lacking in certain

area then this assessment instrument is providing valuable and

meaningful information that leads to the development and

improvement in the requirements of the course or program.

b) Sampling Validity (similar to content validity)

This validity is similar to content validity but here overall links are

measures while in sampling validity only the selected samples are

taken under considerations. It can be defined as “the measures that

cover a wide range of area of interest within the concept under

study”.

Covering every aspect is a difficult task so the items needed to be

sampled from all the domains. This can be easily accomplished

with the help of experts (Cozby, 2001).

Additionally, a panel can help limit “expert” bias (i.e. a test

reflecting what an individual personally feels are the most

important or relevant areas).

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Example:

When designing an assessment of learning in the education, so it

would not be sufficient to only cover topics or issues related to

teaching but other areas like integration of these teaching in their

best practical ways (integration of theory into practice) and the

provision of guidance and counseling should be included. The

content area should be entirely reflected through assessment.

Suggestions for the improvement of validity

The following are the essential measures used to improve

the validity.

The goals and objectives should be clearly defined and

should be operationalized. In addition the expectations of

students should be jot down.

The assessment measures should be matched with the

goals and objectives. Moreover, the test may be reviewed

by faculty at other institutes to obtain the valuable

feedback from an outside party who is less invested in the

instrument.

The students should be involved and the responsibilities of

the student are to assess for difficult wording and other

difficulties.

If it is possible then compare the current measures with

other measures or data that may be available and

important.

Reliability

The degree or the extent of the similarities among the results

obtained on several occasion. Or in other words it can be defined

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as the degree to which an assessment instruments elicit stable and

consistent plethora results.

Reliability in most cases is concerned with the dependability of

assessment outcomes. If the procedure for the assessment practices

were to be repeated, either by subjecting a test for second time or

by rechecking the whole test procedures. Then the reliability of the

assessment practices can be observed if the results elicited form

the test procedures on different occasion are the same.

In subjective assessment, marks allocated are different and for that

purposes they should be checked by two independent markers /

evaluators and if the results are similar or in approximate, the test

is said to be reliably assessed (Cronbach, 1971).

Factors which affects the reliability

The factors which badly effects the reliability are as under

The examinee: fatigue, burden, lack of motivation,

carelessness

Trait of test: ambiguous items, poorly worded direction,

tricky questions, in familiar format

Conditions of test – taking and marking: poor

examination condition, excessive heat or cold,

carelessness in marking, disregards or lack of clear

standards for scoring, computational errors.

Types of Reliability

The following are the main types of reliability.

Test-retest reliability

Parallel forms reliability

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Inter-rater reliability

Internal consistency reliability

i) Average inter-item correlation

ii) Split-half reliability

Test-retest reliability

When the reliability of the results are to measured, then at that

very situation the test retest approaches are used. In this approach

the test are subjected to the group of students at different periods

of time. The scores obtained form first and second time can be

correlated in order to check the stability and persistency of test.

Example:

A test designed to assess students’ learning in philosophy of

education could be subjected twice on a group of students, there is

a gap (of suppose one week) between first and the second test

second test. The obtained coefficient of correlation would indicate

the persistency and stability of the scores.

Parallel forms reliability

When the different sets or different parts of a test (suppose

questionnaire A and questionnaire B) are developed but they must

have a linkage (in a sense of knowledge, skills and behaviors) and

then these assessment instruments are subjected on the same

group. The results obtained from these groups are then correlated

which can show the reliability of the test in regards of the alternate

sets of instruments.

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Example:

If the high order learning is required to be assessed among the

students, then the set of items which are to be designed must have

the questions regarding the high order learning. Then this

questionnaire or the tool must be implemented among the students

which would represent the parallel forms of reliability.

Inter-rater reliability

The measures of the reliability about the different judges agree

upon the decisions about the assessment is called inter – rater

reliability. The answers cannot effectively interpret by human

observers and for that very purpose the inter–rater reliability is of

utmost importance.

Example:

Inter-rater reliability might be employed when different judges are

evaluating the degree to which art portfolios meet certain

standards. Inter-rater reliability is especially useful when

judgments can be considered relatively subjective. Thus, the use

of this type of reliability would probably be more likely when

evaluating artwork as opposed to math problems.

Internal consistency reliability

When the reliability of similar results obtained from different

judgment of two different sets of items is measured, it is called as

internal consistency reliability.

The internal consistency reliability has two main types.

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Average inter-item correlation

It is a type of internal consistency reliability. It is achieved by

taking the entire items of sets under considerations that have the

similar approach in investigations the same constructs (e.g.

developing portfolios) which determines the correlation coefficient

for each pair of items and then finally taking the average of all of

these correlation coefficients. This final step will give the average

inter-item correlation.

Split-half reliability

It is another type of internal consistency reliability. All the items

of the tests are split in half having the same purpose of

investigating the same area of knowledge (e.g. educational

psychology) in order to form two sets of items. The entire set is

subjected among the students and the scores of each set are

computed with the others. The split half reliability is obtained

resulting in determination of the two set of scores.

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Qualitative Research

UNIT-6: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is a scheme of inquest engaged in many

different academic disciplines usually in the social sciences.

Qualitative researchers intend to collect fully understanding of

human behavior and the grounds that govern such behavior.

The qualitative process explores the why and how of choices

making not just what, where, when. Therefore, minor but focused

samples are more frequently needed than large samples

(Stenhouse, 1975).

The crucial aim of qualitative research is to put forward a

viewpoint of certain situations and to elicit well-written research

reports that reproduce the researcher's ability to demonstrate or

explain the analogous observable fact. One of the supreme potency

of the qualitative approach is the opulence and vigour of

searchings and descriptions.

6.1.1 ETHNOGRAPHY

The focal points of ethnographic research are the culture of a

group of people. The ethnographic research can be briefly stated as

under:

a. Macro – Ethnographic Research:

In this type of research the researchers select largely distinct

cultures (e.g. The British etc.).

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b. Micro – Ethnographic Research:

In this type of research, the researchers select narrower defined

cultures (e.g. the cultures of hostel life for students)

Purpose of Ethnographic Research

The major aspire of the ethnographer is to learn from members of

a cultural group leading (rather than to study) to understand their

world view as they define it. Ethnographic researchers for a

moment pass on to emic and etic perspectives (Richardson, 2000).

An emic outlook refers to the way the members of the culture

imagine their world. It is the insiders view. Whereas the etic

outlook is concerned with the outsider’s explanation of the

practices of that very culture.

Ethnographers struggle to obtain an emic perspective of a culture

under study. Moreover, they struggle to make known what has

been pass on to as unspoken knowledge.

Methodology

The two basic approaches often used in anthropology are emic and

etic. The emic approach to research entails the studying of

behaviour from within the culture while on the other hand the etic

approach includes the studying of behaviour from outside the

culture and examining the similarities and differences across

cultures. The following are the steps exercised in the ethnographic

research:

a) Recognition of the culture of interest

b) Recognizing the important variables within the culture

c) Review literature,

d) Gaining access

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e) Cultural engagement

f) Get hold of informers

g) Collecting data

h) Data analysis,

i) Description of the culture

j) Development of theory

Collection of Data and Analysis

The collection of data primarily employs the observation and

interview approaches. The researcher may become a participant or

observer in the culture during the process of data collection

(Richardson, 2000).

Analysis engages in the identification of the meanings of the

quality of objects and events by members of the culture. The

validation of these meanings can be accomplished by the members

of the culture of interest prior to finalize the outcomes.

6.1.2 PHENOMENOLOGY

Phenomenology is a modern philosophical movement devoted to

relating the structures of experience as they present themselves to

realization without recourse to theory or inference from other

disciplines.

Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a research approach. The

rationale of phenomenological research is to illustrate experiences

as they are dwells in phenomenological terms. The supporters of

phenomenology philosophy are Husserl, Kierkegaard, Heidegger

and Jean Paul Sartre.

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Philosophical Orientation

According to the phenomenologist’s view, an individual is an

essential part of an environment. The main focal point of

phenomenological research is to know about people's experience

in gazing to an event and how they interpret their experiences. The

entire phenomenologist’s agree that not a single reality exist

because every individual has his / her own reality. This is well

thought-out true even of the researcher’s practice in gathering data

and analysing it. Genuineness is an elucidation of some process

that is why the more communal that interpretation is, the more

accurate it seems to be, thus far it remains of time and cultural

(Hoepfl, 1997).

The following are the important aspects which are generally taken

under consideration are phenomenological researchers:

Lived room (spatiality)

Lived human rapports (relationality)

Lived moment (temporality)

Methodology

One of the most important questions answered by

phenomenologist is “What is the meaning of one’s subsist

practices”. The merely reliable supply of information to answer the

aforesaid questions is the person.

The human attitude or practices requires the person convey the

action to the researcher and then that very conveyed actions can be

interpreted by the researcher.

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Budding the Research Questions

The opening step in performing a phenomenological study is to

recognize the process to be explored. Then the researcher will

develop research questions. The two important factors may be

considered in designing the research questions:

What are the essential elements of this sentiment or practice?

What does the continuation of this sentiment or practice point out

regarding the nature of the human being?

Sampling

Subsequent to designing the research questions, the researcher

recognize the sources of the phenomenon or process being studied

and from these sources look for the individuals who have eager to

explain their experience(s) with the phenomenon in question.

The sample of the study (individuals) should know and be ready to

articulate their inner feelings and explain any physiological

incidents that occur with the feelings.

Data Collection and Analysis

Collection of data can be accomplished by different modes such

that observation, interactive interviews, videotape and in black and

white descriptions by subjects.

In general, the data is collected by in-depth conversations in which

the researcher and the subject (informer) are completely

interactive. When the first data are collected the analysis begins.

This very analysis will steer verdicts related to further collection of

data. The meanings connected to the data are articulated within the

phenomenological philosophy. The plethora product of analysis is

a theoretical statement reply to the research question. Validation of

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the statement can be done by giving examples of the data generally

by taking direct quotes from the subjects.

6.2.3 CASE STUDY

I. The Meaning and Concept of Case Study

A case study is a simple approach in educational and social

research in which a single individual or small groups of people is

studied. The concept is further elaborated. When the focus of

attention is directed towards a single case or a limited number of

cases, the process is personalized and such researches are included

in the case study method of descriptive research. This study is

extended to include any relatively detailed description and analysis

of a single person, event, institution or community. This study is

said to be ideographic in the sense that it attempts to understand

behaviour or attitudes of the individuals without attempting to

generalize these findings to other persons or groups. Here the

emphasis is not upon the individual representing a type but upon

the individual as a “unique personality” with his own problems

and needs.

As indicated earlier, it is an in depth investigation of a single case

in its totality. Because of this intensive nature, the case studies

highlights the important variables, processes and interaction that

deserve action.

In short the case study attempt to examine and analyze extensively

the background, current studies, social, political, economic and

environmental interaction or relationship of a given social unit i.e.

individual, a group, an institution, a community or an examination

of a given phenomena.

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A case study is similar to survey but instead of gathering data

covering a few factors from a large number of social units, an

intensive study of a limited number of representative cases is

made. It is narrower in scope but more exhaustive in nature than a

survey.

(ii) Purposes of Case Studies

The case studies in research are undertaken for the following

purposes.

a. To provide the investigator with hypotheses that might be

difficult to study in other context.

b. To provide the investigator unique situation that can be used to

test hypotheses.

c. To provide new insights, help modify pre-existing beliefs, and

point out gaps in knowledge.

d. To be useful in demonstrating how a theoretical model can be

established in a concrete model.

e. To understand the life cycle or an important part of the life

cycle of an individual unit. This may be a person, family, a

group or a social institution or an entire community.

(iii) Sources of Data for Case Studies

Data for a case study may be collected by a variety of methods

such as:

a. Making observation by a researcher of the informants physical

characteristics, social qualities or behaviour.

b. Conducting interview with subjects, his/her relatives, friends,

teachers counselors and others.

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c. Using questionnaire, opinionmaire, psychological tests and

inventories.

d. Consulting recorded data from news paper, schools, courts,

clinics, government agencies and other sources.

e. Consulting personal documents such as diaries letters etc.

(iv) Pre-Cautions to be Taken by Researcher in a Case

Study

Certain precautions should be taken by a research while

undertaking a case study.

a. The method may look deceptively simple. To use it

effectively, the researcher must be thoroughly familiar with

existing theoretical knowledge of the field of inquiry and

skilful in isolating significant variables from those that are

irrelevant. There is tendency to select variables because of

their spectacular nature rather than for their crucial

significance.

b. Subjective bias is a constant threat to objective data gathering

and analysis. The danger of selecting variable relationship

beset upon pre-conceived condition and the apparent

consistency of a too limited sample of observation may lead to

the researcher to an unwarranted feeling of certainly about the

validity of his/her conclusion.

c. Effects may be wrongly attributed to factors that are merely

associated rather than cause and effect related while the case

study process is susceptible to the post hoc fallacy, it is also a

hazard associated with other type of non-experimental studies.

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6.1.4 GROUNDED THEORY

Grounded theory is an inductive approach which is developed for

health-related topics by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. This technique

arises from the field of sociology. The term grounded means that

the theory urbanized from the research is grounded or in other

words that the theory has its origins in the data from which it was

derivate.

Philosophical Point of Reference

Grounded theory majorly based on the representative interaction

theory. This theory dwells on many notions in common with

phenomenology. The founder of this theory was George Herbert

Mead (1934) who was a social psychologist.

In brief, the symbolic interactive approach discovers how people

describe the reality and how their notions are related to their deeds.

Reality is created by people via connecting meaning to situations.

The meanings are articulated by symbols such as words, religious

objects, and clothing. These symbolic meanings are the foundation

for actions and interactions. Haplessly, the symbolic meanings are

different for each and every individual. These shared meanings are

then shifted to new members by socialisation.

Methodology

The steps in grounded theory research come about concurrently.

The researcher will be observing, gathering and organizing data

and then forming theory from the data at the same time. One of the

most important methodological approaches often used in grounded

theory research is the regular comparative process in which every

section of data is compared with every other section.

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The basic notion of the grounded theory is to read and re – read the

text and find out various variables and also to find out their mutual

relationships. The ability to distinguish variables and relationships

is named as theoretical sensitivity and this theoretical sensitivity is

influenced by a number of entities including one's reading of the

literature and one's use of techniques designed.

Data Collection and Analysis Techniques

The data may be collected by interview, observation, records, or a

mixture of these. Typically grounded theory research projects have

a sample of 25 - 50 people and are conducted by in depth

interview.

The process of data collection usually results in large amounts of

hand-written notes, typed interview transcripts, or video/audio

taped conversations that contain multiple sections of data to be

sorted and analysed. This process is initiated by coding and

categorising the data.

Open Coding

Open coding is the fraction of the analysis associated with the

recognition the naming, categorizing and relating the processes or

phenomena found in the text.

Axial Coding

Axial coding is the process of linking codes i.e. categories and

properties, to each other by way of a combination of inductive and

deductive thoughts. The grounded theorists highlight causal

relationships and fit things into a primary casing of generic

relationships.

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Selective Coding

The process of selective coding involves the choosing of one

category to be the core category and relating all other categories to

that category. This means that one category is selected as the super

category and all the other categories are related to the super one.

Memos

Memos are short texts written by oneself as one ensues through the

analysis of a quantity of data. The theoretical notes have the same

importance as the memo bear.

Outcomes

The outcome is an assumption elucidation the incident under

study. The research report subject the theory duly supported by

examples from the data.

6.1.5 CRITICAL RESEARCH

The purpose of scientific research is to articulate something of

added value about reality and its processes; in doing so, it follows

detailed rules regarding the necessity to apply adequate guidelines.

There are four fundamental units which jointly make up a specific

field of explanation and understanding of the processes under

consideration. These are the theoretical introduction, methodology,

information and analysis, and discussion. Research is composed of

these four units, in addition to the technological segment that

accompany them: the title page, the table of contents, and the

references.

This approach is based on a preliminary supposition that to open

the gateway of method is to enable phenomena to enter into the

logic of how it operates and will necessitate fundamental

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transformations in its structure and uses. This requires that method

be placed on the same plane as the phenomena based on which

their relationship is to be structured. In other words, the reading of

methodology is at the same time, at least according to our norm, a

reading of the reality of socio-historical processes that categorize

the phenomena that scientific methodology examines. The

movement between methodology and phenomena is sometimes a

parallel, and at other times an intersecting one. The study of

methodology raises an important problem that characterizes the

instrumental relationships of utilization and performance that

revolve around the method of implementation, and most probably

these relationships do not attend to the material content which is of

real concern to us. It is possible to differentiate between the

instruments that are formed as a medium between the productive

social individual and his direct material environment and the

mental instruments that also play the role of the medium between

the individual/the community and the social/material environment

that they live through and that it lives through them (Babbie,

1980).

Data Collection

In a qualitative study, any number of strategies can be adopted

when collecting data, including numerical questionnaires with

open-ended questions, interviews (semi-structured and

unstructured), participant observation and historical or

contemporary documents. The researcher must outline the

rationale for the selected method of data collection and offer

sufficient information of the process. If using a particular

approach, such as grounded theory, it should be evident from the

discussion that the researcher has stick on to the processes inherent

in the methodology. Interviews are by far the most common

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method of data collection and are mainly either semi-structured or

unstructured. If a semi structured interview format is selected it

should be evident how the themes or questions were derived. In

unstructured interviews the early opening question must be

presented and clearly linked to the purpose of the study. Interviews

are more frequently conducted face to face, but online or telephone

interviews are also used.

6.1.6 ACTION RESEARCH

The alternative names of action research are participatory research,

collaborative inquiry, emancipator research, action learning and

contextual action research, but the entire are disparities on a

theme. Action research is learning by doing, in which a group of

people recognize a problem and do something to solve it. A more

brief definition is action research aims to give both to the practical

concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to

further the goals of social science simultaneously (Thomas, 1986).

Action research merges theory and practice and (researchers and

practitioners) through change and reflection in an instant

problematic situation within a jointly satisfactory principled

framework.

The aim of an action researcher is to bring about development in

his/her practice by analyzing existing practice and identifying

elements for change. The process is founded on the gathering of

evidence on which to make informed rather than intuitive

judgments and decisions. The most important aspect of action

research is that the process enhances teachers’ professional

development through the fostering of their capability as

professional knowledge makers, rather than simply as professional

knowledge users (Waters – Adams, 2006).

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Principles of Action Research

Winter (1989) provides a complete outline of six key principles.

a) Reflexive Critique

The principle of reflective critique ensures people to reflect on

problems and processes and make clear the interpretations, biases,

postulation and concerns upon which decisions are made. In this

way, practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.

b) Dialectical Critique

Reality, predominantly communal reality is validated which is

shared through language. Events are conceptualized in exchange of

ideas, as a result a dialectical critique is necessary to recognize the

set of associations both between the phenomenon and its context

and between the rudiments which make up the phenomenon.

c) Collaborative Resource

Contributors in an action research are co-researchers. The principle

of two-way resource assumes that each person’s ideas are equally

significant as potential resources for generating interpretive

categories of analysis, negotiated among the participants. It

struggles to avoid the twisting of trustworthiness stemming from

the prior status of an idea-holder. It particularly creates possible

the insights gleaned from noting the contradictions both between

many viewpoints and within a single viewpoint.

d) Risk

The change in process potentially warns all previously established

ways of doing things thus creating intuitive fears among the

practitioners. One of the more prominent fears comes from the

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risk to ego stemming from open discussion of one’s

interpretations, ideas, and judgments. Initiators of action research

will use this principle to calm others’ fears and invite participation

by pointing out that they will be subject to the same process and

that whatever the outcome, the learning will take place.

e) Plural Structure

The nature of the research personifies an array of views,

explanations and critiques leading to multiple possible actions and

interpretations. This plural structure of inquiry requires a plural

text for reporting which means that there will be many accounts

made open with observations on their contradictions and a range of

options for action presented. Therefore, a report acts as a support

for ongoing discussion among colleague rather than a final

conclusion of fact.

f) Theory, Practice, Transformation

For action researchers, theory informs practice and these practices

refine theory in a continuous transformation. In any scenery,

people’s actions are based on absolutely held postulations, theories

and hypotheses and with every observed result the theoretical

knowledge is improved. The two are entangled features of a single

change process. It is up to the researchers to make open the

theoretical validation for the actions and to question the bases of

those validations.

Action Research Tool

Action Research is supplementary of a holistic approach to

problem-solving to a certain extent than a single method for

collecting and analyzing data. Thus, it allows for several different

research tools to be used as the project is conducted. These

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various methods, which are generally common to the qualitative

research paradigm, include:

Keeping a research journal

Document collection

Analysis

Participant observation recordings

Questionnaire surveys

Structured and unstructured interviews

Case studies.

Limitations of Action Research

Following are some of the limitations of action research:

Lack of Time

Action researchers work in the chaos of their own practices.

Keeping an eye closely on these practices as they are acting within

it insist space and time which the practice does not give easily. It is

therefore difficult to maintain rigor in data gathering etc.

Validity as Research

Action research is carried out by individuals who are interested

parties in the research. This fact has led to criticisms of the validity

of the research process with the charges of predictable researcher

bias in data gathering and analysis. The reason for action research

counters this criticism by suggesting that it is impossible to access

practice without involving the practitioner. Practice is action

informed by values and aims which are not fully accessible from

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the outside. The practitioner may not even be wholly aware of the

meaning of his or her values until he or she tries to embody them

in her action.

Unfamiliarity with Research Methods

Action researchers often explore what may constitute ample

research methods at the same time as they are researching their

practice. This kind of training and resulting extemporized planning

has led to charges of unreliability in data gathering. To some

extent, this unreliability is inevitable but the idea only makes sense

in the presence of verifiably reliable data gathering. From this

perspective, action research would claim that the procedure elicits

the most reliable access to practice (Carr, 1986).

Lack of Generalization

The results of action research are not subject to generalization.

Baffling Issues

Illustration of the process of action research may confuse rather

than make clear to. The ranges of visual diagrams of the action

research process are of changeable intricacy and perhaps not

always be helpful (McNiff, 1988). The expression of action

research may be confusing or in contradiction with the main values

of the process.

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6.2 NON – INTERACTIVE RESEARCH

6.2.1 CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content Analysis is explains as the systematic study of content of

communication. It is the study of the content with allusion to the

meanings, background and aim enclosed in messages.

Bernard Berelson in 1952 published Content analysis in

Communication Research, which was the sign of gratitude for the

method as a adaptable tool for social science and media

researchers. Yet, the method attained larger fame among social

science scholars as well as a method of communication research

(Chai, 1978).

According to Berelson (1952) content analysis is a research

technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative

description of the manifest content of communication.

Tools of Content Analysis

The stuff for the content analysis can be letters, diaries, newspaper

contents, short stories, messages of Radio, television, documents

or text or any symbols.

Principles of Content Analysis

Similarly to the other research method the content analysis

conforms to three basic principles of systematic method. They are:

Objectivity

It means that the analysis is chased on the basis of clear rules

which facilitate different researchers to get the same results from

the same documents or messages.

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6.2.2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

The major difficulty encountered by a historian is determining the

problem so that a satisfactory analysis is made possible. An

experienced historian realizes that historical research must

involve ‘penetrating’ analysis of limited problem rather than

superficial examination of a broad problem. However, such

problem still exists in historical research.

6.3 THE HISTORICAL HYPOTHESES

The historian formulates hypotheses but the type of hypotheses

and procedure for testing themt, differ from physical scientist.

The indications are;

a. The historian deals with a much more complex phenomena

b. He experiences greater difficulty in ascertaining the cause of

an historical event under investigation

c. It is much more difficult to hypothize a cause because some of

factors associated with the past event may be unmeasurable or

unrecorded

d. A historical phenomena may have a greater number of

antecedents and a more complicated pattern of interaction

among them

e. A historian often reports to multiple hypotheses

f. Because of these complexities, the historian is unable to draw

conclusions, that are inclusive and decisive as those of

physical sciences

Inspite of these constraints and limitations, the historian formulate

purposefully hypotheses. When the historical hypotheses once

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have been tested satisfactorily, it may become a central thesis,

unifying themes or the principles of interpretation used by the

historian.

Some examples of hypotheses of historical nature relating to

education system in the past, are given below:

The British deliberately discouraged indigenous system of

education in India.

The emergence of a national system of education has been resisted

by bureaucrats in the subcontinent.

The system of grant in aid and job incentive led to the supremacy

of English in Indian education system.

The ambiguity of education policy adopted by the company rule,

led to a long controversy in education system in India.

6.4 THE HISTORICAL REPORT

(a) Elements of Research Report

Reporting the findings of historical research is the last and the

most important phase of research. In view of the special nature of

historical research the report makes certain demands on the

investigator. According to Van Dalen, the report mainly includes:

a. A statement of the problem

b. b. A review of the literature

c. The basic assumptions underlying the hypotheses

d. The method employed in testing the hypotheses

e. The results obtained and the conclusion drawn

f. Bibliography

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(b) Considerations to the taken in Research Report

Some considerations should be taken in view in writing of the

research report. In writing of the research report, the investigators

will pattern his material in some systematic order. Such as

chronological, geographical, topical or a combination of all these

approaches. Generally experienced historians in modern days

adopt topical arrangement of material to make the discussion

interesting and to keep the focus on major issues.

Reporting all the evidence collected during the investigation would

make the account dull and uninteresting so, historian must use his

judgment in determining the amount of emphasis on space to give

to various evidence. A rapraisal of the hypotheses and the purpose

of the study would help decide which data are most significant for

the study and how to organize or integrate them, the narrative

should realize the twin objectives of maintaining accuracy and

interest. This requires creativity as well as an imagination and

resourcefulness. The research report should be written in a

scholarly style that is dignified as well as objective.

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Quantitative Research

UNIT-7: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

7.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

7.1.1 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL

The Backgruound

Design No.1 and No.3 have been discussed as “pre-experimental

design” as they provide either no control group or no way of

equating the group that are used with the result that these designs

are least effective. The Design No.1 does not provide for any pre-

treatment observation and does not have any external and explicit

standard of reference for the purpose of comparison.

Design No.2 provides for a pre-treatment observation as a standard

for comparison but it does not provide for a control group as an

external standard of reference for comparison.

Design No.3 does provide control group as an external standard of

reference for the purpose of comparison but it does not provide

pre-treatment observation in either of group.

This situation therefore, demands a design which should have a

control group as well as to provide for a pre-treatment observation

for both experimental and control group s that the design may be

true experimental one.

In a true experiment, according to Best the “equivalence” of the

experimental and control groups is provided by random

assignment of subject to experimental and control groups.

Although, it is difficult to arrange a true experimental design in

behavioural science like education management, however, it is the

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strongest type of design and should be used whenever possible.

These design are discussed below.

Design No-4 Post Test only Equivalent Groups Design

This design may be symbolized as under

RE= T O1

RC= - O2

This design is one of the most effective in minimizing the threats

to experimental validity. It differs from Design No.3 is that,

experimental and control groups are equated by random

assignment. At the end of experimental period, the difference

between “the mean test scores” of the experimental as well as of

the control groups are subjected to statistical significance. A 1-test

or an analysis of variance, are relevant for this purpose.

Example:

A researcher selects 16 principals from a population of 100

principals in a division. They are randomly assignment to

experimental and control groups such as 8 of than are used as

experimental group and 8 of than as control group.

The experimental group is provided an intensive training (for

example) in “Leadership in Education” for a certain period where

as the control group is not provided any training and they

continued their routine work in traditional manner.

All the factors are equated. At the end of the period (P) the

experimental and control groups were administered a test of

statistical significance. In case, the statistically significance

difference is found in favour of the experimental group, one can

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safely conclude that this effect in the efficiency of the principals is

due to the training variable and in this way, the cause and effect

relationship is determined between the training treatments and

efficiency (observation).

In case the difference between the mean score is found to favour

the experimental group but not to the extent of being statistically

significant. one can conclude that this superiority of experimental

group (E) over the control group (C) could well have been the

result of sampling error and that there was no evidence of the

superiority of the training component over those principals who

were not provided such training.

However, there is one drawback in this design that is the non

existence of pre-test. If a pre-test is added to both the groups. we

can arrive at another design which can be named as Design No.5.

2. Design No-5 Pre Test Post-Test Equivalent Groups

The following is the symbolic representation of the design.

(i) RE= O1 T O2

RC=03 T O4

(ii) D= dRE O2- O1

dRC=O4 T O3

(iii) D=dRE-dRC

The design is similar to Design No.4 except that pretests are

administered before the appreciation of the experimental group

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treatments and post test at the end of the treatment. The difference

between the scores on pre-test and post test for the experimental

group is denoted as dRE and is calculated by the use of formula

dRE= 02 — 0 where as the difference between the scores on pre-

test and post-test of control group is dRE and is calculated by the

use of formula dRC= 04 — 03. Thus the gains in experimental and

control group are dRE — dRC respectively and can be compared

by calculating the net difference between these two gains i.e. with

the help formula

D= dRE - dRC

It is reasonable to attribute the difference between these two gains

(i.e. capital D) to the treatment (Training to the principals in the

example referred frequently) that one group received and the other

group did not. The gain score may also be compared and subjected

to a test of significance of the difference means. Pre-test scores can

also be used in the analysis of co-variance to statistically control

for any difference between the groups at the beginning of the

study.

Let us take the example of training of principals as discussed in

design 4 where in each of this experimental and control groups is

to be subjected to a pre-test (the same or parallel) before the

conduct of experiment. Then the training component is planned to

be given to the experimental group and the control group is not to

be exposed to treatment (training) After the experimental treatment

is over, the same or parallel test (post-test is to be conducted for

both the groups. The gain (02 - Oi) named as dRE in the

experimental group now has its counterpart dRC which is equal to

(04 — 03) in the control group and these gains can be compared.

Their difference is D which is equal to dRE — dRC or (02 — 01)

— (04 — 03). It is reasonable to attribute the difference between

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these gains (D) to the treatment or training received by

experimental group and not by control group.

The design is clearly an improvement over design No.4 where in

no pretest was provided and the group had been equated only

statistically. This design is also an improvement our design no.2 in

which there was no assurance that the treatment alone was

responsible for any gained observed. The presence of control

group in design No.5 now makes it possible to control maturation

and practice effects. In brief, Design 5 has an advantage over

previous designs that the pretest affords an opportunity to check on

the initial equivalence of the groups. Thus this is a strong and a

true experimental design but there may be possibility of the

influence of the effect of testing and the interaction with the

experimental variability.

Design No-6 The Solomon Four Group Design

The symbolic representation of the design is as under:

RE O1 T O2

RC O3 T O4

RE - T O5

RC - - O6

The characteristics of this design are:

i. Subjects are randomly assigned to four groups

ii. Two groups receive experimental treatment (T)

iii. One experimental group receive a pre-test (O)

iv. Two control groups do not receive treatment (T)

v. One control group receive a pre-test (03)

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vi. All four groups receive post-tests (02 04 05 06)

The design is really a combination of the two groups design

previously described (the post test only and the pre-test and post

test). It is possible to evaluate the effects of training. Analysis of

variance is used to compare the four post-test scores and an

analysis of co-variance is used to compare gains in 02 and 04.

Because this design provides for two numerous experiments the

advantage of a replication are incorporated. A major difficulty is

finding enough subjects to assign randomly to four equivalent

groups.

7.1.2 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

The quasi experimental designs provide control of when and to

whom the measurement is applied. Out of a number of quasi

experimental designs, a few are described in this section.

Design No-7: The Pre-Test and Post-Test Non-Equivalent Groups Design

The symbolic representation of this design is as under:

E O1 T O2

C 03 T O4

Where O1and O3 are observation or pre-tests and 02 and 04 are the

observation on post-tests.

The design I as indicated earlier makes use of intact groups which

are formed on the basis of some natural grouping. Thus

experimental and control groups are formed neither by randomly

assigning scores nor by matching. Randomization is preferred over

the selection of intact groups. Randomization (as compared to

matching which can equates groups, on a few variables) can assure

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the researcher that there is no systematic biases in groups

containing randomly assigned individuals and it can determine

which individual is to receive treatment and which is not to

receive, thus eliminating systematic difference between the groups.

The addition of control group is the major advantage of this

design, though it lacks the characteristics of Design No.5.

A researcher should be aware of the fact that the basic requirement

of design 7 is not pre test scores for experimental and control

groups. They are as similar as possible and that the initial

assignment of individuals to groups does not reflect biases.

This design is justified on the following grounds. The design is

adopted when obtaining of equivalent groups through

randomization for experimental and control groups may

sometimes become difficult because this would involve splitting

classes, disturbing class schedule or assembling scattered subjects

at one place. Therefore, there is need to have a design which could

use pre-assembled subjects for experimental and control groups.

The difference between the mean of the 0 and 02 scores and the

difference between the mean of the 03 and 04 scores are tested for

statistical significance. Analysis of co-variance may also be used.

Because this design may be the only possible one, the comparison

is justified but the results should be interpreted with care.

Design No-8: The Time Series Design

The time series experimental is a type of longitudinal research

where subjects undergo repeated measurements both before and

after the introduction of the experimental variables. It can be

diagrammed in the following way.

02 03 04 T 05 06 07 08

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There are four observation period (the number may vary

considerably).

The time series design is actually an elaboration of the one group

pre test and post test design. One group is repeatedly pre-tested

(more than once but not necessarily four times as shown in the

above diagram) expoed to a treatment and then repeatedly post

tested. If a group scores essentially the same on a number of pre-

test and then significantly improve following a treatment, the

researcher has more confidence in the effectiveness of the

treatment than if just one pre test and one post test are

administered.

The characteristics of this design are that maturation is eliminated

in most time series design, testing is also absent because the

effects of repeated measurement can be eliminated.

Weaknesses in the Design

There are certain weaknesses in the design such as:

History is still a problem in this design something might happen

between the last pre test and the first post test the effect of which

might be confused with the treatment

Instrumentation may also be a problem in case the experimenter is

changing measuring instruments during the study

Pre-treatment Interaction is also a validity problem

Although the design is simple to execute but the analysis of the

interpretation of data is complex and difficult to handle

In this design for the analysis of data, the statistical technique of

“trend analysis” needs to be used.

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7.1.3 SINGLE SUBJECT

Single-subject also referred to as single-case or single-system

designs which offer a substitute to group designs. The very name

proposed that the focal point is on an N = 1, (a single subject) in

which the 1 can be an individual, an agency or else a community.

The formation of these designs which are simply modified to

social work practice makes them useful for research on

involvement in the direct and community practice. Single subject

research design is a quantitative experimental research approach in

which study contributors serve up their own control (Gast, 2010, p.

13-14).

The fundamental principle of a single-subject design (as a social

work research method) is that if an involvement with a customer,

agency, or community is effective then it must be possible to

observe a modify in status from the period earlier to involvement

to the period during and after the involvement.

Mechanism of Single Subject Design:

As a social work research tool, this type of design has three

components:

Repeated Measurement

Single-subject designs require the repeated measurement of a

dependent variable. Before opening an involvement and during the

involvement itself the researcher must be able to measure the

subject’s status on the target problem at regular intervals of time.

On the other hand, the repeated measures of the dependent variable

can begin when the patron is getting an intrusion for other

problems. Usually, behaviors and occurrence are easier to recall

than the doldrums or feelings. Even the recall of behaviors or

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events becomes more difficult with the passage of time and almost

certainly should be restricted to the preceding month.

Baseline Phase

The baseline phase stand for the period in which the involvement

to be assessed is not presented to the respondents. During the

baseline phase, repeated measurements of the dependent variable

are taken or renovated. These measures reflect the status of the

consumer (agency or community) on the dependent variable before

the accomplishment of the involvement.

The baseline phase measurements provide two aspects of control

analogous to a control group in a group design. First in a group

design, the researchers expect the treatment group to have

dissimilar scores than the control group after the involvement.

Second, in a control group design, random assignment controls for

intimidation to internal validity. In a single-subject design, the

repeated baseline measurements permit the researcher to the

reduction of most intimidation to the internal validity of the

design.

Treatment Phase

The treatment phase stands for the time period during which the

involvement is implemented. During the treatment phase the

repeated measurements of the same dependent variable using the

same measures are obtained. In due course, the patterns and

magnitude of the data points are compared to the data points in the

baseline phase to determine whether a change has occurred. It is

recommended that the length of the treatment phase be as long as

the baseline phase.

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Graphing

The phases of a single-subject design are always summarized on a

graph. Graphing the data make possible the supervising and

assessing the impact of the involvement. In the graph, the Y axis is

often used to represent the scores of the dependent variable while

the X axis represents a unit of time.

7.2 NON – EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

7.2.1 DESCRIPTIVE

A descriptive research includes the collection of data in order to

check the proposed hypothesis regarding the topic of interest. This

research sometimes deals with the existing processes or events

relevant to the preceding one or to check the impact of previous

event on the current. The whole process comprises the collection

and tabulation of the facts, analysis and interpretation, comparison

and contrast among the variables as well as their categorizations

and assessment (Ghaffar, 2005).

The importance of the descriptive research dwells on the fact that

not much advancement can be made in coping up with the

problems unless the researchers contains descriptions of the events

with which they work. Descriptive research is well-liked because a

numerous research studies are descriptive in nature. It so used in

solving varieties of hampers and impedes in education field

because it is majorly concerned with the evaluation of behavior,

notions, background studies (Ghaffar, 2005).

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Descriptive research is sometimes called as non – experimental

research because it is often used to investigate the relationships

between two variables and the hypothesis drawn (Ghaffar, 2005).

Steps in descriptive research

The following are the important steps used in the descriptive

research.

Investigative a problematic condition / process

Recognition of the problem

Defining the problem

Developing the hypothesis / research questions

Shaping the postulations upon which the assumptions or

processes are based

Opting suitable subjects and source of materials

Developing tools for data collection

Formulation of categories for data classification

Validation of the collecting tools

Creating judgments and objective observations

Describing, analyzing and interpreting data

Establishing findings and developing the conclusions

7.2.2 COMPARATIVE

Educational and social researchers while carrying out descriptive

research not only try to discover what a phenomena is but also to

see how and why it occurs. They try to determine what factors or

circumstances, certain events or practices accompany the

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occurrence of the phenomena. In social sciences, where it is

difficult to control various variables, causal comparative method is

usually employed instead of experimental research. It is not always

possible for researcher to select, control and manipulate the factors

necessary to study cause and effect relationship. So this method

enables the researcher to analyze what happens in a natural

situation rather than in a laboratory situation. In an experiment, the

researcher hypothesizes, then manipulates important variables.

And exposes the experimental group to experience A while

withholding the experience from a control group and observes the

result. In a causal comparative study, the researcher observes

phenomena B and searches back through multiplicity of possible

causes for the factors independent that are related or contributed to

the accurence of phenomena B. three examples are quoted here to

clarify the nature of a causal comparative study.

Examples-1 If a researcher wants to determine the cause of

unrest in an educational institution, he cannot set up a control

group to test whether certain factors will cause an unrest. He will

compare the institutions where unrest occurred with other

institutions, which had no unrest or riots. He will study the

likeness and difference between the two situations and will

determine the factors that appear to account for the unrest in one

instance and for its lack in the other.

Example-2 If a researcher intends to identify the causes of

automobile accidents in order to study their causes. He will incline

to automobile industry police department, safety commission and

other insurance companies to study the conditions associated with

the accidents that have occurred. Such factors as mechanical faults,

or failure, excessive speed, driving under the influence of drugs

and others have been identified as causes.

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Example-3 Studies on juvenile delinquency may compare the

social and educational background of delinquents and non-

delinquents, what factors if any were common to the delinquent

groups? What factors if any were common to non-delinquent

groups. Any factors common to one groups but not to the other

might serve as possible explanation of the underlying causes of

delinquency.

Weaknesses or Limitations of Causal Comparative Studies

This type of studies possess certain weaknesses or limitations.

a. The study of the past event may be the only practicable way to

investigate certain problems, the researcher needs to be aware

of the problems inherent in this type of research. The

researcher must be cognizant of the fact that the information

used in ex-post facto studies may be incomplete. That the

researcher may not have sufficient information about all the

events and variables that were occurring at the time being

studied.

b. Lack of control is the greatest weakness of this method.

Suppose a researcher observe phenomena B and hypothesizes

that A caused B. The data may show that A is related to B but

without controlling A, he cannot be certain that some other

factors as C.D.E etc did not cause the occurrence B. So we can

say that causal comparative studies do not produce precise,

reliable knowledge that an experimental study can do. But they

provide a way to problemlproblems that cannot be probed in a

laboratory situation.

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7.2.3 CORRELATION

Description of phenomena are sometimes made by complying

correlation technique which helps in ascertaining the extent to

which two variables are related or the extent to which variations in

one factor correspond with variation in another factor. The

investigator in these types of studies does not manipulate the

independent variable but he merely makes observations of both the

independent as well as the dependent variable as these occur in

natural setting.

For example, a researcher studying the relationship between IQ

and achievement randomly selects some groups and measure both

the IQ and the achievement through some tests. The two variables

in this type of research may be closely relatyd, moderately related

or completely unrelated. Generally, the magnitude of the

correlation depends upon the extent to which an increase or

decrease in one variable is accompanied by increase or decrease in

other variable whether in the same direction or in opposite

direction. For example, a high positive correlation exists if a high

rank in one set is accompanied by a high rank in other (high IQ

high achievement test score) and a low rank in one set is

accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative

correlation exists if in general a high rank in one set of scores

corresponds with a low rank in the other (high IQ low achievement

test score). No or little correlation exists if a high score in one set

is just as likely to corresponds with a low or with a high score in

the other set. Correlations therefore, range over a state which

extend from a perfect negative correlation to no correlation and to

perfect positive correlation.

The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a

coefficient of correlation merely qualifies the extent to which two

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variables are related and it does not imply that cause- effect-

relationship necessarily exists. The meaning of the relationship is

interpreted by logical analysis rather than statistical compilation.

This interpretation has as the limitations to which causal

comparative studies are subjected.

With some ingenuity, correlation method can be used in studying

various educational and social problems.

7.2.4 SURVEY

The survey is a non-experimental and descriptive research method.

Surveys can be useful when a researcher wants to gather data on

process that cannot be directly observed. The survey research is

significant because it not only an endeavor to measure past and

present behavior but also to measures for future behavior (Busha,

1980).

Key Features of Surveys

The following are the crucial and important features:

Collect data on one-shot basis

Symbolize a wide target population

Create numerical

Give explanatory and inferential data

Operate key issues and variables;

Collect standardized information;

Determine correlations;

Eliminate contextual data;

Collect data from multiple choice and closed questions

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Support or refute hypotheses about the target population

They are piloted

Make generalizations about and observe patterns of

response in the targets of focus

Collect data which can be processed statistically.

Types of Surveys

Data are usually collected via using of questionnaires even though

sometimes researchers directly interview the respondents. Surveys

can use qualitative or quantitative measures (Babbie, 1980). There

are two basic types of surveys

a. Cross-Sectional Surveys

Cross-sectional surveys are used to collect the information on a

population at a single point in time. An example of a cross

sectional survey would be a questionnaire that collects data on

how parents feel about their students’ academic achievements in

the year 2013. A different cross-sectional survey questionnaire

might try to determine the relationship between two factors.

b. Longitudinal Surveys

Longitudinal surveys collect data over a period of time. The

researcher may then analyze changes in the population and attempt

to explain them. The three main types of longitudinal surveys are

Trend Studies

Trend studies focus on a particular population which is sampled

and scrutinized repeatedly. Trend studies may be conducted over a

long period of time and do not have to be conducted by just one

researcher or by one research project. A researcher may combine

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data from several studies of the same population in order to show a

trend.

Cohort Studies

Cohort studies focus on a particular population taken sample and

studied more than once but the focal point of the cohort studies are

different.

Panel Studies

Panel studies permit the researcher to find out the reason of

changes occurred in the population as the researchers use the same

sample of people every time. That sample is called a panel. Panel

studies elicits extremely specific and useful rationalization but can

be tough job to conduct. They are expensive and take a lot of time

and also may be suffer from high abrasion rates. Abrasion is what

happens when people drop out of the study.

Stages in Survey Design

The following are the important steps often exercised during the

survey study:

Define the objectives;

Decide the kind of survey required;

Formulate research questions or hypotheses;

Decide the issues on which to focus;

Decide the information that is needed to address the issues;

Decide the sampling required;

Decide the instrumentation and the metrics required;

Generate the data collection instruments;

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Decide how the data will be collected;

Pilot the instruments and refine them;

Train the interviewers (if appropriate);

Collect the data

Analyze the data;

Report the results.

Problems in Surveys

The problems often emerge to the researchers during conducting

survey researches are:

Deprived sampling

Poor question design and wording

Erroneous or unfair responses

Low response or no response

7.2.5 SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS

In primary data analysis the individuals who assemble the data

also analyze it; for meta-analysis the researcher quantitatively

unite the statistical results from multiple studies of an event to

meet a conclusion; in secondary data analysis individuals who

were not involved in the assortment of the data analyze the data.

Secondary data analysis may be based on the published data or it

may be based on the original data. Secondary data analysis based

on published data has been used effectively. Secondary data

analysis can also be based on the original data if the original data

are available in records.

Secondary data analysis can be literally defined as the second-hand

analysis. It is the analysis of data that was either collected by

someone else or for some other reason than the one now being

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considered or frequently a amalgamation of the two (Cnossen

1997).

If secondary research and data analysis is embarking on with heed

and carefulness, it can provide a cost-effective way of gaining a

wide understanding of research questions.

Secondary data are also supportive in scheming following primary

research and additionally can elicit a baseline with which to

evaluate the researchers’ primary data collection results.

Therefore, it is always astute to start any research activity with a

review of the secondary data (Novak 1996).

Sources of Secondary Data

The following are the important sources of secondary data.

Government Documents

Official Statistics

Technical Reports

Scholarly Journals

Trade Journals

Review Articles

Reference Books

Research organizations

Universities

Libraries, Library Search Engines

Computerized Databases

Divergence of Secondary data

When conducting secondary data analysis, it is common to come

across data sources that oppose or conflict with each other. To help

overcome this problem the researcher should:

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Make a decision if the source of the data is a primary or a

secondary source. In other words, look for a reference. If the

source is simply quoting a number or statistic it may not be

accurate and must be taken carefully.

If the researcher fails to find the original source of the data in

question then look for more data sources casing the topic and

decide the most extensively held conclusion. If two independent

secondary data sources agree then the information is probably

more authentic.

Check with a local specialist in the topic area. The researcher

should make valuable resources around him / her.

Importance of Data Disaggregation

The point of data aggregation or disaggregation merely refers the

degree to which the information or data is broken down.

Aggregate data are the data which explain a group of observations

with the grouping made on defined norms. Aggregated data can

also be defined by time interval (e.g. the number of persons that

voyaged to urban milieus in the last five years).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data Analysis

Advantages

The following are the important advantages of the secondary data.

a) Secondary data analysis can be done quite quickly when

compared to proper primary data assembling and analysis

exercises.

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b) Where good secondary data is accessible, the researchers

save time and money by making good use of available

data rather than assembling primary data, thus avoiding

copying of effort.

c) Using secondary data provides relatively low-cost modes

of comparing the level of well-being of different

political units. Though, keep in mind that data collection

methods vary which may damage the comparability of

the data.

d) Depending on the level of data disaggregation, the

secondary data analysis provides itself to trend analysis as

it offers a relatively easy way to check change over time.

e) It informs and complements primary data collection,

saving time and resources often associated with over-

collecting primary data.

f) Persons with limited research training or technical

expertise can be trained to conduct a secondary data

review (Slavin, 2007)

Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages.

Secondary data helps us understand the condition or status of a

group, but compared to primary data they are imperfect reflections

of reality. Without proper interpretation and analysis they do not

help us understand why something is happening.

The person reviewing the secondary data can easily become

overwhelmed by the volume of secondary data available, if

selectivity is not exercised.

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It is often difficult to determine the quality of some of the data in

question.

Sources may conflict with each other.

Because secondary data is usually not collected for the same

purpose as the original researcher had, the goals and purposes of

the original researcher can potentially bias the study.

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Research Instruments

UNIT-8: RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

8.1 QUESTIONNAIRE

a. Questionnaire Defined

Questionnaire is a type of tools of research which is popularly

used in educational and social research. According to John W.

Best (1992) a questionnaire is used when factual information is

desired, when opinion rather than facts are desired, an

“Opinionnaire” or “Attitude Scale” is used.

Van Dalen (1992) defines a questionnaire as an instrument that is

widely used by educational workers to obtain facts about current

conditions and practices and to make inquiries concerning attitude

and opinion.

In view of Ahmad A. Arain (1980) a questionnaire is a set of

carefully selected and ordered questions prepared by an

investigator to seek factual information from respondents or to

find their opinion, attitude or interest.

Some restrict the use of the words “questionnaire” to a set of

questions seeking factual information where as those seeking

opinion are called “opinionnaire” and those dealing with attitude

of the respondent called “attitude scale”. However it is generally

agreed that isolating specific questions for the consideration of

respondents tend to objectify, intensify and standardized their

observations.

b. Forms/Kinds of Questionnaire

A researcher can construct questions in the form of a ‘closed’,

‘open’ ‘pictorial’ and ‘scale items’. He can utilize one type of

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questionnaire exclusively or a combination of them when

structuring his questionnaire. The nature of the problem and the

character of the respondents determine which form or forms will

most likely supply the desired data. These forms are briefly

described.

(i) Close Form

Questionnaire that call for short, check responses are as the

restricted, or close form type. They provide for marking a “Yes” or

“No”, a short response or checking an item from a list of suggested

responses.

The following example illustrate a closed form item.

Why did you intend to do your M.Ed from I.E.R University of

Peshawar’? Please indicate three reasons in order of importance

using, for most important. 2 for the second most important and 3

for the third most important.

Accessible

Enjoys reputation

Expenses are low

Financial assistance is available

Courses are easy

Any other (please specify)

Even when using the close form, it is desirable to provide for

‘unanticipated’ responses, providing an other category as given in

the above example, permits the respondents to indicate what might

be his most important reaction, one that the questionnaire frame

had not anticipated specification is essential for tabulation or

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interpretation purpose. Such type of option relaxes the rigidily of

the form.

(ii) Advantages of the Close-Form

For certain type of information the close form questionnaire is

entirely satisfactory. Such as:

It is easy to fill out

It takes little time by respondents

It keeps the respondent on the subject

It is relatively objective

It is fairly easy to tabulate and analyze

It provides a good looking format to the questionnaire

Answers are standardized

Answers are relatively complete

The respondent is often clear about the meaning of the

question

As questions are self contained, they can be answered

quickly

They require fewer instruction than open end questions

(iii) Limitations of the Close Form Questionnaire

The following are certain limitations of the close form

questionnaire.

The close form questionnaire often fails to reveal the respondents

motives and does not always get information of sufficient scope

and in depth and may not discriminate between the ‘finer shades’

of meaning

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Fixed alternative responses may make respondents take a stand on

issue about which they have not crystallized opinion or may force

them give answers that do not accurately express their ideas

The respondents may feel frustrated because the appropriate

category of their answers are either not provided or is not provided

in detail

There may be too many answers categories to print on the

questionnaire

There is more likelihood of clerical mistakes

Usually respondents check items blindly without giving attention

to their purpose

Sometimes a respondent check an item without understanding its

meaning

(iv) The Open Form of the Questionnaire

The open form or unstructured type of questionnaire calls for a

free response in respondents own words. For example:

Why did you intend to take admission in M.Ed Programme in IER

University of Peshawar?

In what respects IER programme needs improvement?

The open form probably provides for greater depth of response.

The respondent reveals his/her frame of reference and possibly, the

reasons for his/her responses. Since it requires greater effort on the

part of respondent, return are often meager. This type of item

question is sometimes difficult to interpret, tabulate and

summarize in the research study.

(v) Some Considerations Need to be Taken in View while Framing Open — End Questions

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Questions should be such that they are answered clearly

Questions should be clearly worded

The terms should be defined that could not be misinterpreted

Unwarranted assumptions should be avoided in questions

Questioned should be phrased so that they are appropriate for all

respondents

Questions should be designed such that they will give a complete

response

The nature of questions must ensure the systematic quantification

of responses

Double barreled questions should be avoided

(vi) Advantages of the Open Form Questionnaire

In the words of Dr. Ahmad A. Arain several advantages are

attributed to open end questionnaire such as:

Open end questions are flexible. They have the possibility of depth

and have the capacity to encourage cooperation and achieve

support and to make better estimates of respondents true

intentions, beliefs and attitude

The response to open end questions may suggest the possibility of

relations and hypothesis. Respondents will sometime give

unexpected answers that may indicate the existence of relations not

originally anticipated by researcher in the development of

questionnaire

They can be used when all possible answer categories are not

known

They allow the respondents to answer adequately

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They can be used when there are too many potential answer

categories to test on the questionnaire

They are preferable to complex issues that cannot be condensed

into small categories

They allow more opportunity for creativity, thinking and self

expression

They are used for complex questions that could be answered in a

few simple categories but require more detail discussion

(vii) Disadvantages or Limitations of Open Form

Questionnaire

Some limitations or disadvantages are attributed to Open-Form

type of Questionnaire. They are:

There is possibility of collection of worthless or irrelevant

information

Data collected through open end questionnaire are not often

standardized from person to person

Coding is difficult and subjective

Pictorial Form

Some questionnaire present respondents with drawings and

photographs rather than written statement from which to choose

answers. This form of questionnaire is particularly suitable tool for

collecting data from children and adults who had not yet

developed reading ability. Pictures often capture the attention of

respondents more readily than printed words, lessen subjects

resistance and stimulate the interest in questions.

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Scale Items

A scale items is a question to which the respondents expresses his

agreement or disagreement of various levels. Such items have

fixed alternative and the respondent indicates where he stands on

the scale. For example the item indicated earlier relating to English

medium school may be presented as follow:

All English Medium Institutions should be closed forth with.

Strongly agree

Agree

Undecided

Disagree

Strongly disagree

(i) What is Interview?

An interview is essentially the oral, in person administration of a

questionnaire to each member of the sample.

(ii) Advantages

When well-conducted, it can produce in depth data not possible

with a questionnaire. On other hand, it is expensive and time

consuming and generally involves smaller samples

The interview is most appropnate for asking questions which

cannot effectively be structured into a single multiple choice

format

In contrast to a questionnaire, the interview is flexible, the

interviewer can adopt the situation to each subject

By establishing support and a trust relationship the interviewer can

often obtain data that a subject will not give on a questionnaire

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The interview may also result in more accurate and honest

responses since the interviewer can explain and clarify the

purposes of research and individual questions

Interviewer can follow up on incomplete or unclear responses by

asking additional probing questions

Disadvantages of the Interview

Direct interviewer and interviewee contact also has it

disadvantage. The responses given by a subject may be biased and

affected by his/her reaction to the interviewer either positive or

negative.

Construction of Interview Guide/Schedule

The interviewer must have a “Written-Guide” which indicates

what questions are to be asked and in what order and what

additional prompting or probing is permitted. In order to obtain

standardized comparable data, from each subject all interviews

must be conducted in essentially the same manner. As with a

questionnaire, each question in the interview should relate to a

specific study objective. Also as with a questionnaire, questions

may be structured or unstructured.

Since interviewee is usually used when a questionnaire is not

really appropriate, it usually involves unstructured or semi-

structured questions. Structured questions which require the

interviewee to select from alternative, are of course, easier to

analyze but tends to defeat the purpose of an interview.

Completely unstructured questions, on the other hand which allow

absolute freedom of response can yield in depth response and

provide otherwise unobtainable insight but produce data that are

very difficult to quantify and tabulate. Therefore, most interviews

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use a semi-structured approach involving the asking of structured

questions followed by clarifying unstructured or open-end

questions. The unstructured questions facilitate explanation and

understanding of the responses to the structured questions. Thus a

combination of objectivity and depth can be obtained and result

can be tabulated as well as interpreted.

Many of the guidelines for constructing questionnaire apply to the

construction of interview guides. The interview should be as brief

as possible and questions should be worded as clearly as possible.

Terms should be defined when necessary and a point of reference

given when appropriate leading questions should also be avoided.

Communication During Interview

Effective communication during the interview is critical and

interviewer should be well trained before the study begins.

Before the first formal question is asked, sometime should be

spent in establishing rapport and putting the interviewee at case.

The purpose of the study should be explained and strict

confidentiality of responses be assured. As the interview proceeds,

the interviewer should take full use of the advantages of the

interview situation. He should also be sensitive to the reactions of

the subjects and proceed accordingly. If the interviewee gets off

the track, he should gently get his/her back on target. Above all the

interviewer should avoid words or actions that may make the

subject unhappy or feel threatened.

Recording Responses

Responses made during an interview can be recorded manually by

interviewer or mechanicall.y by recording device. If the

interviewer record the responses, space is provided after each

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question in the interview guide and responses are recorded either

during the interview as it progresses or after interview is

completed. If responses are recorded during the interview, it may

tend to slow things down, especially if responses are lengthy. It

may also make some subjects nervous to have something writing

down every word they say. It responses are recorded after the

interview, the interviewer is not likely to recall every response

exactly as given specially it many questions are asked. On the

other hand, if a recording (as an audio tap/cassette recorder) is

used, the interviewer moves more quickly and responses are

recorded exactly as given. In general. mechanical recording is

more objective, feasible and advisable.

Pre-Testing the Interview Procedure

The interview guide, interview procedure and analysis procedure

should be tried out before the main study is initiated using a small

sample of population. Feedback from a small ‘pilot study’ can be

used to revise, improve questions in the ‘guide’ that are apparently

not clean and do not solicit the desired information or produce

negative reaction in the subjects. The pilot study will determine

whether the resulting data can be quantified and analyzed in the

manner intended.

Interview studies enjoys the characteristics of flexibility better

performance rate and control over environment as compared to the

questionnaire studies. However, comparatively, they are costly,

time consuming and inconvenient.

8.2 INTERVIEWS

Interview is a research approach often used in qualitative data

collection from the respondents and participation of the study. It

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can be defined as an oral and face to face communication between

two persons in which one asks some questions and the other give

relevant responses (Punch, 2009).

Purpose of Interview

The main purposes of conducting an interview are

Collecting data

Hypothesis testing

Therapies

Types of Interview

There are various types of interview but the main among them are

Structured Interview

Types of interview in which the contents and protocols of the

interview are pre – planned are termed as structured interview.

Some predetermined and set questions are asked form the

interviewee aiming to the point responses.

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interviews are very much lithe and flexible; the

milieu subjected on the interviewee is somewhat free and there are

no pre – planned questions. The questions are asked according to

the situations.

Yet, the whole interviewee process revolves around the objectives.

In this type of interviews the interviewee are subjected to

formulate their notions and ideas.

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Non – Directive Interview

This interview was first used by the Sigmund Freud for the first

time for therapeutic treatment for treatment of psychological

problems. In this type of interview the interviewers first develop a

strong rapport with the interviewee (on the basis of confidence

and trust). After development of rapport the interviewee are

allowed to express his / her full expressions and thoughts. These

types of interview are often conducted by the clinical psychologist

to solve the problems confronted by the interviewee (client).

Focused Interview

These types of interview are often used to check the proposed

hypothesis. The whole processes in these interviews are first

planned and then relate it with the major milieu of hypothesis. The

interviewees are particularly involved in the enduring process. The

responses obtained in these interviews are used for

i) To verify hypothesis

ii) Validation of hypothesis

iii) To modify or to continue the hypothesis

Individual or Group Interview

The interviews are generally conducted in privacy but sometimes

groups’ interviews can also be conducted by a single interviewer

in which the numbers of the interviewee are high. These types of

interviews help the interviewee to recall their own notions and

ideas.

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Single or Panel Interview

An interview in which single interviewer conduct an interview

from a number of interviewer is termed as single interview and on

the other when a number of interviewer conduct an interview (one

by one) from a number of interviewees are termed as panel

interview.

Type of Questions in Interview

The important feature about the interview is that what kinds of

questions are often asked and what is the nature of the questions.

The main domain about the questions expected to be asked in an

interview are as under:

i) Experience / behavioral questions – where the times of

yore I / past activities and prospect / future planning of the

interviewee are explored.

ii) Notion / Value questions – in which the ideas, thoughts,

expression and notions are desired to explored.

iii) Sentiment / Feeling questions – which are related to the

feeling of an individual.

iv) Information / Knowledge questions – related to the

cognition, responsiveness and factual information.

v) Sensory questions – aimed in knowing the sensory

awareness and accuracy of an individual.

vi) Demographic / Background questions–related to the

individual personal life and for this a strong rapport among

the interviewer and the interviewee are required.

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Conducting and Recording an Interview

The process of conducting interview is a laborious task followed

up by systematic protocols. Before conducting the interview, the

objectives of the interview must be specified and formulated.

According to the proposed objectives, the questions are designed

either in the form of structured or unstructured interview.

Generally, semi – structured interviews are encouraged and are

more suitable and apt; which includes both the structured and

unstructured items. The items includes in the interview are often in

the form of interrogative form or in the form of a statement. The

time should be strictly taken under consideration in interview

process. The initials questions of the interview are such that to

relax the interviewee and helpful in the development of the full

confidence and rapport among the interviewer and interviewee.

For the initials questions, it is suggested to develop such questions

which have the reflection of the background study regarding the

subject. While asking questions from the participant of the study, a

friendly milieu must be develop and also eliminate the vague

points for his / her ease. The questions included in the interview

must have a specific sequence and must be interrelated to each

other with the use of familiar and easy words (avoid the of

verbose) because it develops hampers and impedes to the

participant. The responses given by the interviewee are recorded

(either manually or mechanically) on the spot to avoid the chances

of errors and biasness. The interview is then closed with the good

words such that motivating the participant. It is highly

recommended to pilot the interview questions because prior to

applying on the target sample it should be subjected on a small

sample to eliminate the errors and omission and to polish the

designed questions (Punch, 2009).

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8.3 ACCOUNTS

Account a tool of collecting data from the topic of interest. The

data is collected by various modes like documents (which bear the

data), books, government documents, official statistics, technical

reports, scholarly journals, trade journals, review articles,

reference books, research organizations, Universities Libraries,

library search engines and computerized databases. The data are

gathered by such approaches are reliable and suitable for the study

of interest.

8.4 OBSERVATION

The Nature of Observation

In an observational study or through un-observational technique,

the current status of a phenomena is determined not by asking but

by observing. Observation is most appropriate approach for

studying the covert behaviour of persons. Observation as a

research technique should be directed by a specified purpose

systematic carefully focused and thoroughly recorded procedure.

Like other methods it should be subjected to checks for accuracy,

validity and reliability.

Observation may be direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled.

There are participant observation and non participant observation.

Participant-observation is usually associated with qualitative

research. Naturalistic observation includes both natural

observation and simulation observation and typically involves

observation of human subject.

Here non-participant, naturalistic observation and simulation

observation are briefly described.

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Non-Participant Observation

In non participant observation, the observer is not directly

involved in the situation to be observed. In other words the

observer is on the outside looking in and does not intentionally

interact with, or effect the object of the observation.

Naturalistic Observation

Certain kind of behaviour can only be (or least be) observed as

they occur naturally. In such situation then observer purposefully

controls or manipulates nothing, and infact, works very hard but

not affecting the observed situation in any way. The intent is to

record and study behaviour as it normally occurs. For example,

classroom behaviour of the teacher, behaviour of the students and

the interaction between the teacher and the students can best be

studied through naturalistic observation, often form the foundation

non controlled research in an area. The work of Piaget for

example, involved primarily naturalistic observation of children.

His research which has stimulated researches (in naturalistic

observations) have provided education which many important

findings regarding concept development in children.

Simulation Observation

The simulation observation, the researcher creates the situation to

be observed and tells subject what activities they are to engage in.

the technique allows the researcher to observe behaviour but

occurs frequently in natural situation or not at all. The major

disadvantage of this type of observation is of course that it is not

natural and the behaviour exhibited by subjects may not be the

behavour that would occur in natural setting. However, this is not

a serious problem. Subjects tend carried away with their roles and

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often exhibit very true to life situation. The major types of

simulation are individual role playing and team role playing.

Conducting Observation

Steps Followed in Observation

The steps in conducting observational research are essentially the

same as followed for other type of research. The researcher clearly

defines what specific behaviour are intended? What observation

must be quantified and how observation times are randomly

selected.

Observers should have to deserve and record only one behaviour at

a time. It is probably better to record observations as the behaviour

occurs. Probably the most often used type of recording form and

the most efficient is a check list that fits an behaviour to be

observed so that the observer can simply check each behaviour as

it occurs. Rating scales are also sometimes used for this purpose.

Assessing Observer’s Reliability

Determining observer’s reliability generally requires that at least

two observers independently make observations, their recorded

judgment as to what occurred can then be compared to see how

well they agree. Recorded situations to be observed allow observer

to play back or often taps at a time convenient to his/her to play

them back as often needed.

Observers need to be trained in order to have some assurance that

all observers are observing and recording the same behaviour in

the same way.

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Reducing Observation Bias

Efforts be made to reduce observer’s bias in the process of

observation which refers to “invalid observation”, the “halo-

effect” or the “observers effect”.

Methods of Recording Observation

As indicated earlier, for recording observations a number of

devices are used. Two of them which are popular and exclusively

used are “check-list” and “rating scale”. The instruments help the

researchers focus his attention on specific phenomena, make

objective observation and systematize the collection of data. These

instruments are briefly observed.

8.5 TESTS AND APPRAISAL INSTRUMENT

Multifarious research based appraisal instruments such as tests,

inventories, scales etc have been developed and are used

extensively in experimental and descriptive researches. These

instruments have been designed to describe and measure sample of

aspects of human behaviour. These instruments assess variety of

human abilities, potentials achievements and behaviour tendencies.

They possess different degrees of validity reliability and

applicability.

Types of Instruments

The following types of instrument designed for different facilities

and purposes are briefly described.

a. Achievement Tests

Achievement tests (also known tests of proficiency) yield

measures of what the individual knows or the extent of his

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achievement and performance in the solution of problem and

completion of set tasks. These tests attempt to measure what the

individual has learned, his present level of performance/* in a

subject or skill as result of instruction. Such tests measure

performance in a specific area e.g. typing, computer, spellings,

reading or arithmetic. Achievement tests can be used for

diagnosing strength and weaknesses of an individual and for

evaluating influence of a course of study, teaching methods etc.

These tests can also be used to select equivalent groups to be used

as control and experimental group to measure gains made by

experimental and control group by applying the test before and

after the treatment and to evaluate the relative effectiveness of two

teaching methods, courses of study, text book etc.

b. Aptitude Tests

Aptitude tests seek to assess the level of achievement that an

individual can attain in some particular academic or vocational

field. In other words, aptitude tests attempt to predict an

individuals capacity to require improved performance with

additional training. Aptitude tests may measure mechanical, motor

coordination, artistic aptitude, aptitude for medicine, engineering,

computer language etc.

c. Personality Tests

Another broad area of psychological testing is concerned with the

non-intellectual aspect of human behaviour. Personality tests most

often refer to measure of such characteristics and attitudes. Most

of these tests are usually self-report instruments. The individual

checks responses to certain questions indicating what he prefers to

do or how he intends to act in a given situation. Personality tests

are classified in the broad categories; personality questionnaires

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and proj ective techniques. The “Minnesota Multiple Personality

Inventory” (MMPI) and the Edward Personal Preference Schedule

(EPPS) are used as personality questionnaires for assessing the

personality. Projective method has been applied in a number of

ways. The more well-known one “Rorschach Ink Blot Test” and

“Thematic Apperception Test “TAT) are used for personality

assessment.

Steps in the Construction of a Standardized Test

The following steps are followed in the construction of a

standardized test.

a. Test construction is started with the definition of ability for

which test is written

b. Test questions/items are written for each component

c. The test is pre-tested and statistically analyzed. It goes through

a series of revision till it becomes an adequately valid and

reliable test

d. The norms are prepared for purpose of interpretation

Qualities of a Good Test

The qualities of a good test are:

a. It is standardized

b. It is reliable

c. It is valid

d. It is consistent

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8.6 PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY

In 1955, George Kelly published "The Psychology of Personal

Constructs" (Kelly, 1955) which was merely the conclusion of

about twenty years of revolutionary work in the field of

psychology and is the amalgamation of Kelly's own practices, not

only in the clinical psychology but also in his wide-ranging

educational background (as Kelly receiving degrees in physics,

mathematics, educational sociology, education and psychology).

Populaces often exercise “constructs” to categorize people and

state they come across.

They are normally bi-polar adjectives such as clever-boring,

sociable-aloof, constant-unbalanced. Each of us has develops of

our own set often use in different situations to make

evaluations. These constructs are also used as a source of data

collection and thus used in research. By establishing our own

constructs systems, we will be able to make:

The world more predictable.

To make efforts in creating sense of our world.

Growth and brings some changes if needed.

Perceptions and expectations which are influenced by

these constructs.

The constructs system more important than others.

Your construct system is your truth as you understand and

experience it.

Construct systems are not always internally consistent.

Some of our constructs which represents our foundation ethics and

norms concerned to our key relationships are complex, quite

firmly fixed, wide-ranging and difficult to change. On the other

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hand, about others such things don't matter so much or about

which we haven't much experience, are simpler, narrower and

carry less personal commitment.

A person's construct systems stand for the truth as they realize it.

Construct systems cannot be judged in terms of their objectives.

When we meet someone whose construct system is different from

our own, especially if we don't like it, or think that it is wrong, we

sometimes employ words like chauvinism or label to convey our

difference. We might try confronting them with opposing beliefs

and get frustrated if we see them immunizing their constructs

instead of adapting them. But we have to accept that their system

has worked, more or less, for them so far, and that if it is different

from ours then that is a reflection of the fact that they've had

different experiences, different reactions, and see different things

as important.

8.7 SCALES

A scale is a type of composite measure that is composed of several

items that have a logical structure among them. The most

commonly used scale is the Likert scale, which contains response

categories such as "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree," and

"strongly disagree." Other scales used in educational and social

science research comprise the Thurstone scale, Guttman scale,

Bogardus social distance scale, and the semantic differential scale.

Types of Scales

There are several different types of scales but the commonly used

scales in educational and social science research are given as

under:

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Likert Scale

Likert scales are one of the most commonly used scales in

educational and social science research. A psychologist Rensis

Likert for the first time develops this type of scales. On a survey or

questionnaire, the Likert scale typically has the following format:

Strongly agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree / Neutral

Disagree

Strongly disagree

It must be noted that the individual who use the questions in this

format are called Likert items while the Likert scale is a sum of

several Likert items. To create the scale, each answer choices are

assigned a score (say 1-5) and the answers for several Likert items

(that measure the same concept) can be summed together for each

individual to get an overall Likert score.

Thurstone Scale

The Thurstone scale was first shaped by Louis Thurstone, is

planned to develop a format for generating groups of indicators of

a variable that have an empirical structure among them. For

example, if the researchers were studying a topic on

discrimination, s/he would put together a list of items and then ask

respondents to assign scores (suppose 1 to 10) to each item. In real

meaning, they are ranking the items in order of which is the

weakest indicator of discrimination all the way to which is the

strongest indicator.

Once the respondents have scored the items, the researcher

examines the scores assigned to each item by all the respondents to

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determine which items the respondents agreed upon the most. If

the scale items were adequately developed and scored, the

economy and effectiveness of data reduction present in the

Bogardus social distance scale would appear.

Bogardus Social Distance Scale

The Bogardus social distance scale was fashioned by Emory

Bogardus as a technique for measuring the willingness of people to

participate in social relations with other kinds of people. For

example; we are interested in the extent to which Muslims are

willing to associate with Hindu. We might ask the following

questions:

1. Are you willing to live in the same country as Hindu?

2. Are you willing to live in the same community as Hindu?

3. Are you willing to live in the same neighborhood as Hindu?

4. Are you willing to live next door to a Hindu?

5. Are you willing to let your child marry a Hindu?

The clear differences in intensity suggest a structure among the

items. Presumably if a person is willing to accept a certain

association, he or she is willing to accept all those that precede it

on the list (those with lesser intensities). The Bogardus scale

demonstrates that scales can be important data reduction tools. By

knowing how many relationships with Hindu a given respondent

will accept, we know which relationships were accepted. A single

number can thus accurately summarize five or six data items

without a loss of information.

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Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential scale asks respondents of a questionnaire

to choose between two opposite positions using qualifiers to

bridge the gap between them. Let’s look at an example. Suppose

you wanted to get respondents’ opinions about a new comedy

stage show. You must first decide what dimensions you wish to

measure and then find two opposite terms that represent those

dimensions. For example: Enjoyable and un – enjoyable, funny

and not funny, relatable and not relatable. You would then create a

rating sheet for each respondent to indicate how they feel about the

stage show in each dimension. Your questionnaire would look

something like this:

8.8 ANECDOTAL RECORDS

An anecdote is an account of happening in a participant’s day. The

record of this happening can be detailed or brief. These petite

reports; in an accurate way, describes the incident, its context, and

what was said or done by the participant(s). In most cases,

anecdotes focus on very simple, everyday interactions among

personal of the society and participant (s) or focused person (s), as

well as with materials in the environment (Punch, 2009).

Ideally, the anecdotal record should be recorded as it unfolds or

immediately after. However, anecdotal records usually have to be

written later at the end of the day or event. Keeping brief notes on

index cards or sticky notes carried can be helpful. Jotting one-

word substitution may gives reminders or short phrases on the

cards about the event can provide a set of reminders when the

anecdote is written.

131


Characteristics of Anecdotal Records

The traits of the anecdotal records are:

Effortless reports of behavior'

Outcomes of direct observation.

Accurate and specific

Gives context of participant’s behavior

Records typical or odd behaviors

Purpose

Anecdotes confine the richness and complexities of the moment as

focal person interact with one another and with materials. These

records of focal person’s behavior and learning accumulated over

time enhance the narrator’s understanding of the individual focal

person as patterns or profiles begin to emerge. Behavioral change

can be tracked and documented, and placed in the focal person’s

portfolio resulting in suggestions for future observations.

Precautions

The following should be taken under consideration while

conducting an anecdote.

The anecdote should be accurate, objective and specific.

The narrator should not make assumptions or use subjective or

ambiguous words.

The following should ask the narrators from himself / herself while

narrating the event or anecdote.

Am I writing in such a way that anyone else viewing the same

event would the write in exact the same way?

132


By closing their eyes, they have the view of the same scene in their

mind?

133

Analysis of Data

UNIT-9: ANALYSIS OF DATA

9.1 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Qualitative data dwells on words and observations instead of

numbers. As with all data, analysis and interpretation are required

to bring order and understanding. This requires creativity,

discipline and a systematic approach. The analysis of qualitative

data depends upon

The questions to be answered

The needs of those who will use information

The researchers resources

Text or narrative data come in many forms and from an array of

sources. The following may produce narrative data which need

analysis.

Open – ended questions and written assignments on

questionnaire may elicit single word, phrases or full

paragraph or text.

Testimonials may elicit reactions to a program in a few

words or lengthy comments.

Individual interview provide data in forms of notes.

Discussion group or focused grouped interviews often

involves full transcripts and notes from observer.

Logs, journals and dairies might provide structured entries.

Observations might be recorded in your field notes.

Stories may provide data from personal accounts of

experiences and results of programs in folks’ own words.

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Analysis of Data

Case studies generally dwell on many of the above.

The Analysis Process

Once the data is collected from these sources the following steps

are followed up for the analysis.

Step 1 Acquaintance with the data

Good analysis dwells on the understanding level of the researcher

on the collected data. In case of qualitative data analysis, the

researcher read and re – read the collected data (if tape record or

other electronic device (s) are used then that may be listened

carefully). If some impressions are used then include them because

it will be helpful later on. Sometimes the data does not fulfill the

required and proposed criteria. Therefore, before the analysis of

the data the quality of the data may be taken under the

consideration (Krathwohl, 1998).

Step 2 Focus the analysis

The purpose of the evaluation should be reviewed and identify

various key questions and write these questions. These questions

will help the researcher how to start. The analysis of the results

mainly depends upon the purpose and way of analysis. This dwell

on the following main approaches:

Focus by questions / topic / time / period / event – the researcher

mainly focus that how the participants gives response regarding

the questions / topic in some specific time. These responses are

then examined by looking the differences and similarities among

the respondents.

135

Analysis of Data

Focus by case / individuals / group – the researcher can collect

data from or about the case, individual or group and analyze it as a

whole.

Step 3 Categorization of Information

For the purpose of categorization:

Recognizing the themes or patterns which includes notions,

attitude, interactions, incidents, terms or phrased used.

Organize these themes into logical and coherent categories that

help in the summarization and convey meaning to the text.

These two approaches are very laborious and depending up on the

data the researcher have but in fact these are the crux of qualitative

analysis which involves reading and re – reading of the text to

identify coherent categories. The abbreviated codes of a few

letters, words or symbols may be developed and then place them in

front of the ideas the researchers had find in the text.

For narrative data, there are two approaches i.e. preset and

emergent categories.

Preset Categories

In this approach the researcher make a list of the themes (which he

/ she want to explore) and then find them in the data. This

approach helps the researcher to be focused and give directions for

what he/she look for in the data.

Emergent Categories

Instead of developing pre – planned themes or categories, the

researcher needs to go through the data and note all those themes

136

Analysis of Data

which emerged during the reading process. This approach allows

the categories to emerge from the data.

Sometimes these two approaches can combine to analyze the

qualitative data.

Step 4 identify the pattern and connections within and between the categories

While organizing the data into different categories, it is the

responsibilities of the researcher to check the relevancy and

connections between the categories.

Within Category Description

The researcher while analyzing the data, s/he may be acquainted

with the data to know about the similarities and differences in the

data and capture the themes. For this purpose the researcher will

assemble all the data containing the particular themes. The themes

mention the key concepts within the category. Therefore, it is

important to write the summary of the theme that describes the

points of interest.

Bigger Categories

The researcher sometimes creates super categories while working

with the data which combines several categories. During this

process, the researcher can work up from more specific categories

towards the larger notions and expression; from which the relation

can be easily judged.

137

Analysis of Data

Relative Importance

The researcher can count the number of occurrence regarding

some specific theme (s) which comes frequently in the data. From

this the importance of theme(s) can be acknowledged.

Step 5 Interpretation

It seems to very helpful to develop a list of all the key points or

important finding in a data. Develop an outline to present the

results of the study for writing a final report. It is often helpful to

include some quotes or descriptive examples to point up important

points.

Sometimes diagrammatic representations can help all the parts to

fit together. Developing such sculpts / models helps in pointing out

the gaps in the study which are remain unclear.

Foundations of Narrative Analysis

A shift from a bunch of words to a final draft requires modes for

organizing and keeping way to the next. It can be called as

protocols of trimming and arrangement the data.

The management giving preference to the data majorly depends

upon the amount and type of qualitative data. The important tips

regarding the management of data are as under:

Confirm the data

Provides ID number to the respondents

Arrange the data for analysis

Craft copies (keep the original and work in duplicate)

Spot / Recognize all the sources of the data

Spot / Mark key / crucial themes

Classify and describe Categories

138

Analysis of Data

Trim and Organize the data

Create connections

Enriching the Process of Analysis

As with any of the analysis process, there are some biases which

affect the results. The following are the tips which enhance the

reliability process.

Exercise more than a few sources of data

Follow the choices of interest

Engage others.

Pitfalls to Avoid

Dealing with any of the qualitative data analysis, avoid the

following points.

Avoid generalization

Opt quotes carefully

Take in hand the restrictions and alternatives

Dealing with the qualitative data is a prosperous and informative

practice. Doing more practice it will be easier and more reward

full because it involves significant, cognitive idea and ingenuity,

pioneering perspectives (Patton, 1990).

9.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Quantitative data analysis is supportive in educational research

because it elicits quantifiable and easy to understand results.

Quantitative data can be analyzed in a variety of different ways.

The quantitative data analysis depends upon the association and

the level of measurement with the data (Maxwell, 1996). The main

levels of measurements are as under:

139

Analysis of Data

Nominal data

Types of data which has no logical information and the data act as

the basis of classification.

Example: Gender: Male or Female

Color: Yellow, White, Black

Ordinal data

Types of data which has some specific and clear logical order but

the differences between the values are not constant (such that they

raise or lessen with the existence of the traits).

Example: T-shirt size (small, medium, large)

Weight of an entity (light, heavy, heaviest)

Interval data

The data is continuous and constant with logical order and the data

has standardized differences between values. The ratios for

interval data are meaningless.

Example: Fahrenheit degrees

One cannot say that today is twice as hot as another day.

Items measured on a Likert scale – rank the satisfaction of oneself

on scale of 1-5.

1 = Very Dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Neutral

4 = Satisfied, 5 = Very satisfied

140

Analysis of Data

Ratio data

The data is continuous and constant, properly ordered and has

standardized differences between values with a natural

zero sometimes.

Example: height, weight, age, length

Having an absolute zero elicits meaningful outcomes that one

measure is twice as long as another.

For example – 20 inches is twice as long as 10 inches.

This ratio hold true regardless of which scale the object is being

measured in (e.g. meters or yards).

Once the researcher identified the levels of measurement, s/he can

begin using some of the quantitative data analysis protocols are

outlined below. Due to the restrictions in sample size, the types of

quantitative methods at the researchers’ disposal are limited. The

main protocols in the quantitative data analysis are as under:

a) Data tabulation (frequency distributions & percent distributions)

The first step in the quantitative data analysis is the tabulation of

the collected data. This process will give complete picture of what

the data looks like and help the researcher in identifying patterns.

The best ways to do this are by constructing frequency and percent

distributions

A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number

of individuals or scores located in each category. The purposes of

frequency distribution are to help and know about that:

If scores are entered correctly

If scores are high or low

141

Analysis of Data

Number of sample in each category

The increase in scores

A percent distribution displays the proportion of participants who

are represented within each category.

b) Descriptive data

A descriptive refers to calculations that are used to describe the

data set. The most common descriptive used are:

Mean – the sum of the selected sample divided by the total number

of sample. Or the numerical average of scores for a particular

variable

X = Σx/n

Range – the difference between the highest and lowest value for a

particular variable

Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value

Median – the numerical middle value or score that separate the

distribution in half for a particular variable.

Calculate by:

Record the scores in order and counting the number of scores

If the number of scores is odd, the median is the number that splits

the distribution

If the number of scores is even, calculate the mean of the middle

two scores

Mode – the most common number score or value occurred in a

sample for a particular variable.

Note that:

142

Analysis of Data

A meaningful mean can only be calculated from interval and ratio

data.

Range can be calculated for all levels of measurement.

A meaningful median can only be calculated from ordinal,

interval, and ratio data

The mode can be calculated for all levels of measurement

c) Data Disaggregation

The data can be disaggregated by subcategories within a variable.

This allows in taking a deeper look at the units that make up that

category.

d) Moderate and advanced analytical methods

In addition to the basic methods described above, there are a

variety of more complex analytical protocols that may help in the

analysis of the data. These include:

Correlation

Regression

Analysis of variance

Such types of analyses generally require computer software (e.g.,

SPSS, SAS, STATA, and MINITAB) and a sound understanding

of statistics to interpret the results.

Correlation

A correlation is a statistical calculation which describes the nature

of the relationship between two variables (i.e., strong and negative,

weak and positive).

143

Analysis of Data

An important aspect regarding the use of correlation is that a

correlations does not explain the causation but it merely indicates

that whether a relationship exit or not and it does not mean that

one variable is the cause of the other.

Analysis of Variance

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine whether

the difference in means (averages) for two groups is statistically

significant or not.

For example, an analysis of variance will help in determining that

the regular students of M.Ed have good grades (means) rather than

those who are private students.

Regression

Regression is an extension of correlation and is used to determine

whether one variable is a predictor of another variable or not.

Regression are normally used to know about the relationship

between two variables and the also their association whether they

are stout or feeble. A variable can have a positive or negative

influence, and the strength of the effect can be weak or strong.

144

Research Report Writing

UNIT-10: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

10.1 FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

In the following the nature and overall procedures of the research

can be described.

We will divide the whole research in to three main domains which

are then sub grouped accordingly. The first, second and third

domain of the research are named as preliminary section, main

body and reference section.

Preliminary Section

This section includes

Title page

Acknowledgments (if any)

Table of contents

List of tables (if any)

List of figures (if any)

Abstract

Each of the above will be briefly discussed.

Title

When the researchers select the title or topic for his / her research

study, he / she must be specific and give a clear idea of what the

researcher wants to investigate. Such topic should be selected for

the study which can be accomplished within the proposed time.

145


Acknowledgment

This section includes those individuals or groups which help the

researcher on the fulfillment of the research.

Table of Contents

The table of contents sections includes the overall chapters, major

heading and sub heading followed by page numbers. Generally,

the page number is stated in front of the chapters, heading, and sub

heading.

List of tables and list of figures

This section includes the overall tables and figures or graph used

in the whole research report / study.

Abstract

This portion is just the summary of the whole research/ project

report which mainly includes the hypothesis, procedures, major

findings, suggestions and recommendations. It is generally advised

to use one word substitution in abstract. The abstract must fulfilled

the following questions.

Does it give a clear and brief summary of the research?

Does it clearly state the problem?

Does it quote / mark the literature dealing with the problem?

Does it summarize the key findings of the research?

Main Body

This portion is divided into five major units which include

introduction, review literature, methods and procedure, results and

discussion, and findings, suggestions and recommendations. All of

these are discussed as under:

146


Introduction (including Statement of Problem, Purpose of Research, and Significance of Research)

The introduction of a research topic should begin with a statement

of what is being proposed and then should proceed to introduce the

subject to a layman. It should give enough background to enable

an informed layman to place current and particular research

problem in a context of common knowledge and should show how

its solution will advance the field or be important for some other

work. The statement describes the significance of the problem(s),

referring to appropriate studies or statistics.

Statement of the research problem

A clear and logical statement about the problem of the study gives

an in-depth insight to the individual (or to a layman) from the start

of the research study. Before finalizing the problems, it is

necessary to study sufficient materials relevant to the problem. It is

suggested to the researcher to select a burning issue for their

studies which if solved properly have a great impact on the

individual personalities and on the society.

Objectives of the Study

The research objectives are closely related to the research

problems and they are just the summary of the study followed by

certain achievements. The general objectives of the study deals

with the expected results of the study expect by the researcher. It is

recommended to convert general objectives into smaller parts

which are logically connected to each other and then such

objectives are termed as specific objectives. These specific

objectives should be systematically elaborating various research

147


questions. Draw few objectives of the study. The objectives will

help the researcher to be focus on the area of his / her interest.

Significant of the Problem

The problem selected for the study have a background study in the

introduction chapter and after stating the problem the justification

to the problems is done by its significance. Furthermore, it also

pave way to future beneficiaries regarding the study (Farooq,

2001).

Establishing Hypothesis

The hypothesis is the important aspects of the research. If the

researchers are conducting a quantitative research then the

researchers will state some specific hypotheses that have been

developed from the literature review. A hypothesis is the

researcher’s prediction about the relationship that exists among the

variables of the interest which are to be investigated.

Limitation and Delimitation

The actual area of the study must be demarcated by the researcher.

This also includes the various sources of the study.

Terminologies

Difficult terminologies and definitions (if present in the study)

must be defined so that the reader may understand and cope up

with the scope of the study. Further, it clarifies the baffled concept

of the reader.

148


Review Literature

The purpose of the review literature is to know about the relevant

and similar research work done prior on the current topic / study.

When the researchers conduct a review literature, it help them a lot

and the researcher came to know about the selected topic that how

much and up to what extent a research has been conducted on his /

her area of interest. The review literatures also help the researchers

to revise their topic and also show the procedures, approaches and

specificity of the problem to the selected research project. The

most important aspect of review literature is that, after completing

a through literature review, the researcher will be able to specify

the research questions and hypothesis and the researcher can get a

clear picture (Jack, 2007).

Methods and Procedures

Sampling

Experiential research always depends upon a sample which is

understood to precisely represent a population. Therefore, the

techniques by which the sample was chosen are crucial to a

discussion the validity of the research findings.

Empirical research methodology measurement instruments

When particular measurement instruments are used it is often vital

to make clear how those instruments were designed and where and

up to what extent they have formerly been used.

149


Data Collection Procedures

The process of data collection events must also be incorporated so

that other

researchers can imitate your method precisely (if required).

Data Analysis

A choice of practices of quantitative and qualitative data analysis

subsist and

must be portray in detail in this segment. This section also includes

the discussions, conclusion and drawing the results of the study.

Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

This chapter includes the finding of the research study and the

conclusions are drawn and on the basis of these findings and

conclusions, the recommendations are formulated.

Findings

The final unit of the study as a rule restrains the findings of the

study. These are generally exposed after the analysis process.

Conclusions

The conclusions made by the researcher are the one of the

important element of the study. In jotting down the conclusion, the

researcher should point out what were his / her hand-outs in the

field towards the study. The conclusions also put up with the

positive and negative results of the study.

Recommendations

In this portion, the researcher stated such suggestions to the

problems which are confronted to the individual, to the society, to

150


the nations etc. the recommendations helps in problem-solving

strategy decisions for implementations.

References

This portion includes all the citations and researchers whose ideas

and notions are used in the study. These may be in chronological

order and usually use APA format. Other formats like MLA,

Chicago, Turabian and SIST02 are also used.

Appendices / Annexure

This portion includes all the maps, concerned letters, research

instruments etc. This section is followed after the references.

10.2 VOICE AND POINT OF VIEW

Point of View

When the researchers are subjected to write the research report,

he / she can opt any of the three approaches in this regard. The

main approaches often taken under considerations are first-person,

second-person and third person.

First-Person Approach

This is a strappingly individualized point of view in which the

researcher draw on his / her own experience and verbalize to his /

her addressees in his / her own voice (using pronouns like I, me,

mine, we, our, and us). This approach highlights the researcher, the

writer and is a good choice for writing based on primarily personal

experience.

151


Second-Person Approach

In this method, the author verbalizes directly to the reader (using

the pronoun you). This method highlights the reader and works

glowing for giving advices, instructions, or explanation how to

carry out something. Otherwise, as a general rule, never use the

word you in academic writing.

Third-Person Approach

This approach is the most universal point of view used in

academic writing. In the third-person, the author contains no direct

references to the reader (you) or the self (I, me). It gets its name

from its posture such that of an outsider or third-person observing

and reporting on matters of public rather than private importance.

This approach emphasizes the subject and draws on information

that the writer has acquired through observation, thinking, or

reading. It is appropriate in formal academic and professional

writing. Coherence suffers whenever a draft shifts confusingly

from one point of view to another. The solution is to choose a

suitable perspective and then stay with it.

Active and passive verbs are both grammatically correct, but

active verbs are usually more effective because they are simpler

and more direct. Furthermore, carefully selected verbs can

energize a piece of writing.

Prefer Active Voice

Sentences in active voice are also briefer than those in passive

voice because fewer words are required to express action in active

voice than in passive. Use the active voice unless you have a good

reason for choosing the passive.

152


Choosing Passive Voice

In scientific writing, passive voice is more eagerly accepted since

using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the

names of particular researchers. This do helps to create the

appearance of an objective, fact-based paper. Even in scientific

writing, the gorge of passive voice or use of passive voice in long

and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or

become confused. That is why the sentences in active voice are

generally, though not always, clearer and more direct than those in

passive voice.

Unnecessary Shifts

Keep away from starting a sentence in active voice and then

shifting to passive.

10.3 PREPARATION OF THE REPORT

While preparing the research report, it is the will of the researcher

that what kind of approach he / she want to opt. However, deeming

some knowledge about the way how other researchers solve their

common errors will be helpful.

Developing preliminary outline and modifying the report

First the data is collected from the field and then subject that to

test the hypothesis. Most of the reports are crafted after testing the

hypothesis. The researcher make categories of the data for analysis

and after analysis, draw certain explanations and interpretation for

each category which have a links or connections between each

category. The first draft was then revised and gives them some sort

of a logical order and sequence. It is important to make a list of the

153


entire key concept present in the data and then give them a

coherent and organized order for creating magnetism in the report.

Revise the draft carefully and point out the gaps (if present in the

research study) because the first draft can never be a final draft

(Farooq, 2001).

Report Inscription / Writing

Writing reports is a very laborious task. Experts and victorious

writers revise their draft several time to eliminate errors (if found)

to meet their satisfaction. Moreover, the essential correction and

modifications can be accomplished by their research supervisors.

Revising and modifying the report guzzle more time than that of

writing the innovative and guanine report (Farooq, 2001).

154

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158

Appendix

APPENDIX

II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen)(Specimen)

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF URBAN-RURAL -EDUCATION AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL IN N.W.F.P AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACTION PLAN FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF

2010 - 2015 TARGETS

1. Background of the Study

Elementary education is the fundamental right of every child. This

fundamental right has been recognized throughout the world.

Investment in education makes a vital contribution to socio-

economic development and improvement of quality of life.

Elementary education, which is a bed-rock of educational pyramid

contributes too, towards social stability and economic well-being

of the country. Educationally developed countries of the Asian

Region have achieved tremendous progress in elementary

education so that they could secure and sustain high percapita

gross national product and have narrowed down the gaps to

considerable extent between urban-rural and gender disparities.

Government of Pakistan is making efforts to eradicate illiteracy

and promote elementary education all over the country. Both in

individual capacity and in collaboration with other foreign

agencies, all education policies and plans have been based on an

agreed agenda such as removing urban-rural disparity, improving

quality, expanding access for out of school children, improving

management and supervision, capacity building, institutional

development and financial sustainability. These goals and targets

have been set from time to time in all successive educational

159

Appendix

policies, plans and development programmes but could not be

achieved due to various reasons.

The initiatives taken by the government of N.W.F.P for the

development and improvements of elementary education, can be

revealed from its efforts made during the past two decades. The

government had been executing a long range project “Elementary

Education Development Programme N.W.F.P. (1989-99)” since

1990 which had been sponsored by the Federal Government

(Islamabad) with the assistance of USAID worth of Rs. 3200.00

millions. The broad goals of the programme were to establishing a

foundations for sustained economic reforms in elementary

education, to strengthen the institutional capacity of the province,

to formulate and implement policy that would improve

“access”“equity” and “quality” of elementary education and thus

leading to the removal of grave disparity which existed between

urban and rural areas and in male female education.

The planners of the programme had taken in view some related

facts while formulating the plan of development. The most

important feature of the development efforts were to raise the

participation rate which in (1988-89) of male was 81.0 percent

(78.0 percent urban and 83.0 percent rural) and of female children,

it was 24.0 .percent (49.0 percent urban 19.0 percent rural). The

total participation rate of both sex was 54.0 percent (64.0 percent

urban and 52.0 percent rural). Similarly, the dropout rate indicated

in the plan was 63.0 percent, urban (60.0 percent, male and 70.0

percent female) and 71.0 percent rural (70.0 percent, male and

78.0 percent female) which was higher as compared to other

provinces. In 1989, there were 207 shelterless schools, most of

them were in the rural areas.

160

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The planners had further pointed out major issues like low

participation and poor standard of education at elementary level,

lack of proper accommodation, absence of permissive atmosphere,

poor teacher’s training, defective and unrelated curricula,

unattractive text books, lack of proper administration and

supervision, defective methods of recruitment and training,

the shortage of teachers and lack of facilities in schools in rural

areas. Now this project and other similar projects have been

completed. What changes and improvement have been brought

about, needs thorough investigation. The present study

concentrates on such basic issues. To what extent gaps in

education at the fist level in urban and rural areas, and in male and

female education, still exist? What is the nature of such

unbalanced situation? How are such disparities challenging and

demand changes and improvement in future? And how a balanced

education system at elementary level could be developed and

sustained in future? And how can an Action Plan of development

be devised to meet such target by 2010 and 2015? These are such

questions which have stimulated the researcher to undertake such

type of study.

2. Statement of the Problems

The problems of this study is to undertake a detailed comparative

study on conceptual as well as on situational analysis of the state

of elementary education in N.W.F.P with special reference to

highlight the gaps with multifarious dimensions that exist in male

and female education, urban and rural education and to ascertain

its implications for forwarding a development action plan for the

achievement of 2010 — 2015 targets.

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3. Objective of the Study

This study will be directed by the following objectives:

To analyze in depth the government policies and

initiatives on the development of elementary education in

the country.

To analyze in detail the policy and programmes of the

provincial government on the development of elementary

education in the region.

To analyze the specific situation contributing towards

disparities in the development of elementary education in

the province.

To analyze the specific situation of the development of

elementary education in Nowshera District.

To propose an “Action Plan” for improving of the

situation with special reference to removing the existing

disparities in elementary education and achieving the

targets laid in the National Policy for 2010.

4. Significance of the Study

The significance of the study can be justified on the following

grounds.

a. While analyzing the situation of the development of

elementary education in the country, and also in the region,

some crucial factors have come into limelight which have

always been irritating the minds of policy makers, planners.

administrators, teachers and the beneficiaries. Low enrolment,

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high wastage, poor facilities, shelterless schools, lack/absence

of basic facilities, unattractive school environment, irrelevant

curricula, unwilling teachers, inefficient supervisors,

centralized administration and absence of community

involvement etc. are such factors which have characterized the

sad state of primary education in the region. The situation has

been further aggravated by the grave disparities that exist in

urban-rural and male and female education.

b. Inspite of the fact that the government of N.W.F.P has

accorded top priority to elementary education, innovative

techniques have been adopted to improve the infrastructure,

teaching-learning environment and supervisory system, to

enhance the professional competence of teachers and to

restructure the traditional set up of the system, but, little have

been achieved so far against such high expectations. Such

paradoxical situation which despite of all out efforts being

made by the government, does not come up to the expectations

of the society. It obviously demands a thorough and objective

inquiry into the existing situation. Such inquiry will be in line

with the policy of the government, intending to give right

direction to the development of education, particularly, at the

first level in the province.

c. The study is hoped to provide guidelines to all concerned with

the development of elementary education, particularly for

female in the rural areas of the region.

d. The study could also be of value for perspective teachers,

teacher-educators and training institutions in the region and in

the country.

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e. The study is further expected to prove useful for foreign

educationists and students who are interested to study the

problems and issues obstructing the pace of development of

education and more particularly of primary education in the

developing countries like Pakistan.

5. Assumptions

There are disparities in education system in Pakistan. These are in

terms of provision of facilities, in urban and rural areas, male and

female education, in the medium of instruction and in varying

standards of physical facilities and environment. This situation has

been clearly exposed in all education policies since 1970.

Therefore, it is assumed that disparities of varied dimensions listed

below exist in education in general and in primary education in

particular.

The imbalance situation can be revealed from:

a. The access and equity of urban-rural, male and female

education

b. The quality of education

c. The delivery system

d. The mechanism of supervision

e. The mode of administration and management

f. The preparation of teachers

g. The institutional development of financial sustainability

h. The physical and instructional facilities

i. The retention capability of the school instructional and

physical environment

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6. Questions to be Answered in the Study

Questions to be answered in the study are primarily based on the

concept and underlying assumptions of the study. These however,

concentrate on the specific nature, issues and concerns of the

problems, such as:

a. What main concerns have been expressed by policy makers

regarding the existing disparity in education?

b. What are the main issues in the existing urban and rural

disparities particularly at elementary level?

c. What are the contributing factors for the existing gender

disparities in education?

d. What is the nature and extent of such disparity that exists in

the selected area of NWFP?

e. Which are the variables that reflect the gravity of situation

relating to the disparity in question?

f. What would be the socio-economic implications of narrowing

down such disparities?

g. What would be the implications for policy formulation and

future planning for removing the gaps so exist in the target

level?

h. How would this research influence the policy of the

government regarding the development of education in general

and primary education in particular in future? And

i. What type of a workable Action Plan could be developed to

correct the situation on one hand and achieve the development

targets as laid down in the National Education Policy 1998-

2010.

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7. Design of the Study

a. The Nature of Study

The study is descriptive in nature and scope, focusing on the

system analysis and other situational factors, obstructing the

developments of elementary education in the region.

b. Dimensions of the Study

The study is of two-dimensional so far as the situational analysis

of the problems is concerned. It will be conducted both at regional

and district.

Beside an intensive deskwork on the conceptual aspect of the

problem, a through analysis of the related statistical documents

issued by government of NWFP on the development of education

and socio-econômic sectors, will also be studied.

8. Literature Survey/Review

The following documents which will be specifically consulted for

the study are:

National Education Policies (1979-1998)

National Educational Plans (1978-1998)

Development of Education in Pakistan (1978-1980)

Primary Education Development Programmes (1989-99)

Provincial NWFP Profile Regarding Government Primary

Schools (1997)

NWFP Development Statistics (1997-1999)

District Wise Socio-Economic Indicators of NWFP.

(1996-1999)

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Any research done on the subject

Any national/international report available on the subject

9. Procedure of the Study

The following procedure will be adopted for the study:

a. Guidelines:

Guidelines will be prepared for collection of information on the

development of primary education in NWFP from all sources

mentioned in literature.

b. The Questionnaires:

The data relating to the development of primary education in

NWFP., Nowshera , Chitral will be obtained through separate

questionnaires.. Five percent schools both male and female each

from urban and rural areas, will be randomly selected for the study

at district level.

c. Organization and interpretation of data:

The data obtained through a documentary analysis and from the

field will be organized, tabulated and interpreted according to the

standard design of research. The method of percentage will be

used for the interpretation of statistical data collected from the

field. On the basis of findings of research, a set of

recommendations will be forwarded to the government to correct

the situation in future. An Action Plan for Development of

Elementary Education to achieve the target of National Education

20 10-2015 will be forwarded.

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10. References

1. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1947) All

Pakistan Education Conference November, Karachi

2. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1959) Report

of the Commission on National Education Rawalpindi

3. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education (1970) The

New Education Policy Islamabad


Education Policy (1972-80) Islamabad


National Educational Education Policy, Islamabad


National Educational Policy, Islamabad


National Education Policy. Islamabad

8. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Fifth Five

Year Plan (1978-83) Islamabad

9. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Sixth Five


10. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Seventh

Five Year Plan (1988-93) Islamabad

11. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Eight Five


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12. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and

Development. Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP

Development Statistics (1996) Peshawar



Development Statistics (1997) Peshawar



Development Statistics (1998-99) Peshawar



Development Statistics Socio-Economic Indicators of NWFP

(1997-98) Peshawar



Development Statistics Socio-Economic Indicators of NWFP

(1998-99) Peshawar

17. Khan Namdar, (1970), Some Aspect of Planning for Primary

Education in Pakistan, Islarnabad.

18. Qureshi M.H. (1980) Universalization of Primary Education in

Pakistan Islamabad.

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